SAMPLE DESIGNING
Dr. Asheesh Srivastava
Professor, Head & Dean
Department of Educational Studies
School of Education,
Mahatma Gandhi Central University,
Motihari, East Champaran, Bihar-845401
[email protected] Key terms
• Population : the elements about which we wish to make some inferences
• Census: a census involves complete details of the elements of a
population
• Universe : the universe is the entire group of items the researcher wish to
study and about which they wish to generalize.
• Population element: the individual participant or object on which the
measurement is taken
• Population Parameter: A parameter is a summary description of a fixed
characteristic or measure of the target population. A parameter denotes
the true value which would be obtained if a census rather than a sample
was undertaken.
• Target population: the collection of elements or objects that possess the
information about which inferences are to be made.
• Sample: a group of cases, participants, events, or records consisting of a
portion of the target population, carefully selected to represent that
population
• Sample Statistic: A statistic is a summary description of a characteristic or
measure of the sample. The sample statistic is used as an estimate of the
population parameter.
• Sampling unit: the basic unit containing the elements of the population to
be sampled.
• Sampling frame: a representation of the elements of the target
population.
Sample Vs. Census
Conditions Favoring the Use of
Type of Study Sample Census
1. Budget Small Large
2. Time available Short Long
3. Population size Large Small
4. Variance in the characteristic Small Large
5. Cost of sampling errors Low High
6. Cost of nonsampling errors High Low
7. Nature of measurement Destructive Nondestructive
8. Attention to individual cases Yes No
The Sampling Design Process
Define the Population
Determine the Sampling Frame
Select Sampling Technique(s)
Determine the Sample Size
Execute the Sampling Process
Define the Target Population
The target population should be defined in terms of elements,
sampling units, extent, and time.
– An element is the object about which or from which the
information is desired, e.g., the respondent.
– A sampling unit is an element, or a unit containing the
element, that is available for selection at some stage of the
sampling process.
– Extent refers to the geographical boundaries.
– Time is the time period under consideration.
Basics of sampling
• The group that actually completes your study
is a subsample of the sample -- it doesn't
include nonrespondents or dropouts.
A response is a specific measurement value that a sampling unit supplies.
In the figure, the person is responding to a survey instrument and gives a
response of '4'.
The sampling Distribution
• We don't ever actually construct a sampling distribution. Because to construct it
we would have to take an infinite number of samples and infinite is not a number
we know how to reach. So why do we even talk about a sampling distribution?
• The standard deviation of the sampling distribution tells us something about how
different samples would be distributed. In statistics it is referred to as the standard
error
• A standard deviation is the spread of the scores around the average in a single
sample.
• The standard error is the spread of the averages around the average of averages in
asampling distribution.
The 68, 95, 99 percent rule
• There is a general rule that applies whenever we have a
normal or bell-shaped distribution. Start with the average --
the center of the distribution.
• If you go up and down (i.e., left and right) one standard
unit, you will include approximately 68% of the cases in the
distribution (i.e., 68% of the area under the curve).
• If you go up and down two standard units, you will include
approximately 95% of the cases.
• And if you go plus-and-minus three standard units, you will
include about 99% of the cases. Notice that I didn't specify
in the previous few sentences whether I was talking about
standard deviation units or standard error units. That's
because the same rule holds for both types of distributions
(i.e., the raw data and sampling distributions).
The 68, 95, 99 percent rule
Sampling methods
Probability Non-Probability
Sampling Sampling
Simple Random Stratified Convenience Judgment
• Cluster Systematic Quota Snowball
Probability Sampling
• A probability sampling method is any method of
sampling that utilizes some form of random selection.
• Humans have long practiced various forms of random
selection, such as picking a name out of a hat, or
choosing the short straw. These days, we tend to use
computers as the mechanism for generating random
numbers as the basis for random selection.
• N = the number of cases in the sampling frame
• n = the number of cases in the sample
• NCn = the number of combinations (subsets) of n from
N
• f = n/N = the sampling fraction
Random Selection & Assignment
• Random selection is how you draw the sample of people
for your study from a population.
• Random assignment is how you assign the sample that you
draw to different groups or treatments in your study.
