Class 12 Physics: Alternating Current (AC) – Exam-

Oriented Notes (CBSE + JEE Main/Adv + KEAM +

BITSAT)
1) Basics of AC
Alternating current (AC): Current that changes magnitude and reverses direction
periodically; usually sinusoidal: i(t) = I0 sin(ωt+ϕ).
Alternating emf: v(t) = V0 sin(ωt+ϕ).
Angular frequency: ω = 2πf; Time period: T = 1/f.
Phase: Argument of sine/cosine; phase difference Δϕ determines lead/lag.
Peak values: I0, V0; RMS values: Irms = I0/√2, Vrms = V0/√2.
Average value over half cycle (sinusoid): Iavg(half) = 2I0/π; over full cycle = 0.
Memory aid:
“RMS = 0.707×peak; Average(half) = 0.637×peak.”
Units:
Current: A, Voltage: V, Resistance: Ω, Inductance: H, Capacitance: F, Reactance: Ω,
Impedance: Ω, Power: W.
Dimensional:
[R]=ML2T−3I−2; [L]=ML2T−2I−2; [C]=M−1L−2T4I2.
Common misconception:
RMS is not an average over time; it’s the DC-equivalent that gives same heating effect.

2) Phasors and Complex Representation

Represent sinusoidal quantities as rotating vectors (phasors) at angular speed ω.
Choose cosine reference: Ṽ = V0/√2 ∠ϕ = Vrms ∠ϕ; Engineering form: Ṽ = Vrms e^{jϕ}.
Instantaneous value = Re{Ṽ e^{jωt}}.
Current lags or leads voltage depending on element (L lags I; C leads I).
Short trick:
 “ELI the ICE man”: In an inductor (L), Voltage (E) leads current (I) by 90°; In a capacitor (C),
current (I) leads voltage (E) by 90°.

3) AC in Pure Elements

(A) Pure Resistor (R)

v = iR.
Phase: V and I in phase (ϕ=0).
Impedance: Z = R (purely real).
Power: p = vi; average P = Vrms Irms cosϕ = I2rms R (cosϕ=1).
Power factor (PF)=1.

(B) Pure Inductor (L)

v = L di/dt.
For v = V0 sin ωt ⇒ i = (V0/ωL) sin(ωt−π/2).
Reactance: XL = ωL (Ω).
Phase: I lags V by 90°.
Power: Average P = 0; energy oscillates between source and magnetic field.
Instantaneous: p oscillates between positive and negative.

(C) Pure Capacitor (C)

i = C dv/dt.
For v = V0 sin ωt ⇒ i = (V0 ωC) sin(ωt+π/2).
Reactance: XC = 1/(ωC) (Ω).
Phase: I leads V by 90°.
Average power = 0; energy oscillates in electric field.
Formula box:
XL = ωL; XC = 1/(ωC).
ZR = R; ZL = jωL; ZC = 1/(jωC) = −j/(ωC).

4) Series AC Circuits
(A) Series R–L
Impedance: Z = R + jωL; |Z| = √(R2 + (ωL)2).
Phase: ϕ = tan−1(ωL/R) (V leads I).
Irms = Vrms/|Z|.
Power factor: cosϕ = R/|Z|.

(B) Series R–C

Z = R − j/(ωC); |Z| = √(R2 + (1/ωC)2).
ϕ = tan−1(−1/(ωCR)) (I leads V).
PF: cosϕ = R/|Z|.

(C) Series R–L–C (Most asked)

Z = R + j(ωL − 1/ωC); |Z| = √(R2 + (ωL − 1/ωC)2).
Phase: ϕ = tan−1[(ωL − 1/ωC)/R].
Current: I = V/|Z|.
Power: Pavg = VI cosϕ = I2R.
Resonance: ω0 = 1/√(LC); at resonance: X_L = X_C, Z=R (minimum), Imax = V/R, ϕ=0, PF=1.
Quality factor (series): Q = ω0L/R = 1/(ω0RC).
Bandwidth: β = Δω = ω2 − ω1 = ω0/Q; f1, f2 at I = Imax/√2.
Selectivity ∝ Q (higher Q, narrower bandwidth).
Memory aids:
Resonance condition: “L and C cancel.”
Series: current is maximum at resonance; Parallel: current is minimum (see below).

5) Parallel AC Circuits
Use admittance Y = 1/Z = G + jB (G= conductance, B= susceptance).
Parallel R–L–C at resonance (current resonance/antiresonance): imaginary part of Y=0 ⇒
susceptances cancel.
For lossless L–C in parallel: ω0 = 1/√(LC); net current minimum; impedance maximum.
Quality factor (parallel, using equivalent resistance R): Qp = R/ω0L = ω0RC (for standard
forms).
Shortcut:
Series resonance: Z min, I max.
Parallel resonance: Z max, I min.
6) Power in AC
Instantaneous: p(t) = v(t)i(t).
Average (real) power: P = VI cosϕ = I2R = V2R/|Z|2.
Reactive power: Q = VI sinϕ (units: VAR).
Apparent power: S = VI (units: VA).
Power factor: cosϕ = P/S.
Complex power: S̃ = P + jQ.
In pure L/C: P=0, Q≠0; in pure R: Q=0, P≠0.
Exam trap:
Never say “no power in L/C” without specifying: average power is zero, not instantaneous
power.

