15th Century Prose

Sir Thomas Malory: A Detailed Overview

Sir Thomas Malory (c. 1415–1471) is a shadowy and controversial figure in
English literary history. Very little is definitively known about his life, and
scholars still debate which Thomas Malory was the author of the famous Le Morte
d’Arthur. The most likely candidate is a knight from Warwickshire who lived
during the turbulent Wars of the Roses and was periodically imprisoned for
crimes including robbery, extortion, and even attempted murder.
Despite his turbulent life, Malory remains a foundational figure in English
literature, credited with compiling and shaping the most comprehensive version
of the Arthurian legends in the English language.
Major Work: Le Morte d’Arthur
Overview:
• Title: Le Morte d’Arthur (The Death of Arthur)
• Written: c. 1469–1470 (while in prison)
• Published: 1485 by William Caxton, who edited and printed it
posthumously.
• Structure: Originally composed as eight separate tales, Caxton organized
them into 21 books with chapters.
Summary of Key Books/Stories:
1. The Coming of Arthur
o Chronicles Uther Pendragon's seduction of Igraine, the birth of
Arthur, and how Merlin orchestrates his rise to the throne through
the sword in the stone.
2. The Tale of Balin and Balan
o A tragic story of two brothers who unknowingly kill each other,
highlighting the themes of fate and chivalric failure.
3. The Noble Tale of Sir Launcelot du Lake
o Introduces Launcelot, his deeds of valor, and his adulterous love for
Queen Guinevere.
4. The Tale of Gareth (Sir Beaumains)
 o A tale of a noble knight who proves his worth despite initial ridicule,
reinforcing ideals of knighthood and humility.
5. Tristram and Isolde
o A long and complex romance between Sir Tristram and Queen
Isolde, echoing Launcelot and Guinevere’s doomed love.
6. The Quest for the Holy Grail
o Focuses on spiritual purity; only Galahad (Launcelot's son) is able
to complete the quest due to his divine nature.
7. The Death of Arthur
o The final sections focus on the exposure of Launcelot and
Guinevere’s affair, the resulting civil war, Mordred’s treachery,
Arthur’s final battle, and his departure to Avalon.
Literary Significance
1. Codification of Arthurian Legend:
Malory compiled tales from various sources (French romances, English
chronicles, Welsh legends) into a unified narrative, thereby becoming the
primary architect of the Arthurian mythos in English.
2. Chivalric Idealism and Realism:
While exalting ideals of chivalry, loyalty, and courtly love, Malory also
exposes their contradictions and limitations, often portraying knights as
flawed and torn by personal desire.
3. Prose Narrative Development:
Malory’s Le Morte d’Arthur was among the earliest and most influential
prose narratives in English literature. His blend of storytelling and moral
commentary set a precedent for later romances and novels.
4. Language and Style:
Malory's Middle English is muscular and direct, blending the archaic with
vivid action. Caxton’s edition helped standardize English prose narrative
and made it accessible to a broader audience.
5. Moral and Political Allegory:
The tale reflects the disintegration of idealized order, which may mirror
the instability of Malory’s own era (Wars of the Roses). Arthur’s downfall
is as much about failed governance and betrayal as personal sin.
Important Facts and Context
 • Prison Composition:
Malory wrote Le Morte d’Arthur while imprisoned in Newgate Prison.
The closing line of the work reads, “written by a knight prisoner, Thomas
Malory,” indicating a strong autobiographical imprint.
• Caxton’s Role:
William Caxton, the first English printer, decided to publish Malory’s
work in 1485, giving it the now-famous title. He may have added his own
edits to make the stories more cohesive.
• Sources:
Malory drew from:
o The French Vulgate Cycle
o Geoffrey of Monmouth’s Historia Regum Britanniae
o English romances like Sir Tristram and The Alliterative Morte
Arthure
• Theme of Tragedy and Fate:
Destiny plays a central role. From the incestuous conception of Mordred
to the love triangle and the failed Grail quest, Malory's tales explore the
tension between personal desire and collective duty.
• Influence on Literature:
Malory’s work has influenced countless writers, including:
o Tennyson (Idylls of the King)
o T.H. White (The Once and Future King)
o Mark Twain (A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur’s Court)
o Marion Zimmer Bradley (The Mists of Avalon)
Legacy
• National Identity:
Malory’s Arthurian world became central to English cultural identity. The
ideals of Camelot were often revived during times of national crisis or
rebirth.
• Moral Complexity:
Modern readers and scholars appreciate Malory for his nuanced moral
landscape. His knights are neither entirely heroic nor entirely sinful,
making them deeply human.
 • Enduring Appeal:
The narrative structure and dramatic themes of love, betrayal, loyalty, and
the search for higher meaning have ensured Le Morte d’Arthur a lasting
place in the literary canon.

