Error Analysis
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS
MEASUREMENT
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Error Analysis
Introduction
The objective of measurement system is to present an observer with a numerical
value. So that it can be understood by any common man.
Measurement is act of comparison which means measuring unknown quantities with
known quantities.
Instrument is a way of measuring quantity.
Element of Measurement System
Quantity Primary Data Data Data Data
to be sensing Conversion Manipulation transmission presentation
measured element element element element element
Calibration
Calibration is the process of configuring an instrument to provide a result for a
sample within an acceptable range & certified standard.
It checks the accuracy of the instrument & it determines the traceability of the
measurement.
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Static Characteristics of Measuring
System
Accuracy
Accuracy is the degree of closeness between a measurement & the measurement’s
true value.
Precision
Precision is the degree to which repeated measurements under the same
conditions are unchanged.
This has no relation with the true as the reading must be consistent even though it
may be inaccurate.
Sensitivity
Sensitivity is defined as the change in output quantity per unit change in input
quantity.
It should be high.
Resolution
Resolution is defined as the smallest change in input that can be measured.
Resolution can be improved by calibration process.
Higher the value of minimum change, lesser will be the Resolution.
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Threshold
Minimum input required to get the system or instrument working.
Threshold must be as small as possible.
Drift
It is defined as the how the measured value deviate from true value.
It should be as low as possible.
It is mainly due to environmental factors like electric & magnetic fields.
Note: -
Accuracy indicates how close it to true value while drift indicates how far it to true
value.
Types of Drift
(i) Zero drift: - It is defined as the difference between input and output when input is
zero.
(ii) Span drift: - If there is proportional change in the indication all along the upward
scale, the drift is called span drift or sensitivity.
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(iii) Zonal Drift: - The drift which is not in entire range of instrument but certain zone
of the instrument.
It is the combination of zero drift & span drift
Reproducibility
Reproducibility is defined as the degree of closeness with which a given val-
ue may be repeatedly measured.
Perfect reproducibility means that the instrument has no drift.
Repeatability
It is a measure of closeness with which a given input may be measured over
& over again.
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Dead zone
The zone where instruments are not producing output for certain range of input.
Dead time
The time required by the instrument in the respond to change in input is called
Dead time.
Note:-
Accuracy, Sensitivity, reproducibility is desirable.
Drift, error, dead zone is not desirable.
Error Analysis
The deviation of measured value from true value is called as error.
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Gross error due to Human mistake, incorrect measurement, misreading of instru-
ment improper applications.
Instrumental error is due to worn parts of instrument
Environmental error is due to environmental conditions like Humidity, pressure, tem-
perature.
Observational error is due to parallax error & it can be eliminated by placing a mir-
ror over the scale.
Random error is due to unidentified causes. These errors occur randomly; effect is
very less so can be neglected.
Range of error =
Guaranteed Accuracy Error
Guaranteed Accuracy error is always constant & it is specified by the manufacture
with respect to full scale reading.
Limiting error
Limiting Error is calculated from GAE, based on true of the measurement.
It is variable.
Absolute Error
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Absolute error: δA = Am - AT
where,
Am = Measured value
AT = True value
δA = Absolute static Error
Relative Error
Relative Error:
Sum of Quantities
Let X = X1 + X2 + X3 +…...
Absolute Error is sum of absolute errors in all quantities
Difference of Quantities
Let X = X1 – X2
Absolute error is sum of absolute errors in all quantities
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Product of Quantities
Let, X = X1 X2 X3 . . .
Relative error is sum of relative errors in all quantities
Division of Quantities
Let
Relative Error is sum of relative errors in all quantities
Testbook Trick
In case of addition or subtraction, the error in value form is simply added but do not
add % limiting error.
In case of multiplication or Division, the % limiting errors are simply added but do not
add error in value form.
Composite factor
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Let,
Thus, relative error is:
Mean value
Deviation
Mean Deviation
Standard deviation
; n > 20
; n ≤ 20
Here, n = Number of readings.
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Variance
V = σ2
Probable Error
r = 0.6745 σ
Where, h = precision Index
Mean Probable Error (rm)
; n > 20
; n ≤ 20
Standard of Mean (σm)
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Span
Span = Maximum Value – Minimum Value
If Error are given in the form of standard
deviation
∵ X = fn(X1, X2, X3, …Xn)
If Error are given in the form of
Probable Error
If Error are given in the form of
‘variance’
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