THEORETICAL BASES

The theoretical bases, also known as theoretical foundations, represent for

effects of the research, the fundamental platform where they will be based
analysis, and conclusions, that are made through the research. In itself, this
element of the theoretical framework is defined as the set of definitions and concepts
which consist of a series of elements that, when related and systematized, function
as the conceptual basis of the research. A point of interest to address is the
established by Pérez (2002): 'A good theoretical foundation will form the platform on which'
What constitutes the analysis of the results obtained in the work, without it, one does not
you can analyze the results” (p. 22).
Keeping these concepts in mind, one can proceed to the formation of the
theoretical bases, seeking to complete the compendium of necessary information so that
this can provide the necessary validity and foundation to the research.

Manual
According to Kellogg, Graham (1962) the manual can be defined as follows
way
The manual presents specific systems and techniques. It outlines the procedure to
follow to achieve the work of all office staff or any group of
work that performs specific responsibilities. A written procedure
it means to properly establish a standard method to perform some work
That is to say, we can understand the manual as a form of compendium of
all the necessary instructions to operate effectively in a certain
task or assignment.

Civil engineering
Since ancient times, humans have found themselves in the need to
obtain refuge, a place to keep oneself and others safe,
places to store your belongings and where to protect yourself from the environment and its

enemies. This desire, developed over the years, led him to create new
structures, developing new construction methods and new buildings. The area
that encompasses the set of knowledge used for the construction of these
Structures are known as civil engineering.
 Civil engineering, as presented by Merritt (1983), is: "the field of the
engineering interested in planning, design, and construction for environmental control,
development of natural resources, transportation facilities, tunnels, buildings, bridges and
other structures for the needs of people” (p.1-1). These interests are
are maintained throughout the planet where the suitable professionals in this area of
knowledge directs its efforts towards the creation of structural works that can
help society in its development and respond to the needs it presents.

Professional training of the civil engineer (competencies, skills,

knowledge)
For professionals trained in civil engineering techniques, they are
assigns the title of civil engineer. This is granted as certification that the
The individual has gained the necessary experience and knowledge to be recognized.
as such. However, just as a title is assigned to them, the engineer must be accountable to
certain standards.
In the 'Standard Handbook for Civil Engineers', Merrit states that among the
The duties of a civil engineer are: (a) To maintain safety, health, and well-being
the citizens; (b) Apply their full knowledge in each of their projects; (c)
Provide services only in the areas that pertain to you. However, these are standards.
quite general, and depending on the country there may be other standards, in
Venezuela, the College of Engineers has established a code of ethics that everyone
engineers, including civil engineers, must follow and in which are established the
ethical pillars to follow by the professional, among which we can denote: (a) Violate or
allow the laws to be violated; (b) Neglect the maintenance and improvement of its
technical maintenance; (c) To offend against the reputation or legitimate interests of
other professionals: (d) Intervene directly or indirectly in the destruction of the
natural resources; (e) The use of any document that is not in the public domain,
without the authorization of its authors and/or owners.
These ethical standards are just a part of what the complete...
professional training of an engineer, since, on the other hand, there is the training
the theory that this will require, since it is clear that a professional in engineering,
must be trained in subjects such as calculus, geometry, rational mechanics, physics,
chemistry, in addition to the civil engineer specifically having training in subjects
specific to their subject such as materials resistance, project management,
roadway, structures, among others.

The Construction

The construction of a building is based on foundations or footings and others

elements that imply the purpose of specifying a valuable contribution that relates to the object
primordial to address the needs of presenting how to build the structure with its
design. This would be the possible complement that identifies the object of the building,
according to its characteristics. Pérez (2012) made a contribution about this element,
where he pointed out that: "buildings cannot be damaged to withstand an earthquake,
it will likely present different characteristics” (p.51). This is why it is emphasized that the
importance of verifying each element that allows understanding the projection of a
structure and importance of construction, which can represent
different levels but based on the descriptive memories that adjust to the use of the
recommended equipment, according to the standards governing construction, sources of a
property that characterizes the material according to the structured design.
For his part, Harmsen (2002) stated that: "construction is part of works
In engineering, elements are required to overcome limitations.
using reinforced concrete with steel to verify with its alloy the function within
of the design" (p. 36). This approach is associated with a process of action that
allows to know the flexibility of structured foundations or footings, according to the
column, the support or the means that serve those who carry out the designs, to know the
purpose of these on the identified need, to be developed with the purpose of
form in accordance with the evaluation referred to the needs of a building that
modernize your function.