John Capgrave (1393–1464

John Capgrave was a prolific English historian, theologian, and hagiographer of
the 15th century. He is best known for his Latin and English religious writings,
particularly his Life of St. Katherine and Abbreviacion of Cronicles. Capgrave
was a learned member of the Augustinian order and represents the scholastic and
devotional traditions of late medieval England. His writings serve as important
documents reflecting the religious, political, and cultural climate of his time.
Biographical Overview
• Birth: 1393 in Bishop’s Lynn (now King’s Lynn), Norfolk, England.
• Education: He studied at Cambridge University, possibly at the Austin
Friars' school, and achieved high academic distinctions, becoming a doctor
of divinity.
• Religious Life: Capgrave was an Augustinian friar and eventually became
provincial of the Augustinian order in England.
• Travels: He made a pilgrimage to Rome in 1449–1450, which influenced
his later writings.
• Death: 1464.
Major Works and Summaries
1. Life of St. Katherine of Alexandria (c. 1445)
• Language: Middle English verse.
• Form: 8,000 lines of rhymed couplets.
• Summary: A dramatized and embellished biography of Saint Katherine,
an early Christian martyr known for her intelligence, piety, and defiance of
pagan rulers. The narrative portrays her debates with scholars, her torture,
miraculous survival, and eventual martyrdom.
• Significance: The poem is one of the longest hagiographical poems in
Middle English and reveals Capgrave’s skill in blending theological
 discourse with poetic style. It also highlights his interest in female sanctity
and intellectual agency.
2. Abbreviacion of Cronicles (1462)
• Language: English prose.
• Summary: A universal chronicle that begins with biblical history and
traces world events up to 1462. It includes British and English history with
a moral and providential tone.
• Significance: Capgrave offers a medieval historian's view of the world,
presenting history as part of God’s divine plan. It also reflects his concern
with national identity and England's role in sacred history.
3. Nova Legenda Angliae (New Legend of England)
• Language: Latin.
• Summary: A comprehensive collection of English saints' lives compiled
from earlier sources like John of Tynemouth’s Sanctilogium. Capgrave
edited, expanded, and translated many legends.
• Significance: One of the earliest attempts at compiling a national
hagiography. It serves as a precursor to the later work of the Bollandists
and is an invaluable source for understanding English sainthood and local
religious cults.
4. Liber de Illustribus Henricis
• Language: Latin.
• Summary: A history of five King Henrys of England (from Henry II to
Henry VI). It was written to praise Henry VI during Capgrave’s visit to
Rome.
• Significance: This work is important for its political undertones. It praises
the Lancastrian dynasty and subtly legitimizes Henry VI’s rule during a
time of political instability.
5. Pilgrimage to Rome (Itinerarium)
• Summary: A narrative of his journey to Rome in 1449–50, in both prose
and verse.
• Significance: It reflects Capgrave’s deep religious devotion and also offers
observations on the political and religious life of Renaissance Rome. It is
valuable for its cultural and historical details.
Literary Significance
• Style: Capgrave’s writing bridges scholastic theology with the developing
vernacular literary traditions. His English prose is among the earliest
printed chronicles of England (first printed by Wynkyn de Worde in 1517).
• Themes:
o Sanctity and Martyrdom
o English Identity and Nationhood
o Divine Providence and Historical Narrative
o Female Agency in Saints' Lives
• Influences: Augustinian theology, scholasticism, biblical typology, and
contemporary politics.
Important Facts
1. Only Manuscript of St. Katherine's Life: Survives in a single manuscript
(British Library MS. Arundel 396).
2. First Printed English Chronicle: His Abbreviacion of Cronicles was one
of the first English historical works to be printed.
3. Reformer of Augustinian Order: Capgrave played a significant role in
the reform of the English Augustinian friars and was respected for his
learning.
4. Language Proficiency: Wrote in both Latin and Middle English, reflecting
the transitional linguistic culture of 15th-century England.
5. Friend of William Botoner (Worcester): A fellow historian and
chronicler.
6. Historical Consciousness: Capgrave's historical writing shows a blend of
providential history and rising English nationalism.