• Random selection is related to sampling. Therefore it is
most related to the external validity (or generalizability) of
your results. After all, we would randomly sample so that
our research participants better represent the larger group
from which they're drawn.
• Random assignment is most related to design. In fact, when
we randomly assign participants to treatments we have, by
definition, an experimental design. Therefore, random
assignment is most related to internal validity.
Simple Random Sampling
• The simplest form of random sampling is called simple random sampling.
• Objective: To select n units out of N such that each NCn has an equal
chance of being selected.
• Procedure: Use a table of random numbers, a computer random number
generator, or a mechanical device to select the sample.
• For the sake of the example, let's say you want to
select 100 clients to survey and that there were
1000 clients over the past 12 months. Then, the
sampling fraction is f = n/N = 100/1000 = .10 or
10%.
• You would need three sets of balls numbered 0 to
9, one set for each of the digits from 000 to 999
(if we select 000 we'll call that 1000). Number the
list of names from 1 to 1000 and then use the ball
machine to select the three digits that selects
each person.
Illustration of Simple Random Sampling
A B C D E
1 6 11 16 21
Select five random
numbers from 1 to 25.
2 7 12 17 22
The resulting sample
consists of population
elements 3, 7, 9, 16,
3 8 13 18 23 and 24. Note, there is
no element from Group
C.
4 9 14 19 24
5 10 15 20 25
© 2007 Prentice Hall
Stratified Random Sampling
• Stratified Random Sampling, also sometimes
called proportional or quota random sampling, involves
dividing your population into homogeneous
subgroups and then taking a simple random sample in
each subgroup. In more formal terms:
• Objective: Divide the population into non-overlapping
groups (i.e., strata) N1, N2, N3, ... Ni, such that N1 + N2 +
N3 + ... + Ni = N. Then do a simple random sample of
f = n/N in each strata.
• There are several major reasons why you might prefer
stratified sampling over simple random sampling. First,
it assures that you will be able to represent not only
the overall population, but also key subgroups of the
population, especially small minority groups.
Stratified sampling
Hindu 2000 Muslim 1000
Sikh 200
Illustration of Stratified Sampling
A B C D E
1 6 11 16 21
Randomly select a number
from 1 to 5
for each stratum, A to E. The
resulting
2 7 12 17 22
sample consists of
population elements
4, 7, 13, 19 and 21. Note, one
3 8 13 18 23
element
is selected from each
column.
4 9 14 19 24
5 10 15 20 25
© 2007 Prentice Hall
Systematic Random Sampling
• Here are the steps you need to follow in order to
achieve a systematic random sample:
• number the units in the population from 1 to N
• decide on the n (sample size) that you want or
need
• k = N/n = the interval size
• randomly select an integer between 1 to k
• then take every kth unit
Systematic random sampling
Systematic Sampling
A B C D E
1 6 11 16 21
Select a random number
between 1 to 5, say 2.
2 7 12 17 22 The resulting sample
consists of population 2,
(2+5=) 7, (2+5x2=) 12,
3 8 13 18 23 (2+5x3=)17, and (2+5x4=) 22.
Note, all the elements are
selected from a single row.
4 9 14 19 24
5 10 15 20 25
© 2007 Prentice Hall
Cluster (Area) Random Sampling
• Elements within a cluster should be as heterogeneous as possible,
but clusters themselves should be as homogeneous as possible.
Ideally, each cluster should be a small-scale representation of the
population.
• In probability proportionate to size sampling, the clusters are
sampled with probability proportional to size. In the second stage,
the probability of selecting a sampling unit in a selected cluster
varies inversely with the size of the cluster.
• In cluster sampling, we follow these steps:
• divide population into clusters (usually along geographic
boundaries)
• randomly sample clusters
• measure all units within sampled clusters
Cluster Sampling (2-Stage)
A B C D E
1 6 11 16 21 Randomly select 3 clusters,
B, D and E.
Within each cluster,
2 7 12 17 22 randomly select one
or two elements. The
resulting sample
consists of population
3 8 13 18 23 elements 7, 18, 20, 21, and
23. Note, no elements are
selected from clusters A and
4 9 14 19 24 C.
