VOLUMETRIC INSPECTION TECHNIQUES

They are those with which the integrity of a material is checked in its thickness and discontinuities are detected.
internals that are not visible on the surface of the part. This type of inspection is carried out using any of
the following essays:
INDUSTRIAL RADIOGRAPHY (RT).
INDUSTRIAL ULTRASOUND (UT).
NEUTRON RADIOGRAPHY (NT).
ACOUSTIC EMISSION (AE).

As a general rule, these methods should be considered complementary to each other, as each one is
especially sensitive to appreciate a certain type of indications; therefore, the correct combination of the
The aforementioned techniques will allow for the correct detection and evaluation of the indications that may be found in the
interior of a material.

INDUSTRIAL RADIOGRAPHY

The case of Industrial Radiography (RT), as a non-destructive test, is very interesting; as it allows to ensure the
integrity and reliability of a product; furthermore, it provides information for the development of better techniques of
production and for the improvement of a particular product.

RT inspection is defined as a non-destructive physical inspection procedure, designed to

detect macroscopic discontinuities and variations in the internal structure or physical configuration of a material.

Within the NDT, Industrial Radiography is one of the oldest and most commonly used methods in the industry.
Due to this, new advances are continuously being made that modify the radiographic techniques applied to the study of non-
not only of materials, but also of parts and components; all in order to make the results more reliable during
the application of the technique.

The physical principle on which this technique is based is the interaction between matter and electromagnetic radiation.
this last one having a very short wavelength and high energy.

The ionizing radiation that manages to penetrate the object can be recorded through an impression on a plate.
the photosensitive paper, which is subsequently subjected to a developing process to obtain the image of the area
inspected; either through a fluorescent screen or a video tube, to then analyze its image in
a television screen or record it on a video tape.

Although there are special arrangements designed for specific cases, the equipment that is used the most
the frequency for radiographic inspection is as follows:
a) Radiation source (X-rays or gamma rays).
b) Source controls.
c) Radiographic film.
d) Intensifying screens.
e) Image quality indicators.

1.1.REQUIREMENTS AND SEQUENCE OF INDUSTRIAL RADIOGRAPHY INSPECTION

The procedure that is usually followed to obtain an x-ray is described as follows:

Initially, some characteristics of the material to be examined must be known, such as: type of metal,
its configuration, wall thickness to be radiographed, etc. All this in order to select the radioisotope or the
most suitable kilovoltage.
 Once the radiation source is established, the distances between it, the object, and the film must be calculated, in order to
thus achieving the desired sharpness.

Similarly, the movie is selected with certain characteristics that allow for a presentation over time.
reasonable and an optimal image quality. This is placed inside a film holder that serves as protection for
preventing light from damaging the photographic emulsion, and also contains the intensifying screens that serve to reduce
the exposure time, thereby improving the image quality.
This last process is carried out in the laboratory.

Once the above is done, the radiological safety measures are implemented in the area.
the one that is going to undergo the X-ray, in order to avoid an overdose to the personnel who may be working nearby
the inspection area.

The application of the radiographic process involves observing all mandatory safety measures that prevent
unnecessary radiation doses to the operator.

Keeping a safe distance from the source is the best way to avoid exposure. The second measure
It is to use a shield (lead, steel, concrete) between the individual and the source. Time is also an important factor.
The less time one is exposed to radiation, the lower the dose received will be.

Next, the arrangement is made to place the source at the calculated distance from the object and it is placed.
the radiographic film from the other side of this to record the radiation that manages to pass through the material being inspected.

This radiation creates the impression of the radiographic film, which corresponds to the negative of a photograph.
The greater the amount of radiation that hits the film, the more it will blacken.

In order to determine the sensitivity and quality of an X-ray, quality indicators are used.
image, misnamed penetrometers. When conducting the inspection, the image quality indicators are selected.
normally in such a way that their thickness represents approximately 2% of the thickness of part a
inspect and, whenever humanly possible, they will be placed on the side of the radiation source.

