Chemical Bonding — Complete Theory + Quick Formula

Sheet
Class 11 Chemistry | Includes VBT, VSEPR, MOT, Octet Rule, Exceptions, H-bonding, IMFs, Metallic Bonding,
Born–Haber, Fajans, and more.

Contents
1. Why Atoms Form Bonds
2. Octet Rule and Its Limitations
3. Lewis Symbols, Lewis Structures & Formal Charge
4. Ionic Bonding: Lattice Enthalpy & Born–Haber Cycle
5. Covalent Bonding: Resonance, Polarity, Dipole Moment
6. Coordinate (Dative) Bond & Lewis Acid–Base, HSAB (Basics)
7. Intermolecular Forces (IMFs) & Hydrogen Bonding
8. Bond Parameters: Order, Length, Energy, Angle, % Ionic Character
9. Valence Bond Theory (VBT): Overlap & Hybridisation
10. VSEPR Theory: Shapes & Lone-Pair Effects
11. Molecular Orbital Theory (MOT): LCAO, Bond Order, Magnetism
12. Metallic Bonding: Electron Sea & Band Theory
13. Worked Examples
14. Part B — Quick Formula / Concept Sheet
1) Why Atoms Form Bonds
• Atoms bond to attain lower potential energy and achieve a stable electronic configuration (often noble gas
configuration).
• Stability criteria: filled valence shell, optimum electron density, and net decrease in energy of the system.

2) Octet Rule and Its Limitations

Octet Rule: Atoms tend to gain, lose, or share electrons to complete 8 electrons in their valence shell (2 for H, He
→ duplet).

Limitations / Exceptions:
• Incomplete octet: BeH2, BF3 (electron-deficient).
• Odd-electron molecules: NO, NO2, ClO2 (cannot have all electrons paired).
• Expanded octet (hypervalent): PF5, SF6, HClO4, XeF2/XeF4/XeF6 (3rd period and beyond can exceed octet).
• Electron-deficient cluster compounds: boranes (e.g., B2H6) show 3-center–2-electron (3c–2e) bonds.
• Transition-metal compounds often obey an 18-electron rule (beyond Class 11 scope, just awareness).

3) Lewis Symbols, Lewis Structures & Formal Charge

Lewis symbol: Dots for valence electrons around element symbol.
Lewis structure (steps): Count total valence electrons → choose skeleton → place single bonds → complete
octets on terminal atoms → put remaining electrons on central atom → use multiple bonds if needed → check
formal charges.
Formal charge (FC): FC = (valence e−) − (nonbonding e− + ½ × bonding e−).
Best structure criteria: smallest |FC|, negative FC on more electronegative atom, sum of FC = charge on species.

4) Ionic Bonding: Energetics, Lattice Enthalpy & Born–Haber Cycle

Formation: Electron transfer creates cations/anions; electrostatic attraction stabilises crystal.
Lattice enthalpy (U): energy released when 1 mol of crystal forms from gaseous ions (or required to separate the
crystal into gaseous ions). Larger |U| ⇒ higher mp/bp, lower solubility (generally).
Factors affecting U: ionic charges (Z+Z−), ionic radii (r), crystal geometry, polarisation.
Born–Haber cycle (for MX): ∆Hf = Sublimation(M) + Ionisation(M) + ½×Bond dissociation(X2) + Electron gain
enthalpy(X) − Lattice enthalpy.
Hydration enthalpy (∆Hhyd): smaller ions → larger ∆Hhyd → more soluble salts if ∆Hhyd competes with U.
Fajans’ rules (polarising power): small/high-charge cation + large/easily polarisable anion ⇒ more covalent
character in an “ionic” bond; increases with cation d10 configuration (e.g., Ag+).