Reginald Pecock (often spelled Peacock or Pecock)

Reginald Pecock was a 15th-century English bishop, theologian, and writer best
known for his rational and reformist approach to religious doctrine. He is a
significant figure in the history of English prose and religious thought in the late
Middle Ages, particularly for his defense of the Church against Lollardy (a pre-
Reformation movement advocating for vernacular scripture and criticizing
Church corruption).
Biographical Overview
• Born: c. 1395
• Died: c. 1460
• Education: Likely educated at Oxford.
• Positions Held: Bishop of St Asaph (1444), Bishop of Chichester (1450)
• Downfall: Tried for heresy in 1457 for his unorthodox theological views;
forced to recant and burned some of his own books.
Major Works
1. The Repressor of Over Much Blaming of the Clergy (c. 1449–1455)
Summary:
This is Pecock’s most famous work, written as a rebuttal to the Lollards’ criticism
of the clergy and Church hierarchy. It is composed in English (not Latin), which
was unusual for such theological treatises in the 15th century. Pecock defends the
Church and clergy using reason and logic rather than traditional scriptural
authority.
• Book I: Addresses the Lollards’ criticisms of Church practices, including
the use of images, pilgrimages, and clerical wealth.
• Book II: Deals with the authority of the Church, the role of reason in
understanding doctrine, and the necessity of clergy for teaching and
guiding the laity.
Literary Significance:
• One of the earliest sustained works of English prose on theology.
• Demonstrates an early use of dialectic (logical argument) in English.
• Pecock’s prose style is formal and reasoned but accessible, marking a
development in English vernacular literature.
Theological Importance:
• Emphasizes the use of reason in matters of faith.
• Opposes strict scriptural literalism.
 • Argues that Church tradition and rational thought are necessary
complements to scripture.
2. The Book of Faith (lost, but known through references)
Summary:
Although the text has not survived, it is known from Pecock’s other writings. It
reportedly discussed the nature of belief and the grounds of Christian faith, again
placing emphasis on reason over blind obedience.
Significance:
• Showcases Pecock’s rationalist approach to religion.
• May have included arguments that the Church could err, which contributed
to his eventual condemnation.
3. The Donet (written c. 1440s)
Summary:
A didactic dialogue between a teacher and a pupil, designed to instruct laypeople
in the basics of Christian doctrine and logical reasoning. Named after the Latin
donet ("let him give"), referencing elementary instructional books.
Structure:
• Introduces foundational theological and philosophical ideas.
• Teaches logic and reasoning as tools for understanding religion.
• Also written in English, aimed at the laity.
Significance:
• One of the earliest attempts to teach logical argumentation to a lay audience
in English.
• Emphasizes Pecock’s educational mission: empowering ordinary people
through reason.
4. The Follower to the Donet
Summary:
A continuation or supplement to The Donet, elaborating on the same educational
goals.
5. The Rule of Christian Religion
Summary:
Only fragments survive, but it continues Pecock’s mission to explain Christian
teachings using reason and to reconcile Church doctrine with human
understanding.
Important Facts
• Use of English: Pecock was one of the first to write major theological
treatises in English, anticipating later reformers like William Tyndale and
Thomas More.
• Opposition to Lollardy: Although he was an opponent of Lollards, Pecock
shared their interest in vernacular theology and made knowledge accessible
to laypeople.
• Heresy Trial: In 1457, he was accused of heresy by Archbishop Thomas
Bourchier for privileging reason over scripture and criticizing some
orthodox views. He was forced to recant and resigned his bishopric.
• Imprisonment: After his trial, he was confined to Thorney Abbey, where
he spent the rest of his life in seclusion.
• Influence on the Reformation: Though not a reformer himself, Pecock’s
insistence on rational inquiry prefigured many of the arguments of later
Protestant thinkers.
Legacy and Literary Significance
• Pioneer of English Prose: Pecock was a trailblazer in shaping English as
a language suitable for intellectual and theological discussion.
• Humanist Spirit: His emphasis on reason over blind faith places him in a
proto-humanist tradition, predating Renaissance humanism in England.
• Religious Tension: Pecock illustrates the tension in pre-Reformation
England between emerging calls for reform and the established orthodoxy
of the Catholic Church.
• Educator of the Laity: Through works like The Donet, Pecock aimed to
educate ordinary believers—a radical idea in a time when religious
knowledge was tightly controlled.

