Oscilloscopes (CROs)
An oscilloscope is a test instrument which allows you to look at the 'shape' of
electrical signals by displaying a graph of voltage against time on its screen. It is
like a voltmeter with the valuable extra function of showing how the voltage
varies with time. A graticule with a 1cm grid enables you to take measurements
of voltage and time from the screen.
The graph, usually called the trace, is drawn by a beam of electrons striking
the phosphor coating of the screen making it emit light, usually green or blue.
This is similar to the way a television picture is produced.
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO)
Oscilloscopes contain a vacuum tube with a cathode (negative electrode) at one
end to emit electrons and an anode (positive electrode) to accelerate them so
they move r a p i d l y down the tube to the screen. This arrangement is called
an electron gun. The tube also contains electrodes to deflect the electron beam
up/down and left/right. The electrons are called cathode rays because they are
emitted by the cathode and this gives the oscilloscope its full name of cathode
ray oscilloscope or CRO.
A dual trace oscilloscope can display two traces on the screen, allowing you to
easily c o m p a r e the input and output of an amplifier, for example. It is well
worth paying the modest extra cost to have this facility.
• An oscilloscope should be handled gently to protect its fragile
(and expensive) vacuum tube.
• Oscilloscopes use high voltages to create the electron beam and
these remain for some time after switching off - for your own
safety do not attempt to examine the inside of an oscilloscope.
Setting up an oscilloscope
Oscilloscopes are complex instruments with many controls and they require
some care to set up and use successfully. It is quite easy to 'lose' the trace off
the screen if controls are set wrongly. There is some variation in the arrangement
and labeling of the many controls so the following instructions may need to be
adapted for your instrument.
This is what you should
see after setting up, when
there is no input signal
connected.
1. Switch on the oscilloscope to warm up (it takes a minute or two).
2. Do not connect the input lead at this stage.
3. Set the AC/GND/DC switch (by the Y INPUT) to DC or AC.
4. Set the SWP/X-Y switch to SWP (sweep).
5. Set Trigger Level to AUTO.
6. Set Trigger Source to INT (internal, the y input).
7. Set the Y AMPLIFIER to 5V/div (a moderate value).
8. Set the TIMEBASE to 10 ms/div (a moderate speed).
9. Turn the time-base VARIABLE control to CAL.
10. Adjust Y SHIFT (up/down) and X SHIFT (left/right) to give a trace
across the middle of the screen, like the picture.
11. Adjust INTENSITY (brightness) and FOCUS to give a bright, sharp trace
12. The oscilloscope is now ready to use.
Connecting an oscilloscope
The Y INPUT lead to an oscilloscope should be a co-axial lead and the diagram
shows its construction. The central wire carries the signal and the screen is
connected to earth (0V) to shield the signal from electrical interference (usually
called noise).
Most oscilloscopes have a BNC socket for the y input and the lead is connected
with a push and twist action, to disconnect you need to twist and pull.
Oscilloscopes used in schools may have red and black 4mm sockets so that
ordinary, unscreened, 4mm plug leads can be used if necessary.
Oscilloscope lead and probes kit
Professionals use a specially designed lead and probes kit for best results with
high frequency signals and when testing high resistance circuits, but this is not
essential for simpler work at audio frequencies (up to 20kHz).
An oscilloscope is connected like a voltmeter but you must be aware that the
screen (black) connection of the input lead is connected to mains earth at the
oscilloscope. This means it must be connected to earth or 0V on the circuit being
tested.
Obtaining a clear and stable trace
Once you have connected the oscilloscope to the circuit you wish to test you will
need to adjust the controls to obtain a clear and stable trace on the screen:
The Y AMPLIFIER (VOLTS/div) control determines the height of the trace.
Choose a setting so the trace occupies at least half the screen height, but does
not disappear off the screen.
The trace of an AC
signal with the
oscilloscope
The TIMEBASE (TIME/div) control determines the rate at which the dot sweeps
across the screen. Choose a setting so the trace shows at least one cycle of the
signal across the screen. Note that a steady DC input signal gives a horizontal
line trace for which the time-base setting is not critical.
The TRIGGER control is usually best left set to AUTO.
If you are using an oscilloscope for the first time it is best to start with an easy
signal such as the output from an AC power pack set to about 4 V.
Measuring voltage and time period
The trace on an oscilloscope screen is a graph of voltage against time. The shape
of this graph is determined by the nature of the input signal.
In addition to the properties labelled on the graph, there is frequency which is
the number of cycles per second.
The diagram shows a sine wave but these properties apply to any signal with a
constant shape.
• Amplitude is the maximum voltage reached by the signal. It is
measured in volts, V.
• Peak voltage is another name for amplitude.