Other Disciplines of Civil Engineering Related to Reinforced Concrete

Structural engineering
Structural engineering is a classic branch of civil engineering that deals with
design and calculation of the structural part in structural elements and systems such as
buildings, bridges, walls (including retaining walls), dams, tunnels, and others
civil works. Its purpose is to achieve safe, resistant structures and
functional. In a practical sense, structural engineering is the application of the
continuum mechanics for the design of structures that support their own weight
(dead loads), plus the loads exerted by use (live loads), plus the loads
produced by natural events, such as winds, earthquakes, snow or water. Jaramillo
(2004), indicates the following:
Structural Engineering existed as an art in antiquity, but not
as a science. There are no records of rational considerations
about the resistance of materials or the behavior of the
structural members, until Galileo tried to analyze the beam in
cantilever in 1638 A.D. (p.19).

Regarding the aforementioned, the first structural engineer seems to have

Imhotep, known as the builder of the stepped pyramid of Sakkara,
around 3000 B.C. During the centuries of history, many were built
wonderful structures and numerous temples. Practically the only elements
The structural elements used were the beam and the column. Although they also made use of the arch.

as an architectural element. That is why structural engineering is responsible.

to ensure that the designs meet a standard to achieve established objectives
of security or service level.

Structure
The structure of a building is composed of different means that support
the bases for maintaining the foundations or footings that make up reinforced concrete,
whether it is from a home, building or therefore where education is imparted, for
In general, these represent the primary object of estimating the reality of functions.
to achieve applying with emphasis the purpose of the information offered for those
They carry out readings of the topics according to the presented study. In this sense, Nilson
(2008), noted that it is: "method of a construction design that offers many
details related to the treatment of systems for the reorganization of the
foundations or bases in a building”. (p. 14).
The approach highlights the importance of identifying what the foundations are that
they consolidate the knowledge of building construction, specifying the
foundations in all their elements that are permitted, according to the regulations already
established for its preparation. On the other hand, Del Rosario and Geracimovic (2010),
They raised a congruent factor that allowed identification according to experience
in a research study, they highlighted that: "to understand the structure, it is necessary to
identify structural engineering, which develops in two stages: analysis and
design, corresponding to the displacement of the possible constructed elaboration” (p.18).
The described presents the location of elements that lead to recognition of
the functionality of a structural design, being the basis for the determination of the
construction on the different models that should be followed on the bases
recommended in the criterion that establishes the commitment of those who prepare it for the

collective benefit. In this same sense, Pajares and León (2010) pointed out that:
involves the placement of all elements such as beams, columns, slabs, plates,
walls, among others, according to the defined architectural plans
"dimensionally and implies calculating the seismic impact that may occur" (p.22).
Based on the aforementioned, a series can be generated.
considerations that are seen as an added value from a significant investment made
for development, which represents the structured definition as part of a design
structural.

Structural Elements
This term refers to each of the different parts that make up a
structure, attending to the design presented for this structure Each one of these
elements include a basic shape, in addition to a function for which it is created,
Additionally, each of these entails its own design and calculations for them, following
the principles of the resistance of materials and structural engineering.
Each of the structural elements has its own proper names that
they are identified, these usually change according to the country, but with respect to their typology,

there is a natural consensus of 3 divisions:

1. Linear elements: Linear or one-dimensional elements or prisms
mechanics are generally subjected to a state of plane stress with efforts
large tensions in the barycentric line direction (which can be straight or curved).
Geometrically, they are elongated with the dimension along that line (height, light, or
arc length), much greater than the dimensions according to the cross-section,
perpendicular at each point to the barycentric line.
2. Two-dimensional elements: The planar elements can be approximated by a
surface and have a small thickness in relation to the overall dimensions of the
element. That is to say, in these elements one dimension, called thickness, is much
smaller than the other two
 3. Three-dimensional elements: The three-dimensional or volumetric elements
they are elements that generally exhibit biaxial or triaxial stress states, in which
no one direction or dimension predominates over the others. Additionally, these elements often
to present tensions and compressions simultaneously according to different directions, by
what your tension state is complicated.
Each of these elements becomes part of the body of the structure, in
by fulfilling the same objective of transmitting the loads to the ground, while
they fulfill other functions such as closing the boundaries of the structure.

Mix.
A mixture is the association of two or more substances, it cannot be represented by a
chemical formula (Hawley, 2009, p.907). In itself, we can consider everything that we
surround a mixture. Preparing a mixture involves determining the relative quantities
of materials that should be used in them to obtain an appropriate solution
for a specific use; currently, the most used methods are empirical
Direct, backed by technical considerations and principles.