5 10 15 20 25
© 2007 Prentice Hall 11-27
Multi-Stage Sampling
• The four methods we've covered so far -- simple,
stratified, systematic and cluster -- are the
simplest random sampling strategies. In most real
applied social research, we would use sampling
methods that are considerably more complex
than these simple variations. The most important
principle here is that we can combine the simple
methods described earlier in a variety of useful
ways that help us address our sampling needs in
the most efficient and effective manner possible.
When we combine sampling methods, we call
this multi-stage sampling.
Types of Cluster Sampling
Cluster Sampling
One-Stage Two-Stage Multistage
Sampling Sampling Sampling
Simple Cluster Probability
Sampling Proportionate
to Size Sampling
Non-Probability Sampling
• The difference between nonprobability
and probability sampling is that
nonprobability sampling does not
involve random selection and probability
sampling does. Does that mean that
nonprobability samples aren't representative
of the population? Not necessarily. But it does
mean that nonprobability samples cannot
depend upon the rationale of probability
theory.
Convenience Sampling
Convenience sampling attempts to obtain a sample of
convenient elements. Often, respondents are selected
because they happen to be in the right place at the right
time.
– use of students, and members of social organizations
– mall intercept interviews without qualifying the
respondents
– department stores using charge account lists
– “people on the street” interviews
Illustration of Convenience Sampling
A B C D E
Group D happens to
1 6 11 21
assemble at a
16
convenient time and
place. So all the
2 7 12 17 22 elements in this
Group are selected.
The resulting sample
3 8 13 18 23
consists of elements
16, 17, 18, 19 and 20.
Note, no elements are
4 9 14 19 24
selected from group
A, B, C and E.
5 10 15 20 25
© 2007 Prentice Hall 11-32
Judgmental Sampling
Judgmental sampling is a form of convenience
sampling in which the population elements are
selected based on the judgment of the researcher.
– test markets
– purchase engineers selected in industrial marketing
research
– expert witnesses used in court
Illustration of Judgmental Sampling
A B C D E
The researcher considers
groups B, C and E to be
1 6 11 16 21
typical and convenient.
Within each of these
groups one or two
2 7 12 17 22
elements are selected
based on typicality and
convenience. The
3 8 13 18 23
resulting sample
consists of elements 8,
4 9 14 19
10, 11, 13, and 24. Note,
24
no elements are selected
from groups A and D.
5 15 20 25
© 2007 Prentice Hall10
Quota Sampling
Quota sampling may be viewed as two-stage restricted judgmental
sampling.
– The first stage consists of developing control categories, or quotas, of
population elements.
– In the second stage, sample elements are selected based on
convenience or judgment.
Population Sample
composition composition
Control
Characteristic Percentage Percentage Number
Sex
Male 48 48 480
Female 52 52 520
____ ____ ____
100 100 1000
Illustration of Quota Sampling
A B C D E
A quota of one
element from each
1 11 16 21 group, A to E, is
6
imposed. Within each
group, one element is
2 7 12 17 22
selected based on
judgment or
convenience. The
3 8 13 18 23 resulting sample
consists of elements
3, 6, 13, 20 and 22.
4 9 14 19 24 Note, one element is
selected from each
column or group.
5 10 15 20 25
© 2007 Prentice Hall
Snowball Sampling
In snowball sampling, an initial group of respondents is
selected, usually at random.
– After being interviewed, these respondents are asked
to identify others who belong to the target population
of interest.
– Subsequent respondents are selected based on the
referrals.
Illustration of Snowball Sampling
Random Selection
Referrals
A B C D E
1 6 11 16 21 Elements 2 and 9 are selected
randomly from groups A and
B. Element 2 refers elements
2 7 12 17 22 12 and 13. Element 9 refers
element 18. The resulting
sample consists of elements
3 8 23 2, 9, 12, 13, and 18. Note,
13 18
there are no element from
group E.
4 9 14 19 24
5
© 2007 Prentice 10
Hall 15 20 25
Expert Sampling
• Expert sampling involves the assembling of a
sample of persons with known or demonstrable
experience and expertise in some area. Often, we
convene such a sample under the auspices of a
"panel of experts." There are actually two
reasons you might do expert sampling. First,
because it would be the best way to elicit the
views of persons who have specific expertise. In
this case, expert sampling is essentially just a
specific subcase of purposive sampling.