William Caxton (c. 1422–1491)

William Caxton was a pivotal figure in English literary and printing history. He
holds the distinction of being the first English printer, publisher, and
bookseller, and played a crucial role in standardizing the English language and
making literature more accessible to the public.
Early Life and Background
• Born around 1422 in Kent, England.
• Apprenticed to a London mercer (dealer in fine fabrics), which later
brought him into contact with the Burgundian court in Bruges, one of the
wealthiest and most literary European courts of the time.
• He became a successful merchant and diplomat but later developed a deep
interest in translation and literature.
Introduction of the Printing Press to England
• In 1476, Caxton set up the first printing press in England, at Westminster.
• He had learned the art of printing in Cologne (Germany) and Bruges
(Belgium).
• His press marked the beginning of a new era in English literature and
communication: the age of mass-produced books.
Major Works (Printed or Translated by Caxton)
1. Recuyell of the Historyes of Troye (1473–1474)
o Translation of a French prose romance about the Trojan War.
o First book printed in the English language.
o The word “recuyell” means "collection."
o Summary: A romantic and chivalric retelling of the Trojan legend,
with emphasis on valor and knightly behavior.
o Significance: Shows Caxton's early interest in chivalric tales and
French literature; introduced printing to English-speaking
audiences.
2. The Game and Playe of the Chesse (1474)
o English translation of a French book by Jacobus de Cessolis.
o One of the earliest books printed in English.
 o Summary: A moral and allegorical treatise where chess pieces
represent different classes in society, used to teach ethics and social
order.
o Significance: Popular in medieval Europe; Caxton’s version used
the game of chess as a metaphor for good governance and virtue.
3. Dictes and Sayings of the Philosophers (1477)
o Collection of wise sayings from classical and Arab philosophers.
o Based on a French version by Anthony Woodville, Earl Rivers.
o Importance: First book printed in England with a known date.
o Introduced moral and philosophical teachings to the English reading
public.
4. The Canterbury Tales by Geoffrey Chaucer (1476–1477, 1483)
o Caxton printed the first edition of The Canterbury Tales.
o Significance: Helped establish Chaucer as a central literary figure;
preserved and popularized Middle English literature.
o Caxton recognized Chaucer’s importance and contributed to his
canonization as the “Father of English poetry.”
5. Le Morte Darthur by Sir Thomas Malory (1485)
o Legendary tales of King Arthur and his knights.
o Caxton edited and printed Malory's manuscript.
o Importance: Created the enduring narrative of Arthurian romance;
his editorial decisions shaped how Arthurian tales were transmitted
to future generations.
6. The Golden Legend by Jacobus de Voragine (translated 1483)
o Collection of hagiographies (saints’ lives).
o Popular religious work in medieval England.
o Caxton’s English version was widely read.
7. Aesop’s Fables
o Caxton translated and printed this collection of moral stories.
 o Added commentary and interpretations to make it suitable for a
medieval English audience.
Literary and Cultural Significance
• Standardization of English:
o Caxton's work came at a time when English spelling, grammar, and
vocabulary varied greatly by region.
o By printing books in English and choosing a Chancery Standard,
he helped lay the foundation for standardized modern English.
• Accessibility of Literature:
o He democratized knowledge by making books cheaper and more
widely available, no longer limited to monasteries or aristocrats.
• Promotion of English Writers:
o Caxton’s printing ensured the survival of Chaucer, Malory, and other
major English authors.
• Bridging Cultures:
o He translated many French and Latin texts into English, fostering a
cosmopolitan literary culture in England.
• Editorial Role:
o He often added prefaces, dedications, and moral commentaries to
books—making him a proto-editor and critic.
Important Facts and Legacy
• Printed around 108 books (some sources say 87), many in multiple
editions.
• Often used woodcut illustrations in his books.
• He died in 1491, and his apprentice Wynkyn de Worde carried on his
printing business.
• Caxton's translations sometimes had errors, as he was not always fluent in
Latin or Greek—but his goal was to promote literacy and reading, not
scholarly accuracy.
 • His prefaces are important historical documents, giving us a glimpse of
literary taste, readership, and the transitional nature of English from
Middle to Early Modern.