Mix Design

Mata (2011) states that: 'For the development of the experimental part, the design
mixing plays an important role because the reliability of it depends on
results obtained in the tests conducted on concrete" (p.29). In this regard,
Porrero (1979), in his work manual of fresh concrete, notes "It is known as design
from mixtures to the procedure by which proportions are calculated or estimated
what must be among the materials that make up the mix, to obtain the
desired proportions for concrete” (p.83). On the other hand, the characteristics that
The definitions of concrete quality are very numerous. In this way, Porrero, (1979),
It is also noted: In practice, we mainly use two quality indices.
as representatives, these are: workability, in fresh state, and resistance.
normalized to compression; in hardened state.
The characteristics of concrete depend on the conditions of the product.
primarily of the characteristics and proportions of its structural components
The parameters that make up the test conditions, that is, in the
preparation and preservation of concrete are not only done directly on the material
placed in work, but in specimens that will represent it, establishing as decisive the
preparation and preservation of this.
The procedures for testing the materials have been modified accordingly.
with technological advances, prepared with reference to analysis, treatment and
previously conducted tests, as well as the accumulated experiences of the
same.
Likewise, this author also makes a note regarding the procedures and
parameters regarding the results of the trials and refers in this sense to the
relevance in the development of trials, techniques, and procedures has generated the
principles established by having validity of a general nature and useful for treatment
from the results of the corresponding trials.
Through the procedures, from the very moment it is available
results of the first trials can achieve an estimate with the same base
probabilistic that serves as support to control all those parameters that in the future
they provide greater accuracy and security of the obtained data and of the most accurate
corrective measures that can be taken.
On the other hand, Porrero (1979) points out that statistical procedures are based
in the event that the trials have been done and represent representative samples
of the material, since the selection of samples based on personal criteria lacks validity.
The variations in the results of the tests have two origins, one is
the real variations in quality that the material has are actual, while the others are apparent,

stemming from the intrinsic imprecision of the tests, procedures, personnel,

teams and environment (p.181).
When the tests are done properly following their determined form
essays, the variations they produce are smaller than those produced by the real ones
alternatives. On the contrary, when the tests are conducted improperly or
diverged in some of its parts, the variations that occur can reach
far exceed those corresponding to the test material. The tests poorly
facts indicate high levels of quality and variability that do not actually exist,
Based on the results, any control plan is important.

Concrete
Throughout history, ways to improve construction have been sought, from
ancient times when there was only the ability to use found materials
in nature without the ability to modify them or in the case of being able to do so, in
a very restricted way. This is because they felt forced to use the
materials found in nature that could provide the best advantages, in
as for durability, how to use it, lifespan, among others. This was the case for a long time
time because the necessary technology had not been developed and there was no
clear knowledge of many factors that are considered today when
to form a construction.
According to Fratelli (1998):
Concrete is an artificial stony material obtained by mixing in
specific proportions of cement, coarse and fine aggregates, with water.
Cement and water form a paste that surrounds the aggregates, giving
as a result, a material of great durability that sets and hardens,
increasing their resistance over time (p. 9).

Meanwhile, this mixture is the basic element of civil engineering, being the material
basic construction for structures of different kinds. The main characteristic
The structural concrete is that it withstands compression stresses very well, but not
has good performance against other types of efforts (traction, bending, shear,
etc.).
Another characteristic it has is that it is a material that, as expressed.
previously, it increases its resistance over time, this is known as the
hardening process, which refers to the process where the concrete mixture loses its
plasticity, hardening and consolidating its resistance to compression. This process
it is the result of hydration chemical reactions between the components of
cement. However, since its initial state is a shapeless paste, the use of
wooden boards to shape the elements that are desired to be formed with them,
which brings to attention one of the most positive characteristics of concrete, its
workability, that is to say, its ability to be shaped into different forms according to the
need that arises.
Other characteristics to limit, according to the aforementioned author, would be:

around 2350 kg/m³

2. Compression resistance: from 150 to 500 kg/cm² (15 to 50 MPa) for the
ordinary concrete.
3. Tensile strength: proportionally low, is on the order of one-tenth of the
compressive strength and, generally, not significant in the overall calculation.
4. Setting time: approximately two hours, varying depending on the
temperature and humidity of the outdoor environment.
5. Curing time: progressive, depending on the temperature.
humidity and other parameters. From 24 to 48 hours, it acquires half of the resistance
maximum.
One last point of interest is the variety of types in which it can be presented.
concrete, among them, we can name post-tensioned concrete, pre-tensioned concrete,
the cyclopean concrete, the aerated concrete, and the most important one for this
research, reinforced concrete.
According to the Structural Concrete Manual by Joaquín Porrero (2004), it mentions
that, 'concrete or cement is a material that can be considered in two parts:
a pasty and moldable product, which has the property of hardening over time,
and the other are stony pieces that remain embedded in that paste” (p31). In turn, the
paste is made up of water and a binding or agglomerating product, which is the
cement. Water serves the dual purpose of providing fluidity to the mixture and reacting
chemically with the cement, resulting in its hardening.
Palbol (1996) conceptualizes concrete as:
An artificial stone-like material that is obtained from the mixture, in certain
proportions of paste and mineral aggregates. The paste is composed of
cement and water, which harden and bind the aggregates together forming a
conglomerate resembling a rock due to the chemical reaction between
these components. To achieve the best mechanical properties, the
concrete must contain a stone skeleton packed as densely as possible
possible, and with the amount of cement paste necessary to fill the
gaps that this leaves. (p.30).

As we can see, concrete serves as the union of several aggregates that when
being processed following the standards and procedures, a mixture is achieved that
when it hardens, it becomes a suitable product for construction
Concrete is commonly composed of certain elements, some of which
son
Portland Cement: Orús (1985) defines Portland cement as: "Product
artificial resulting from calcining to a melting point of rigorously controlled mixtures
"homogeneous limestone and clay" (p. 159). Portland cement must meet the
Specifications of the COVENIN 28-76 standard 'Specifications for Cement'
Portland.
Additives: According to Porrero (1996), additives are: "Chemical products that are
They are added in small proportion to the concrete mix during its mixing, for
modify some of the properties of the mixture in the fresh or hardened state (p. 83).
For this research case, no additives will be used, the results obtained
will be purely a natural mixture without altering its properties.
Aggregates: Merrit (1992) states: "The aggregates make up 75% in volume
In a typical concrete mix, the term aggregates includes sands and gravels.
natural and crushed stones” (p. 5-2). Aggregates are classified as; fine aggregate
and coarse aggregate. In Venezuela, aggregates must meet the specifications of
the COVENIN standard 277-2000, there are also a series of tests and procedures
applicable to aggregates, such as the Granulometry test, Fineness modulus,
and maximum size of the aggregate.
Coarse aggregate: Gravel or coarse aggregate is one of the main
components of concrete, for this reason its quality is extremely
important to ensure good results in the preparation of structures
concrete. According to G. Gallo, "Depending on the need for employment, the
coarse aggregate can be required in different dimensions, varying from 1cm,
2cm, up to 5cm" (p.15).
In this line of thought, Chan (1993) points out that it is desirable, then, that the
Particularly the coarse aggregates have a somewhat angular and cubic shape.
(p.357).
It constitutes the part of the aggregate that is retained on sieve # 4 and all the
others placed above this one, and that are recommended by the standards
COVENÍN 277 'Criteria for Acceptance and Rejection of Aggregates'.
When the coarse aggregate is obtained by crushing rocks, material that is
known as 'crushed stone', resulting in semi-angular grains with a rougher surface
and good adhesion. The pebbles are rounded; they usually have a resistance
high and smooth surface that allow them to be worked with less water, but that adhere
less strongly to the pasta. The crushed pebbles are angular and in
consequences make workability lower, which is partly compensated by having
rough surface and consequently greater adhesion.
Fine aggregate: Emphasis will be placed on studying the properties of fine aggregate, since
what will be the element to be replaced by the recycled rubble. The fine aggregate for the
Sand is composed of silica or silicon dioxide (SiO2It is used as a filler,
it also acts as a lubricant on the coarse aggregate rollers giving it
workability of the concrete. A lack of sand is reflected in the roughness of the mixture and a
excess sand requires a greater amount of water to produce a settlement
determined, since the more sand the mixture has, the more cohesive it becomes and when
requiring a greater amount of water requires a greater amount of cement to conserve
a certain water-cement ratio. G. Gallo and L. Espino (1997) state that, “The
the fact that the aggregate's resistance is not adequate will not represent a factor
limiting, since the properties of the aggregates influence to a certain extent in the
concrete resistance" (p.15).
Regarding its form, a good fine aggregate, just like the coarse aggregate, must
be well graded so that they can fill all the spaces and produce more mixes
compact. The amount of fine aggregate that passes through the 50 and 100 sieves affects the

manageability, the ease of achieving good finishes, the surface texture and the
concrete exudation.
It is that which passes through the 3/8" sieve; everything can pass, leaving a small part.
on sieve # 4 and is fundamentally retained on sieve # 200. It can be natural
originating from rivers, open-pit mines, or artificial sources, which is a product of the
rock crushing.
One of the most important aspects of sands is their behavior with the
humidity, since they have a greater ability to retain it than coarse aggregate and in
the consequence is that it is more difficult to dry them. Humidity produces significant variations

in the volume of the sand, depending on these changes in composition

gradation of the aggregate, that is, the finer the sand, the greater the moisture,
and therefore greater the variation in volume.