The exposure is performed either by removing the capsule that contains the radioisotope or by turning on the device.
X-rays; this is carried out during the previously calculated time to perform the exposure. Once finished the
exhibition, the capsule is recovered or the X-ray equipment is turned off and the film is taken to be developed.

As mentioned before, the developing process is verified in the developing lab, also known as
darkroom. The development is carried out in several steps: development, acid or stop bath, fixing bath, and final wash.
finish the developing, the film is dried and the interpretation of the obtained image is proceeded.

Radiographs, to be reliable, need to meet certain requirements (set by the standards

corresponding), such as radiographic density and image quality.

The radiographic density of a film in its degree of 'blackening'; that is, the amount of light that can
to move from one side to the other of this. In order for a film to be reliably interpreted, it must have a density between
2 and 4, depending on the type of source used.

1.2. APPLICATIONS

First of all, there are the applications in which radiant energy is used and its effect on matter, such as
It is the case of physical applications (fluorescence effects), medical (destruction of certain cells), and biological.
mutations or applications of biological sterilization.
 Secondly, the applications in which physical effects are used should be mentioned, such as
diffraction (determination of crystallographic structures), fluorescence (determination of chemical composition) and the
ionization (radiation detection).

Thirdly, there are applications that measure the attenuation of radiation, such as in the case of the
thickness measurement in high temperature processes; fluid level measurement; density determination
in continuous production processes and Industrial Radiography.

Finally, it remains to clarify that the short wavelength of the radiation used in X-ray allows
penetrate solid materials that absorb or reflect visible light; which leads to the use of this technique in control of
quality of welded products, castings, forgings, etc. for the detection of macroscopic internal defects such as
cracks, undermined, incomplete penetration in the root, lack of fusion, etc.

1.3. ADVANTAGES OF INDUSTRIAL RADIOGRAPHY

It is an excellent means of inspection recordkeeping

Its use extends to various materials
A visual image of the inside of the material is obtained
A permanent record of the inspection is obtained.
Identify manufacturing errors and help establish corrective actions.

1.4. LIMITATIONS OF INDUSTRIAL RADIOGRAPHY

It is not advisable to use it on complex geometric parts.

The inspection piece must have access from at least two sides.
His job requires adherence to strict security measures.
Requires highly trained, qualified, and experienced personnel.
Requires special installations such as: the exhibition area, security equipment, and a darkroom for the
developing process.
Laminar type discontinuities cannot be detected by this method.

2. INDUSTRIAL ULTRASOUND

This inspection system has its origins in impact tests, in which materials were struck.
with a hammer and carefully listened to the sound that the examined piece emitted. The disadvantage of these tests
they only allowed the detection of defects of a magnitude that would cause a change in the tone of the sound it emitted
the material subject to testing and for this reason they were unreliable in the preventive inspection.

Industrial Ultrasonic Testing (UT) is defined as a non-destructive inspection procedure of a type

mechanical, based on acoustic impedance, which manifests as the product of the maximum speed of
propagation of sound through the density of a material.

The ultrasound equipment we currently use can detect surface discontinuities.

subsuperficial and internal, depending on the type of probe used and the frequencies selected within
a range of 0.25 to 25 MHz.
On the other hand, today we have a multitude of variants of ultrasonic inspection; each of them has
has been specially developed to detect a particular type of discontinuity or to inspect different
materials.

2.1. REQUIREMENTS AND SEQUENCE OF INDUSTRIAL ULTRASONIC INSPECTION

Before starting an inspection by UT, it is necessary to define the following parameters in order to make a correct
selection of the work team:
What type of discontinuity can be found.
What extension and orientation can it have in the piece
What tolerances can be applied to accept or reject the indication.
Once the previous points are defined, the next step is to decide which inspection equipment will be used.