The Paston Letters

The Paston Letters are among the most valuable and vivid collections of personal
correspondence to have survived from late medieval England. They offer rare
insight into the social, political, and domestic life of the English gentry during
the 15th century, spanning the Wars of the Roses and the gradual shift from
medieval feudalism to early modern society.
Who were the Pastons?
The Pastons were a prominent gentry family from Norfolk, England. They rose
from relatively modest beginnings—landed but not noble—to become wealthy
and influential through law, land acquisition, and marriage alliances.
Key Figures in the Paston Letter Collection:
1. William Paston (1378–1444) – The family patriarch, a successful lawyer
and judge, who laid the foundation of the family’s fortune.
2. Margaret Paston (c. 1420–1484) – Wife of John I; her letters are
especially valuable for insights into domestic and estate matters.
3. John Paston I (1421–1466) – William’s son, a lawyer and landowner,
involved in long legal disputes over property.
4. John Paston II (1442–1479) – Son of John I and Margaret, educated and
politically active, participated in the Wars of the Roses.
5. Sir John Fastolf (1380–1459) – A wealthy knight and friend of the
Pastons. His death without a will led to disputes over his estate, which the
Pastons tried to claim.

The Letters: An Overview

The Paston Letters span roughly from 1422 to 1509 and include around 1,000
pieces of correspondence. The letters were written by men and women of the
Paston family and their associates.
Major Themes in the Letters:
 • Land Disputes and Inheritance: Many letters concern legal battles over
properties, especially claims to the estates of Sir John Fastolf.
• Marriage and Social Mobility: The family used marriage to secure
political and economic advantage.
• Political Upheaval: The letters reflect the turbulence of the Wars of the
Roses, including shifting allegiances.
• Family and Gender Roles: Especially through Margaret Paston’s letters,
we see women managing estates and defending property during their
husbands’ absences.
• Religion and Daily Life: The letters mention pilgrimages, religious
donations, and personal beliefs.
SUMMARIES OF SELECTED LETTERS
1. Margaret Paston to John Paston I (1440s–1460s)
Margaret often wrote to her husband about local disputes, estate management, or
family matters. In one letter, she describes how she defended their home from
a siege by rival claimants, showing the active role women played.
Literary Significance: Gives a rare female voice from the medieval period.
Shows agency and resilience.
2. John Paston I’s Letters about Sir John Fastolf’s Estate
These include appeals to retain Fastolf’s properties after his death. The Pastons
claimed that Fastolf had left his estate to John I, but others contested it.
Significance: Illustrates how law and power were intertwined; provides detailed
accounts of medieval legal practice and its corruptibility.
3. John Paston II’s Letters during the Wars of the Roses
These reflect shifting loyalties between the Lancastrians and Yorkists. He
navigates court politics, alliances, and military campaigns.
Significance: Reflects the confusion and danger of the period. Gives personal
insights into national conflict.
LITERARY SIGNIFICANCE
1. Realistic Prose
• The letters are not fictional, yet they present narratives that resemble the
early novelistic form.
 • They offer unfiltered, everyday language and idioms, unlike courtly or
stylized literature.
2. Early Vernacular Writing
• They are written in Middle English, with occasional use of Latin or
French.
• Offer valuable linguistic data for historians of English language
development.
3. Documentary Realism
• Serve as primary sources for understanding 15th-century life.
• Complement Chaucer's or Malory's more literary, elite depictions with
gentry-class realism.
4. Feminist Significance
• Margaret Paston's letters give an early, rare voice to women in public and
private spheres.
• She is often seen as a proto-feminist figure in literature and history.
IMPORTANT FACTS
• First Published: The first printed edition of the letters was by James
Gairdner in the 19th century, but parts were known earlier (from the 18th
century).
• Surviving Manuscripts: Preserved in the British Library and Bodleian
Library; many were found in paper rather than parchment, which was
unusual at the time.
• Social Commentary: The letters show the decline of chivalry, the rise of
bureaucracy, and the growing importance of literacy and record-
keeping.
HISTORICAL & CULTURAL CONTEXT
• The Paston Letters depict the rise of the gentry class, who replaced the
older feudal lords.
• Showcases power struggles at a local and national level.
• They’re part of the transition from medieval to Renaissance worldviews,
highlighting themes of individualism, secular responsibility, and social
anxiety.
MODERN RECEPTION
The letters have been widely studied by:
• Historians (for social and legal history)
• Linguists (for Middle English usage)
• Literary scholars (for their narrative and proto-novel qualities)
• Feminists and cultural theorists (for gender and class roles)