7) Transformers (Ideal)
Works on mutual induction; AC required.
Turns ratio: Vp/Vs = Np/Ns; Ip/Is = Ns/Np (power conservation: VpIp ≈ VsIs).
Step-up: Ns>Np, raises voltage, lowers current. Step-down: Ns<Np.
Efficiency (ideal)=100%; Real: η ≈ output/input <100% due to copper/core losses.
No-load current: small magnetizing current.
Short trick:
“More turns → more volts; product V×I roughly constant (ideal).”

8) AC Meters and Measurements

AC ammeter/voltmeter read RMS values (calibrated for sine).
Wattmeter measures real power P = VI cosϕ.
Power factor measurement: using two-wattmeter method in 3-phase, or from P/(VI) in
single-phase.

9) Derivations (Stepwise, exam-friendly)

(1) RMS value of sinusoidal current

i = I0 sin ωt.
Irms = √(1/T ∫0→T i2 dt) = √(I02/T ∫0→T sin2 ωt dt).
Average of sin2 over one period = 1/2.
Hence Irms = I0/√2.
(2) Average value over half cycle
Iavg(half) = (1/(T/2)) ∫0→T/2 I0 sin ωt dt = (2I0/π).

(3) Current and impedance in R–L–C series

KVL: v = Ri + L di/dt + (1/C) ∫i dt.
Assume sinusoidal steady state and use phasors: Ṽ = Ĩ(R + jωL + 1/(jωC)) = ĨZ.
|Z| = √(R2 + (ωL − 1/ωC)2), ϕ = tan−1[(ωL − 1/ωC)/R].

(4) Resonant frequency and Q (series)

At resonance: ωL = 1/ωC ⇒ ω0 = 1/√(LC).
Current Imax = V/R.
Half-power points: |Z| = √2 R ⇒ |ωL − 1/ωC| = R.
Bandwidth Δω = ω2 − ω1 = R/L; so Q = ω0/Δω = ω0L/R.

(5) Energy in L and C

Magnetic energy: UL = (1/2) L I2.
Electric energy: UC = (1/2) C V2.
At resonance, energy shuttles between L and C each quarter cycle.

10) Important Formula Boxes

Vrms = V0/√2; Irms = I0/√2; Iavg(half) = 2I0/π.
XL = ωL; XC = 1/(ωC); ZR=R; ZL=jωL; ZC=−j/(ωC).
Series RLC: Z = √(R2 + (XL − XC)2); ϕ = tan−1((XL − XC)/R).
Resonance: ω0 = 1/√(LC); f0 = 1/(2π√(LC)).
Q(series) = ω0L/R = 1/(ω0RC); Bandwidth Δω = ω0/Q = R/L.
P = VI cosϕ = I2R; S = VI; Q = VI sinϕ.
Transformer: Vp/Vs = Np/Ns; Ip/Is = Ns/Np.
Quick recall:
Inductive: voltage leads current by 90°.
Capacitive: current leads voltage by 90°.
Series resonance ⇒ Imax; Parallel resonance ⇒ Imin.
11) Common Misconceptions and Pitfalls
RMS vs average: Don’t equate RMS with arithmetic mean.
At resonance, impedance is not zero unless R=0; it equals R (finite).
Power factor cannot exceed 1 or be negative for passive loads (negative denotes leading
current convention, but P≥0).
XL and XC depend on frequency; R does not (ideal).
In a capacitor, DC current is zero in steady state; AC current flows due to displacement
current.

12) Short Tricks and Memory Aids

Triangle of impedances (series RLC): draw R horizontally, (XL−XC) vertically; hypotenuse
gives |Z| and angle.
For half-power frequencies: set |XL−XC|=R.
If frequency increases: XL↑ linearly, XC↓ inversely.
Power factor correction: add capacitor for inductive loads to raise PF toward 1.

13) Solved Examples (JEE/KEAM/BITSAT Style)