The equipment that currently exists commercially offers a wide variety of alternatives, so
before purchasing equipment, it is advisable to analyze all possible operational alternatives, being
It is advisable to choose an instrument that has service, spare parts, and reliability.

All standards establish the minimum requirements that an inspection instrument must meet.
ultrasound and sound:
a) The gain, which is the amplification capacity of the instrument and must be at least 60 dB (decibels);
this means that it can amplify the signals by at least 1,000 times. Additionally, the gain must be
calibrated in discrete steps of 2 dB.
b) The screen must have a grid etched on the cathode ray tube screen and must be calibrated in
values no less than 2% of the total scale.
c) The noise of the instrument (background signal) should not exceed 20% of the total vertical scale when the gain
be at maximum operation. In the case of using meters with digital or analog readings, the repeatability of the
the instrument must not be less than 5%

Next, the probe and the coaxial cable to be used must be selected. The cables are of the coaxial type.
to prevent electrical interference problems, their connections must be compatible with those of the instrument and the
Touch probe to be used. The length of the cable will affect the quality of the inspection, so the use of cables should be avoided.
longer than recommended by the equipment manufacturers.

The selection of the probe is one of the most critical points, as the quality of it will largely depend on it.
the inspection. The factors to be considered for the selection of a probe are:
Number of piezoelectric elements.
The type of inspection (contact, immersion, high temperature).
The diameter of the piezoelectric element.
The emission frequency.
In his case, the angle of refraction.
The type of band.
The type of wear protection.

Generally, the standards establish the minimum conditions that must be met by the sensors. Like the variety
The range of these is very broad, it is advisable to have the manufacturers' catalogs or consult the approved supplier.
regarding the characteristics of each unit before making a purchase.

Ultrasonic waves are generated by a piezoelectric crystal or ceramic within the probe; this
element, which we will call a transducer, has the property of transforming electrical energy into mechanical energy and
vice versa. When electrically excited, and due to the piezoelectric effect, the transducer vibrates at high frequencies (what
ultrasound generates); these vibrations are transmitted to the material that is to be inspected. During the journey in the
Material, the intensity of sonic energy suffers an attenuation, which is proportional to the distance traveled. When
the sonic beam reaches the material boundary, this beam is reflected. The echoes or reflections of the sound are received by
another (or the same) piezoelectric element and its signal is filtered and amplified to be sent to an oscilloscope of
cathode rays, where the path of the beam is indicated by the signals on the screen; it can also be transmitted
a graphical system, where an acoustic profile of the piece is obtained; to a digital screen, where a value will be read or to a
computer, for the mathematical analysis of the gathered information.

It is important to note the need to use a couplant (oil, grease, or glycerin) in order for the sound
can be transmitted from the transducer to the workpiece without significant energy losses at the acoustic interface
formed by the air space between the metal or the material to be examined and the probe.
 The coupler must meet the following characteristics to be used with confidence: to be inherent to the material in
inspection, easily removable after completing the inspection; it should form a homogeneous layer on the surface of
contact; furthermore, its cost will be low and easy to acquire. It should be clarified that some standards or codes are rigidly
specific to the type of binder to be used, limited to the use of water, glycerin, or cellulose gel.

2.2.APPLICATIONS

Industrial Ultrasonics is a widely used non-destructive test in the evaluation of metallic materials.
and non-metals.

It is commonly used for measuring thicknesses, detecting areas of corrosion, detecting defects in
pieces that have been cast and forged, rolled or welded; in the applications of new materials such as the
Metal-ceramic and composite materials have gained great acceptance due to their simplicity and ease of application as a method.
of inspection for quality control of materials, either in the study of defects (internal, subsurface and
superficial) and in taking measurements such as: thickness measurement (steel containers, fat layer in animals,
etc.), hardness measurement, level determination, etc.