John Fortescue (c. 1394 – c. 1479)

John Fortescue was a prominent English jurist, political thinker, and
constitutional theorist during the late medieval period. He is best known for his
defense of the English legal system and for developing early arguments about
constitutional monarchy, the rule of law, and the rights of subjects. His works
were deeply influential in the development of English political and legal thought.
Biographical Overview
• Birth: Around 1394, in Devonshire, England.
• Education: Studied at Exeter College, Oxford. Became a lawyer at
Lincoln’s Inn.
• Career:
o Appointed Chief Justice of the King’s Bench (1442) under King
Henry VI.
o A staunch Lancastrian, Fortescue followed Henry VI into exile
during the Wars of the Roses.
o Wrote his major works while in exile in France.
Major Works and Summaries
1. De Laudibus Legum Angliae (In Praise of the Laws of England)
• Written: c. 1470s, during exile in France.
• Form: A dialogue between Fortescue and the young Prince Edward (son
of Henry VI).
• Purpose: To educate the prince on the principles and superiority of English
law over civil law (Roman/continental law).
Summary:
• Fortescue outlines the merits of English common law, arguing it is more
just and more protective of liberty than civil law.
• He explains the trial by jury, the role of the king-in-parliament, and the
balance between monarchy and the rights of subjects.
• Emphasizes due process and the importance of property rights.
• Defends limited monarchy—a monarch should rule "politicly" (with the
consent of the people) rather than "royally" (with absolute power).
Literary and Legal Significance:
• One of the earliest systematic defenses of constitutional government.
• Advocates for a government bound by law, a precursor to modern liberal
constitutionalism.
• Shows early concepts of checks and balances and popular sovereignty.
2. The Governance of England (Also known as Dominium Regale et
Politicum)
• Written: c. 1471, during the same exile.
• Title Translation: "Royal and Political Dominion."
Summary:
• Compares absolute monarchy (dominium regale) with constitutional
monarchy (dominium politicum et regale).
• Argues England’s monarchy is not absolute but constitutional, involving
laws, customs, and consultation with Parliament.
• Discusses governmental responsibility, economic stability, and justice
as the foundation of good governance.
• Fortescue suggests that the prosperity of the people is essential for the
stability of the monarchy.
Importance:
• The text is more political than legal, offering a philosophy of kingship
and governance.
• Highlights the interdependence between the crown and the
commonwealth.
 • Offers advice on the importance of education, moderation in taxation,
and the promotion of agriculture and trade.
Key Ideas and Contributions
1. Rule of Law:
o Fortescue champions the supremacy of law over arbitrary rule,
influencing future ideas about legal governance.
2. Constitutional Monarchy:
o Introduced the idea that the English monarchy is bound by law and
tradition—"a political and royal monarchy".
3. Trial by Jury:
o Advocated for the jury system as a protection for the innocent—
better for ten guilty men to escape than one innocent suffer.
4. Consent of the Governed:
o Argued that a king’s authority comes not from divine right alone, but
through consent and service to the people.
5. Comparative Law:
o One of the first comparative legal theorists, contrasting English
common law with civil (Roman) law.
Important Facts
• Fortescue coined the famous phrase:
"It is better that twenty guilty persons escape than that one innocent suffer."
• He was knighted by Henry VI and remained loyal to the Lancastrian cause
during the Wars of the Roses.
• After the Yorkist victory, he submitted to Edward IV and later wrote to
justify his former allegiance, showing his adaptability and political
thought.
• His works were frequently cited by later jurists, including Sir Edward
Coke and William Blackstone.
• Legacy:
o Regarded as a foundational thinker in English constitutional and
legal history.
o His views anticipated elements of John Locke and Enlightenment
constitutionalism.
o His focus on justice, law, and rights influenced Magna Carta
revivalism and Tudor–Stuart political debates.