5) Covalent Bonding: Resonance, Polarity & Dipole Moment

Covalent bond: sharing of electron pair(s) between atoms.
Multiple bonds: double (σ+π), triple (σ+2π).
Resonance: real structure is a hybrid of equivalent canonical forms; increases stability, equalises bond lengths
(e.g., O3, CO32−, NO3−, benzene).
Polarity: ∆χ (electronegativity difference) creates bond dipole; molecular dipole depends on vector sum (geometry).
Dipole moment: µ = q × d (Debye). Symmetry can2 cancel dipoles: CO2 (0 D) vs H2O (1.85 D).
% ionic character (Pauling): %IC ≈ [1 − e−0.25(∆χ) ] × 100.

6) Coordinate (Dative) Bond & Lewis Acid–Base, HSAB (Basics)

Coordinate bond: both electrons donated by the same atom (donor) to an acceptor, e.g., NH3→BF3, formation of
NH4+ from NH3 + H+.
Lewis acids: electron-pair acceptors (BF3, AlCl3, H+); Lewis bases: donors (NH3, H2O, Cl−).
HSAB principle (very brief): hard acids prefer hard bases; soft acids prefer soft bases — helps predict adduct
stability (e.g., BF3–OEt2).
7) Intermolecular Forces (IMFs) & Hydrogen Bonding
Dispersion (London), dipole–dipole, dipole–induced dipole, ion–dipole interactions govern physical properties
(bp/mp/viscosity/solubility).
Hydrogen bonding (H-bond): strong dipole–dipole when H is bonded to N, O, or F and interacts with a lone pair on
another electronegative atom.
• Intermolecular (e.g., HF, H2O, alcohols) raises bp/viscosity; Intramolecular (o-nitrophenol) can reduce bp via
chelation + decrease association.
Ice anomaly: open H-bonded structure → ice less dense than water.

8) Bond Parameters
Bond order (B.O.) = (Nb − Na)/2; ↑B.O. → ↓bond length, ↑bond enthalpy, ↑stretching frequency.
Bond length: single > double > triple; decreases with greater s-character in hybrids (sp < sp2 < sp3).
Bond enthalpy: energy to break 1 mol of bonds in gaseous state; average bond enthalpy used for polyatomic
molecules.
Bond angle: depends on hybridisation and LP–BP repulsions (LP–LP > LP–BP > BP–BP).
Dipole moment: vector sum of bond dipoles; use geometry for resultant.
Percent ionic character: from µ (observed) vs µ (assuming full charges) or Pauling ∆χ relation above.

9) Valence Bond Theory (VBT): Overlap & Hybridisation

Key ideas: Bonds form by overlap of half-filled atomic orbitals with opposite spins; greater overlap ⇒ stronger
bond.
Types of overlap: σ (end-to-end, cylindrical symmetry) vs π (side-by-side, nodal plane along internuclear axis).
Directional character: s < p < d → influences bond angles/shape.

Hybridisation (mixing of orbitals on the same atom):

• sp (linear, 180°) — BeCl2, HC≡CH (C).
• sp2 (trigonal planar, 120°) — BF3, C2H4 (C).
• sp3 (tetrahedral, 109.5°) — CH4.
• sp3d (trigonal bipyramidal, 90°/120°) — PCl5 (AX5).
• sp3d2 (octahedral, 90°) — SF6 (AX6).
• Square planar (dsp2) in some d8 complexes (beyond Class 11).

Limitations of VBT: cannot explain O2 paramagnetism; does not give energy ordering of MOs.

10) VSEPR Theory: Shapes & Lone-Pair Effects

Rules: electron pairs around the central atom arrange to minimise repulsions. Order: LP–LP > LP–BP > BP–BP;
multiple bonds count as one region but cause slightly more repulsion than single.
Steric number = number of σ bonds + number of lone pairs on central atom. Shapes depend on steric number and
LP count.