Main characteristics of concrete

The aforementioned authors refer to the fact that there are many characteristics of
concrete issues of interest; some of them are subject to criticism in certain
circumstances. However, from a general point of view, there are two characteristics
or main properties of greater consideration. The first is related to the
consistency or degree of fluidity of the fresh material, which is also known as
such as manageability, docility, workability, settlement, and others. In these
concepts encompass the characteristics related to the greater or lesser ease of
put the concrete. The second property is the degree of hardening or resistance
what the concrete is capable of acquiring
Fluency is often measured with tests that assess the degree of plasticity of the
mix. The resistance is determined through mechanical compression tests or
traction on standardized specimens. With the results on compression, the knowledgeable one
it can make estimates about resistance to other types of stresses, such as
bending, cutting or tension. When necessary, these characteristics, as well as the
deformability under load or modulus of elasticity can also be determined
directly.
When we talk about consistency, we refer to a quality or property of the
things that make them resilient, solid, thick, reliable, accurate, and/or enduring,
depending on whether it is a material or immaterial object to which this attribute is applied.

We can also say that workability is a property of fresh concrete.

which is defined as its ability to be placed, compacted properly and to
being finished without segregation or exudation
It is worth noting that the workability of concrete is the ease with which a mix of
aggregates, cement, and water are transformed into concrete, and the ease of being handled,
transported, placed, and compacted in the molds or formworks with minimal loss
of homogeneity.
We can mention that the compressive strength of concrete is obtained at
compression break tests of standardized cylindrical specimens performed on the
28 days old and made with the same dough used in work.
According to Özturan and Çeçen (1997), “The effort that concrete can withstand as
composite material is primarily determined by the characteristics of the mortar
(mix of cement, sand, and water), of the coarse aggregates and of the interface between
these two components.
Due to the above, mortars with different qualities and coarse aggregates with
different characteristics (shape, texture, mineralogy, resistance, etc.), can produce
concretes of different strengths.

Structural Concrete
Nowadays, to classify concrete as structural, it is necessary to
meet certain requirements depending on the country and the regulations implemented by
the government entities of each country. Among these requirements according to the standard

Venezuelan COVENIN 1753-2006, for concrete to be classified as

structural must have a minimum compressive strength f’c of 210
kgf/cm2. Regarding the area of steel to be used, it will be determined by the dimensions of the
structure, applied loads on it, steel strength and concrete strength;
that together will determine the appropriate area to use for each particular case.

Reinforced concrete
According to the COVENIN-MINDUR Standard (2002), 'Concrete that contains reinforcement'

suitable metal, designed under the hypothesis that the two components will act
together to resist the demands to which it is subjected" (p. 45). Today in
Day the buildings present different models in their designs, whether with
steel structures or reinforced concrete, for this the model must be considered
structural for the purpose of knowing its scope for application, it is necessary to possess several

significant elements for this, such as wood, stone, according to their

proportion together with the steel that is made, in addition to the corresponding sand
to its application and the cement which is the main additive for its application.
In this sense, Moreno (2010) pointed out that it refers to: "it is a set of
modern constructions that allow for complex directioning of buildings
that need to be built more quickly, saving material and labor
and time for its completion" (p.82). The approach makes evident the possibility of
estimate what the main supports would be to understand their application in a
building, when in the area where construction is taking place there are materials available
necessary to apply them, in addition to the geological studies that must be carried out to
that the columns and footings are made precisely in areas where they may occur
seismic movements.
For which, Harmsen (2002) mentioned a significant aspect, which
it includes an overview of the history that determines knowledge towards it
reinforced concrete, where it was emphasized that: "it was used for the first time in Rome around