External Validity
• external validity is the degree to which the conclusions in your
study would hold for other persons in other places and at other
times.
• In science there are two major approaches to how we provide
evidence for a generalization. Called as Sampling Model.
• In the sampling model, you start by identifying the population you
would like to generalize to. Then, you draw a fair sample from that
population and conduct your research with the sample. Finally,
because the sample is representative of the population, you can
automatically generalize your results back to the population.
• The second approach to generalizing is the Proximal Similarity
Model. 'Proximal' means 'nearby' and 'similarity' means 'similarity'
Generalisation
Threats to External Validity
• There are three major threats to external validity because there are three
ways you could be wrong –
• people,
• places or
• times.
• Your critics could come along, for example, and argue that the results of
your study are due to the unusual type of people who were in the study.
Or, they could argue that it might only work because of the unusual place
you did the study in (perhaps you did your educational study in a college
town with lots of high-achieving educationally-oriented kids). Or, they
might suggest that you did your study in a peculiar time.
• For instance, if you did your smoking cessation study the week after the
Surgeon General issues the well-publicized results of the latest smoking
and cancer studies, you might get different results than if you had done it
the week before.
Threats to external validity
Strengths and Weaknesses of Non-Probability Sampling Techniques
Technique Strength Weakness
Convenience sampling Least expensive; most convenient Selection bias; sample not
representative; not recommended
for descriptive or causal research
Judgmental sampling Low cost; convenient Not generalizable; subjective
Quota sampling Control over key variables Selection bias; not representative
Snowball sampling Useful when dealing with low
incidence Time-consuming
Strengths and Weaknesses of Probability Sampling Techniques
Technique Strength Weakness
Simple random sample Easy to understand; Sample frame construction
results generalizable a problem; may not be
representative
Systematic sampling May increase representativeness; May decrease
easier to implement representativeness
Stratified sampling Includes all important sub-groups Many variables defy stratification;
variable selection is crucial
Cluster sampling Easy to implement; Can be imprecise
very cost effective
Choosing a Sampling Technique
Conditions favoring
Nonprobability Probability
Factors Sampling Sampling
Nature of Research Exploratory Conclusive
Relative magnitude of sampling
and nonsampling errors Nonsampling larger Sampling larger
Variability in the population Low High
Statistical considerations Unfavorable Favorable
Operational considerations Favorable Unfavorable
Determining the sample size
Important qualitative factors in determining the sample
size are: More complex decision-
more information required
so larger sample
– the importance of the decision Exploratory- small
sample
– the nature of the research Descriptive-large sample
– the number of variables More variables-larger sample
Sophisticated analysis i.e.
– the nature of the analysis multivariate techniques-larger
sample
– sample sizes used in similar studies
– incidence rates The rate of occurrence of persons eligible to participate in the
study expressed as percentage
– completion rates The percentage of qualifying respondents who complete the
interview
– resource constraints
Symbols for Population and Sample Variables
___________________________________________________________
Variable Population Sample
___________________________________________________________
Mean m X
Proportion p p
2
Variance s2 s
Standard deviation s s
Size N n
Standard error of the mean sx Sx
Standard error of the
proportion sp Sp
X–m
Standardized variate (z) X –X
s Sx
___________________________________________________________
Improving Response Rates
Methods of Improving
Response Rates
Reducing Reducing
Refusals Not-at-Homes
Prior Motivating Incentives Questionnaire Follow-Up Other
Notification Respondents Design Facilitators
and Administration
Callbacks
Response rate=Number of completions / number of contacts
. Potential Sources of Error in Research Designs
Total Error
Random Sampling Non-sampling Error
Error
Response Error Non-response Error
Researcher Error Interviewer Error Respondent Error
Surrogate Information Error Respondent Selection Error Inability Error
Measurement Error Questioning Error Unwillingness Error
Population Definition Error Recording Error
Sampling Frame Error Cheating Error
Data Analysis Error