• Peak-to-peak voltage is twice the peak voltage (amplitude).
When reading an oscilloscope trace, it is usual to measure peak-
to-peak voltage.
• Time period is the time taken for the signal to complete one
cycle. It is measured in seconds (s), but time periods tend to be
short so milliseconds (ms) and microseconds (µs) are often
used. 1ms = 0.001s and 1µs = 0.000001s.
• Frequency is the number of cycles per second. It is measured
in hertz (Hz), but frequencies tend to be high so kilohertz (kHz)
and megahertz (MHz) are often used. 1kHz = 1000Hz and 1MHz
= 1000000Hz.
• We also know that f = 1/ T.
The trace of an AC signal
Y AMPLIFIER: 2 V/div
TIMEBASE: 5 ms/div
Voltage
Voltage is shown on the vertical y-axis and the scale is determined by the Y
AMPLIFIER (VOLTS/div) control. Usually peak-peak voltage is measured
because it can be read correctly even if the position of 0V is not known. The
amplitude is half the peak-peak voltage.
If you wish to read the amplitude voltage directly you must check the position of
0V (normally halfway up the screen): move the AC/GND/DC switch to GND (0V)
and use Y-SHIFT (up/down) to adjust the position of the trace if necessary,
switch back to DC afterwards so you can see the signal again.
Voltage = Number of divisions × volts/div
Example:
peak-to-peak voltage = 4.2 div × 2V/div = 8.4 V
Amplitude (peak voltage) = ½ × peak-to-peak voltage = 4.2 V
Time Period
Time is shown on the horizontal x-axis and the scale is determined by the
TIMEBASE (TIME/div) control. The time period (often just called period) is the
time for one cycle of the periodic signal. The frequency is the number of cycles
per second, frequency = 1/time period.
Ensure that the variable timebase control is set to CAL (calibrated) before
attempting to take a time reading.
Time = Number of divisions × time/divisions
Example:
Time period = 4.0 divisions × 5 ms /div = 20ms
Frequency = 1/time period = 1/20ms = 50Hz
The AC/GND/DC switch
The normal setting for this switch is DC for all signals, including AC.
Switching to GND (ground) connects the y input to 0V and allows you to quickly
check the position of 0V on the screen (normally halfway up). There is no need
to disconnect the input lead while you do this because it is disconnected
internally.
Switching to AC inserts a capacitor in series with the input to block out any DC
signal present and pass only AC signals. This is used to examine signals showing
a small variation around one constant value, such as the ripple on the output of
a smooth DC supply. Reducing the VOLTS/div to see more detail of the ripple
would normally take the trace off the screen! The AC setting removes the
constant (DC) part of the signal, allowing you to view just the varying (AC) part
which can now be examined more closely by reducing the VOLTS/div.
Switching to GND allows
you to quickly check
the position of 0V
(normally halfway up)
Y-Amplifier (volts/div) Control
The oscilloscope moves the trace up and down in proportion to the voltage at the
Y INPUT and the setting of the Y AMPLIFIER control. This control sets the voltage
represented by each division on the screen, effectively it is setting the scale on
the y-axis. Positive voltages make the trace move up, negative voltages make it
move down.
The y-amplifier control may be labelled Y-GAIN or VOLTS/div.
The input voltage moving the dot up and down at the same time as the dot is
swept across the screen means that the trace on the screen is a graph of voltage
(y-axis) against time (x-axis) for the input signal.
Timebase (time/div) and trigger controls
The oscilloscope sweeps the electron beam across the screen from left to right at
a steady speed set by the TIMEBASE control. Each setting is labelled with the
time the dot takes to move 1cm, effectively it is setting the scale on the x-axis.
The time-base control may be labelled TIME/div.
No input and slow
timebase. You can see
the dot moving
At slow time-base settings (such as 50 ms/div) you
can see a dot moving across the screen but at faster
settings (such as 1 ms/div) the dot is moving so fast
that it appears to be a line.
No input and fast
timebase. The dot is
too fast to see so it
appears to be a line
The VARIABLE time-base control can be turned to make a fine adjustment to
the speed, but it must be left at the position labelled CAL (calibrated) if you
wish to take time readings from the trace drawn on the screen.
The TRIGGER controls are used to maintain a steady trace on the screen. If they
are set wrongly you may see a trace drifting s i d e w a y s , a confusing 'scribble'
on the screen, or no trace at all! The trigger maintains a steady trace by
starting the dot sweeping across the screen when the input signal reaches the
same point in its cycle each time.
For straightforward use it is best to leave the trigger level set to AUTO, but if you
have difficulty obtaining a steady trace try adjusting this control to set the level
manually.
Varying DC (always
positive)