the third century before Christ. It was made up of aggregates joined by a

binder formed by a mixture of lime and volcanic ash” (p. 1). This
approach, allows estimating the importance of buildings with the structure in
reinforced concrete, it becomes a compendium of the design to understand how
estimate the need for architectural design that seeks benefit to a
certain society.
On the other hand, Harmsen (2002) presents the following advantages of reinforced concrete.
(p. 2):
It is durable over time and does not require a large investment for its
maintenance. It has a long service life.
It has great compression resistance compared to other materials.
It is resistant to the effect of water.
In medium intensity fires, reinforced concrete suffers surface damage if
An adequate coating is provided to the steel. It is more fire-resistant than wood.
and the structural steel.
It can be shaped as one wishes using the appropriate formwork.
It gives a monolithic character to its structures, allowing them to withstand.
more efficiently the lateral loads from wind or seismic activity.
It does not require highly qualified labor.
Its great rigidity and mass prevent vibration problems in the structures.
erected with him.
In most places, it is the cheapest material.
Due to its great weight, the influence of variations in moving loads is
minor.
As a point of interest, the analysis indicates some of the advantages of using the
reinforced concrete in building construction: It is very resistant to water, fire,
with excellent results in seismic-resistant structural design. It is important
estimate, according to what is proposed the use of the material and the elements that can be
applied, such as wood, stone, and steel, for the benefit of structural design,
allowing the perspective of construction based on the primary object of
estimate the information to know that the architectural project really fits
the needs of this in reference to the application of reinforced concrete as a resource
for the building, taking modernism as the main impact
technological in a residential building.

Curricular unit of reinforced concrete from the Civil Engineering School UNERG

According to information provided by the Curriculum Coordination of the

School of Civil Engineering, Affiliated with the Area of Engineering, Architecture, and Technology,

from the National Experimental University of the Central Llanos Rómulo Gallegos, the
Curricular unit related to Reinforced Concrete, taught in the 8th semester of this program.
continuum mechanics for the design of structures that support their own weight
(dead loads), plus the loads exerted by use (live loads), plus the loads
produced by natural events, such as winds, earthquakes, snow or water. Jaramillo
(2004), indicates the following:
Structural Engineering existed as an art in antiquity, but not
as a science. There are no records of rational considerations
about the resistance of materials or the behavior of the
structural members, until Galileo tried to analyze the beam in
cantilever in 1638 A.D. (p.19).

Regarding the aforementioned, the first structural engineer seems to have

Imhotep, known as the builder of the stepped pyramid of Sakkara,
around 3000 B.C. During the centuries of history, many were built
wonderful structures and numerous temples. Practically the only elements
The structural elements used were the beam and the column. Although they also made use of the arch.

as an architectural element. That is why structural engineering is responsible.

to ensure that the designs meet a standard to achieve established objectives
of security or service level.

Structure
The structure of a building is composed of different means that support
the bases for maintaining the foundations or footings that make up reinforced concrete,
whether it is from a home, building or therefore where education is imparted, for
In general, these represent the primary object of estimating the reality of functions.
to achieve applying with emphasis the purpose of the information offered for those
They carry out readings of the topics according to the presented study. In this sense, Nilson
(2008), noted that it is: "method of a construction design that offers many
details related to the treatment of systems for the reorganization of the
foundations or bases in a building”. (p. 14).
The approach highlights the importance of identifying what the foundations are that
they consolidate the knowledge of building construction, specifying the
foundations in all their elements that are permitted, according to the regulations already
established for its preparation. On the other hand, Del Rosario and Geracimovic (2010),
They raised a congruent factor that allowed identification according to experience
in a research study, they highlighted that: "to understand the structure, it is necessary to
Reinforcement steel

The primary component for reinforced concrete is precisely steel.

reinforcement, which is characterized by many features that make it a material
essential for the counterproductive effects that external burdens cause to the
concrete, and that it is not capable of withstanding, as is the case with tensile strength.

It is clear to say that the resistance to both compression and tension that it possesses
steel makes it an exceptional material for any type of structure, however
its high cost is what has led to combining it with the concrete itself, and of
that way to meet the needs that it has with tensile strength. It is because
this reason that in elements, such as a reinforced concrete beam, the
concrete will serve the purpose of resisting the forces generated by compression and the
steel placed in bars near the tension face will resist the efforts of
tension produced by bending in the beam.

In addition, installing additional steel will be able to resist diagonal tensile stress.
product of the shear in the beam. Another advantage lies in the fact that thanks to capacity
of resistance to compression, they can also be used in concrete elements
like the columns, where the main effort is placed on compression, and from that
way to decrease the influential cross-sectional area. Although it is important to have
Keep in mind that although an element is subjected to and designed for compressive stresses,
It is always good to install a minimum reinforcement steel to counteract any
bending effect that could occur.