2.3.ADVANTAGES OF INDUSTRIAL ULTRASOUND

This technique can be applied to a wide range of materials and to a large number of formed products such as:
plates, axles, rails, tubes, rods, etc., and to manufacturing processes such as: welding, casting, rolling, forging.
machining, etc.
It applies to others such as: Medicine, Navigation, Fishing, Communication, among others.
It allows for the detection of both superficial, subsurface, and internal discontinuities.
The sensitivity of the equipment can be increased by making a suitable change in the probe.
The equipment can be portable and adaptable to a wide range of conditions.

2.4. LIMITATIONS OF INDUSTRIAL ULTRASOUND

The equipment and accessories are expensive.

Various types of probes must be used in order to determine all the discontinuities present in the piece.
preferably when it comes to pieces that have been rehearsed previously.
The personnel assigned to carry out the tests must have extensive experience and qualification in the handling of the technique.
and the teams.

3. ACOUSTIC EMISSION

Acoustic Emission (AET) has gained significant momentum in recent years for its ability to determine the conditions
general equipment and materials in service.

The principle of Acoustic Emission (AE) is the detection of elastic waves that are created spontaneously in
those points of the material that are deforming elastically or plastically when subjected to stress (load)
static or dynamic), or by residual stresses that are present in the material.

Shear deformations or those that cause sliding of the crystal planes are the main sources.
from the acoustic emission. In the case of metals, the emission detects the accumulation of slippages and dislocations.
intercrystalline, which in case the effort continues will lead to a fracture

Acoustic emission appears as defined pulses that propagate through the material radially at the speed
of the sound. The pulses are characterized by having the shape of a train of damped waves and with a wide variety of
frequencies that can vary from the audible region to several megahertz. The duration of the pulse is very short, of
order from nanoseconds to milliseconds, so its detection must be carried out by electronic means; although the signal
produced is also very weak, on the order of a few electron-volts.

3.1. REQUIREMENTS AND SEQUENCES OF THE ACOUSTIC EMISSION INSPECTION

To obtain the inspection with AET, the first step is to select the tracking frequencies and
These will depend on the source of the wave and the type of discontinuity that is desired to be detected.

The next step is to select the points where the transducers should be located; since the
determining the location of defects is done through triangulation, based on the time it takes for the signal to
to be received by the different elements.

Once the equipment is set up and the instruments have been calibrated, the test begins by applying a load.
mechanical at a known speed and the signals emitted by the component are recorded and saved via
computers, which analyze the number of events detected per unit of time, the intensity of the
emissions and the time it takes for the signals to be recorded by the different transducers.

The last step and the most critical is to analyze the type of emitter that has generated the acoustic emission, in order to know if
it is merely an elastic or relaxation deformation; or, if it is a fracture that is developing during
the deformation of the material.

3.2.APPLICATIONS

Acoustic Emission is one of the new techniques that has developed significantly, especially with its acceptance.
the use of computers for data processing as a means of interpreting the results. It is used in the
study of structures subjected to cyclic stresses, such as in the case of aeronautical structures, pressure vessels
pressure and buildings or bridges.
Another application is the evaluation of the behavior of new materials, such as the case of fiber-based fabrics.
Keblar; from the fibers of ceramic elements and composite materials based on ceramics and metals and plastics
reinforced with fibers.

3.3. ADVANTAGES OF ACOUSTIC EMISSION

Allow to detect a defect or fracture during its development, even before it can be detected by any other means.
type of non-destructive testing
It allows for a pattern of the behavior of the structure subjected to testing, which can be taken as a reference.
to assess its behavior after being in service and to know if it has sustained any damage or weakening.

3.4. LIMITATIONS OF ACOUSTIC EMISSION

The interpretation of the results; since a complete field assessment requires processors that
they have high speed and large memory and storage capacity; which is why an inspection work for
AET can be done quickly but at a relatively high cost.
The personnel conducting this type of tests must have great skill and experience in interpreting signals.
and in the arrangement of the inspection transducers; anyone specializing in this technique requires at least one
Year of prior work before being qualified as Level 1 and it takes almost two years to be qualified as Level II.