Example 1: RMS and average
A sinusoidal current has peak 10A. Find Irms and Iavg(half).
Irms = 10/√2 ≈ 7.07A.
Iavg(half) = 2×10/π ≈ 6.37A.
Example 2: Series R–L–C impedance and current
R=10Ω, L=0.2H, C=100μF, source Vrms=100V at f=50Hz.
ω=2πf≈314rad/s.
XL=ωL≈314×0.2≈62.8Ω.
XC=1/(ωC)=1/(314×1e−4)≈31.8Ω.
|Z|=√(102+(62.8−31.8)2)=√(100+961)≈33.2Ω.
I=V/|Z|≈100/33.2≈3.01A.
ϕ=tan−1((31.0)/10)≈72.9° (inductive).
P=I2R≈(3.01)2×10≈90.6W.
PF=cosϕ≈0.29.
Example 3: Resonance frequency
L=2mH, C=0.5μF.
ω0=1/√(LC)=1/√(2e−3×0.5e−6)=1/√(1e−9)=1e4.5≈31,623rad/s.
f0=ω0/(2π)≈5,032Hz.
Example 4: Bandwidth and Q (series)
R=5Ω, L=50mH, C chosen for resonance at f0=1000Hz.
ω0=2π×1000≈6283rad/s.
C=1/(ω02L)=1/(62832×0.05)≈5.07μF.
Q=ω0L/R=6283×0.05/5≈62.83/5≈12.57.
Δω=ω0/Q≈6283/12.57≈500rad/s ⇒ Δf≈Δω/(2π)≈79.6Hz.
Example 5: Transformer turns ratio
Vp=220V, Vs=11V (step-down). Find Np/Ns and current ratio for 100W load.
Np/Ns=Vp/Vs=220/11=20.
Load current Is=P/Vs≈100/11≈9.09A.
Ideal: Ip=Is/20≈0.454A.
Example 6: Capacitive vs inductive at given frequency
Given L=0.1H, C=50μF, f=60Hz.
ω=2π×60≈377rad/s.
XL=ωL≈37.7Ω; XC≈1/(377×50e−6)≈53.0Ω ⇒ XC>XL ⇒ net capacitive; current leads.
Example 7: Power factor and real power
V=230V(rms), I=5A, PF=0.8 lagging.
P=VIcosϕ=230×5×0.8=920W.
Q=VIsinϕ=230×5×0.6=690VAR.
S=VI=1,150VA.
Example 8: Half-power frequencies of RLC
R=20Ω, L=0.1H, C=100μF.
ω0=1/√(LC)=1/√(1e−5)=316.2rad/s; f0≈50.3Hz.
R/L=20/0.1=200rad/s ⇒ Δω=200.
ω1,2=ω0±Δω/2≈316.2±100 ⇒ ≈216.2rad/s and 416.2rad/s.

14) Tabular Comparisons

Feature Resistor Inductor Capacitor

Phase relation V and I in phase V leads I by 90° I leads V by 90°

Reactance R XL=ωL XC=1/(ωC)

Power (avg) P=I2R 0 0

Thermal (no Electric:

Energy storage Magnetic: (1/2)LI2
field) (1/2)CV2

Frequency dependence None (ideal) ∝ω ∝1/ω

 Feature Resistor Inductor Capacitor

Series vs Parallel
Series RLC Parallel L–C (ideal)
Resonance

- - -

Condition XL=XC BL+BC=0

Impedance Minimum = R Maximum

Current Maximum Minimum

PF at resonance 1 1

Q≈R/ω0L or ω0RC (form-

Selectivity (Q) Q=ω0L/R
dependent)

15) Objective-Type Quick Checks

XL=20Ω, XC=30Ω in series: net reactance = −10Ω (capacitive), current leads.
At resonance: current and voltage in phase; voltage across L and C can be high (voltage
magnification = Q).
Power factor improvement: add capacitor in parallel with inductive load.
True statements: Average power in ideal capacitor is zero; Apparent power S≥P; PF=cosϕ.

16) One-Page Revision Summary Sheet

Key formulas:
Vrms=V0/√2; Irms=I0/√2; Iavg(half)=2I0/π.
XL=ωL; XC=1/(ωC); Zseries=√(R2+(XL−XC)2); ϕ=tan−1((XL−XC)/R).
Resonance: ω0=1/√(LC); f0=1/(2π√(LC)); Imax=V/R.
Q(series)=ω0L/R=1/(ω0RC); Δω=R/L; Δf=Δω/(2π).
Power: P=VIcosϕ=I2R; Q=VIsinϕ; S=VI; PF=P/S=cosϕ.
Transformer: Vp/Vs=Np/Ns; Ip/Is=Ns/Np.
Concept anchors:
ELI the ICE man (phase).
Series resonance → I↑, Z=R; Parallel resonance → I↓, Z↑.
With f↑: XL↑, XC↓.
Energy: UL=(1/2)LI2; UC=(1/2)CV2.
Exam cues:
Half-power when |XL−XC|=R.
Use phasor triangles for quick PF and Z.
 In L/C, average power=0; in R, reactive power=0.
Voltage magnification at series resonance ≈ Q.
Common traps:
Confusing RMS with mean.
Forgetting that PF≤1.
Assuming Z=0 at resonance (it equals R).
Ignoring units: H, F, Ω, VA, VAR, W.
Speed tips:
For Δf: just R/(2πL).
For PF quickly: cosϕ=R/|Z|.
To tell lead/lag: compare XL and XC (XL>XC ⇒ lag; XC>XL ⇒ lead).
These notes are designed to bridge school and JEE/BITSAT level: keep phasors handy, use
impedance algebra confidently, and practice resonance/Q/bandwidth numericals.