Although both concrete and steel are materials with properties and
different characteristics, at the time of combining them to form reinforced concrete,
this must behave as a single material, capable of deforming jointly,
therefore the adhesion of these two materials must be strong enough to
that no movement occurs between the steel bars and the surrounding concrete. Such
behavior occurs due to the chemical adhesion between concrete and steel, due to the
roughness of both materials and the surface protrusions that appear on the bars
made of hot steel, called rebar, that meet the
minimum requirements established by current regulations.
 Other characteristics that make these two materials work well together
are related to the protection that concrete provides to steel, shielding it from
the effects of the environment such as corrosion, as well as insulation against fire and high
temperatures to steel, which loses strength when exposed to such temperatures and
As the thermal conductivity of concrete is low, it protects it effectively.
This does not take into account that the coefficients of thermal expansion of both materials are very

next, so its volume changes due to temperature change is almost that

proportional.

The following tables show the nominal dimensions of the steel bars and
some of its characteristics.

Nominal dimensions of the reinforcing bars.

Reinforced concrete elements.

Reinforced concrete structures, such as a building, are

composed of a set of diverse elements that interact with each other, to
to resist and transmit the applied loads to which the entire structure is subjected.
This is how structures are designed as such, considering each
individual element to later verify its function with the rest of the
building. In the end, the method of transfer that exists between
each element and the way they behave in the unions and connections between them.

Shear force and bending moment

All structural analysis is done for:
Determine the load-bearing capacity for which it was designed.
designed the structure.

Determine the most suitable dimensions to withstand, (compare the stresses

that support the material against the acting or anticipated stresses.

The efforts in a given section can be determined if a section is made.

imaginary at a point of interest, and is considered as a rigid body in equilibrium
each of the parts into which the total was divided. These efforts may be
known if all the forces are known.

Beam
It is a structural element where one of its dimensions is much greater than the others.
two more, and through one or more supports they transmit to the foundation or other elements
structural loads applied transversely to their axis, in some cases loads
applied in the direction of its axis.

Portico.
A portico can be defined as a set of structural elements joined at its
extremes by means of rigid joints or pins, it is also fulfilled that the axes of the beam do not
is aligned.

Shear force.

It is the algebraic sum of all external forces perpendicular to the beam's axis.
(the structural element) that act on one side of the considered section.

The shear force is positive when the part located to the left of the section
tends to rise with respect to the right side.

Bending moment.
It is the algebraic sum of the moments produced by all external forces.
the same side of the section with respect to a point of that section.

The bending moment is positive when the section to the left has
a clockwise rotation.

Reinforced concrete structural systems

Structure is defined as bodies capable of withstanding loads without the existence of a

excessive deformation of one part in relation to another. Therefore, the function of a
the structure consists of transmitting forces from one point to another in space, resisting
your application without losing stability. For this reason, the structures support loads
external forces that must be resisted without noticeable changes in their shape or
geometry, for this purpose the structures generate internal equilibrium loads. These loads
Internals are those that act within a structural element and are necessary for
keep the particles or molecules of the structural element together when the
The global structure is subjected to external loads. Its determination is the
essence of structural analysis. In this way, to obtain them, the method is used
from the sections when the structure is isostatic, based on a structural principle
fundamental. When the structure is hyperstatic, those internal loads are calculated
using structural analysis methods. That is why different types of...
structural systems, concept characteristics, advantages and disadvantages, among others.

To name some of the different elements that can be found in a

We have a building with intermediate floors with ribbed slabs of continuous supports.
where on the second floor a ribbed slab is observed in one direction, here the slab
composed of an upper slab that receives the applied vertical loads and a series
of beams that serve to receive these loads from the slab and transfer them to
the main beams perpendicular to subsequently carry the loads to the
columns that transfer it to the ground when passing through the foundation with an area of
ground-structure contact that prevents an overload on the terrain and its failure. For
to avoid this inconvenience, soil studies and the
recommendations made by an engineer in the field of geotechnics.

So, each of those elements tiles, beams, girders, columns, and footings
foundations, when working together and at the same time a good structural design, is what
forms a typical structure of reinforced concrete. For this, each element has its
design methodologies that depend on the load transfer system and the type of
effort that is presented in each of them. In this project, the way will be shown
more effective for the interpretation and design of one of these elements, as is the case with
the reinforced concrete beams.

Axial loads

The flexural design of reinforced concrete elements is considered applying

a load on a structural element, which is given by the axial force, whether in
compression or tension. Such forces are opposing loads that develop in
any structural element in the direction of its longitudinal axis, if such loads go
towards the center of the element, axial load is considered compressive if by the
Opposite forces go in opposite directions, as if pulling on the element, it is considered tension.
It is clear that in real life it is very unlikely that only that will occur.
force in a structural element; however, it is a simple way to enter into
explain design methodologies.
Axial compression load

So in this first case, the main elements that are subjected to

For the effects of axial load, it is the columns and walls of the buildings that are thus
common the use of concrete for the design of such elements due to its high level of
compression resistance. However, it is always advisable to use steel
reinforcement to consider any possible eccentricity that may arise
thus avoiding any effort other than understanding, such as efforts
of bending.

There are several ways to combine reinforcement steel with concrete.

columns commonly used in buildings, for example; these could
depend on the shape and location in the element. Considering two basic ones that are
they explain below we have:

Reinforced elements with longitudinal bars and transverse stirrups: used

in rectangular columns.

Reinforced elements with longitudinal bars and continuous spirals; used in

circular columns.

Tensile axial load

 The tensile strength of concrete is a small portion if we relate it
with its compressive strength; therefore, the use of it is very uncommon
concrete in elements subjected to tension. However, that small portion is
considered when the loads applied are small enough for it to be
resisted by concrete, which with the help of the high tensile strength of steel,
they make reinforced concrete an effective combination for resisting forces
both compression and tension. When this is the case, both the concrete and
steel behaves elastically. The equation that determines the axial load of
Tension is very similar to that established by axial compression.

Control of the arrows

The code presents two methods to control the arrows in the armed elements.
in one and two directions requested for bending.
The arrows can be controlled directly by limiting the calculated arrows or
indirectly through heights or minimum thicknesses

Braced systems

A portico system is one that uses a series of porticos as its structure.

arranged in the same direction, on which a slab is placed. It is
independent of its bracing, which can be done with cross frames,
St. Andrew's crosses, screens or other methods; and the material used, generally
concrete or wood. This system is the most commonly used today in the areas
developed, especially in concrete since Le Corbusier's Domino patent.
The slabs transmit the loads to the columns or walls, and these to the foundation.

UNERG SCHOOL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

The Engineering field is part of the wide range of careers offered by the
Rómulo Gallegos Experimental National University to the Population of Guárico and
Venezuela. It is born with a Presidential Decree, assigning it legal personality and
own heritage. Its main headquarters is located in the city of San Juan de los
Morros, Guárico State, and an extension in the Calabozo Parish Municipality
Miranda.
Mission:
To comprehensively train professionals in the field of Civil Engineering,
committed to the economic, political, social, and cultural development of the community,
that are capable of planning, promoting, projecting, building, evaluating, operating, and maintaining

infrastructure and building works of the highest level, that contribute to improving the
quality of life of society, responding to the demands of the public sectors,
social and industrial of the region and the country; providing them with knowledge, values,
attitudes and skills necessary to know how to choose the optimal alternative from the point
from a technical, economic, and ecological point of view, taking advantage of technical and natural resources

and available humans for the execution of such works.

Vision:
To be an educational institution with an academic strength that allows graduates
to be highly competitive at the national and international level, and to have great
ability to continue graduate studies in a wide variety of fields
related to both Civil Engineering and related engineering fields.

Academic Values:
Quality educational programs, grounded in academic capacity,
implementing the learning-centered educational model, strengthening the
tutoring and advising programs.
Strengthen and expand the educational offerings at the master's level and extend it to the level of
Doctorate in Civil Engineering.
Integration and functioning of the Higher Education Dependency in the search
permanent quality of Educational Programs, sharing and optimizing the
human resources and physical infrastructure, as well as a balance between the functions of
the teachers.
Linking extension with educational programs for their feedback and
with the institutional program for tracking future graduates, in addition to strengthening
the own.
Balance between teaching and research, increasing its quality and its
social relevance, promoting the integration of academic networks.
Promotion and consolidation in the participatory and articulated planning of the Program
with the Institution.

General Objective:
Prepare professionals who are capable and aware of contributing to national development.
to conserve our natural resources to provide a healthy environment, with better
living conditions for living beings.

Specific Objectives:
1. Provide knowledge in the areas of Mathematics, Physics, Computer Science,
Structures and other basic areas that are necessary to support the subjects of
specialization.
2. Train students on new materials, techniques, and procedures of
construction that leads to the conservation of natural resources and the ecosystem
from the region.
3. Develop programs that enable the student to have a clear understanding of
the relationship between development and sustainability.

4. Carry out field projects that allow the student to practice the
knowledge acquired during their university professional training.
5. Generate local solutions to local and regional problems, promote policies
public, increase civil and community participation in the analysis and prioritization of
problems, and in the definition of goals and strategies and civil projects, and thus strengthen
the management of services and promote the democratization of the construction system.