SN AXE Electron Geometry Molecular Shape Example

2 AX2 Linear Linear BeCl2, CO2
3 AX3 Trigonal planar Trigonal planar BF3, SO3
3 AX2E Trigonal planar Bent (V-shape) SO2, O3
4 AX4 Tetrahedral Tetrahedral CH4
4 AX3E Tetrahedral Trigonal pyramidal NH3
4 AX2E2 Tetrahedral Bent H2O
5 AX5 Trigonal bipyramidal Trigonal bipyramidal PCl5
5 AX4E Trigonal bipyramidal Seesaw SF4
 5 AX3E2 Trigonal bipyramidal T-shaped ClF3
5 AX2E3 Trigonal bipyramidal Linear XeF2, I3−
6 AX6 Octahedral Octahedral SF6
6 AX5E Octahedral Square pyramidal BrF5
6 AX4E2 Octahedral Square planar XeF4

11) Molecular Orbital Theory (MOT): LCAO, Bond Order, Magnetism

LCAO principle: Ψ(MO) = caΨ(atomic a) ± cbΨ(atomic b); gives bonding (lower E) and antibonding (higher E)
orbitals.
Combination rules: similar energy, proper symmetry, effective overlap.
MO energy order: For B2, C2, N2: σ1s < σ*1s < σ2s < σ*2s < (π2p) < σ2p < (π*2p) < σ*2p.
For O2, F2, Ne2: σ1s < σ*1s < σ2s < σ*2s < σ2p < (π2p) < (π*2p) < σ*2p.
Bond order: (Nb − Na)/2. Paramagnetism if unpaired e− in MOs.
Heteronuclear diatomics: level energies shift toward more electronegative atom; examples: CO, NO, HF (σ
formed mainly toward the more EN atom).

12) Metallic Bonding: Electron Sea & Band Theory

Electron sea model: metal cations in a sea of delocalised electrons → conductivity, malleability, ductility.
Band theory: overlap of atomic orbitals forms continuous bands; metals have overlapping valence and conduction
bands; semiconductors have small band gaps (doping: n-type, p-type); insulators have large gaps.

13) Worked Examples

(a) Formal charge: In CO32−, one structure has C=O (double) and two C–O−. FCs: C = 0, double-bond O = 0,
single-bond O = −1 each; average by resonance gives equal C–O bonds (~1■ order).

(b) Bond order & magnetism:

• N2: (Nb, Na)=(10,4) → B.O.=3, diamagnetic.
• O2: (Nb, Na)=(10,6) → B.O.=2, paramagnetic (2 unpaired in π*).
• O2+: B.O.=2.5 (one fewer e− in antibonding).
• B2: π2p has 2 unpaired → paramagnetic, B.O.=1.

(c) VSEPR shapes: ClF3 (AX3E2) → T-shaped; XeF2 (AX2E3) → linear; XeF4 (AX4E2) → square planar.

(d) Born–Haber (NaCl): ∆Hf ≈ ∆Hsub(Na) + IE(Na) + ½D(Cl2) + EA(Cl) − U(NaCl). Rearranging allows calculation of
U if others known.
Part B — Quick Formula / Concept Sheet

1) Hybridisation & Shapes

Hybridisation Steric No. (SN) Geometry Common Shapes & Examples
sp 2 Linear (180°) AX2: BeCl2, CO2
sp2 3 Trigonal planar (120°) AX3: BF3; AX2E: SO2 (bent)
sp3 4 Tetrahedral (109.5°) AX4: CH4; AX3E: NH3; AX2E2: H2O
sp3d 5 Trigonal bipyramidalAX5: PCl5; AX4E: SF4 (seesaw); AX3E2: ClF3 (T)
sp3d2 6 Octahedral AX6: SF6; AX5E: BrF5; AX4E2: XeF4 (sq. planar)

2) VSEPR Quick Rules

Steric number = σ-bonds + lone pairs on central atom.
Repulsion order: LP–LP > LP–BP > BP–BP. Multiple bonds count as one region but repel more than single bonds.

3) MOT Ordering & Shortcuts

For B2, C2, N2 (s–p mixing): σ2s < σ*2s < π2p < σ2p < π*2p < σ*2p.
For O2, F2: σ2s < σ*2s < σ2p < π2p < π*2p < σ*2p.
B.O.=(Nb−Na)/2; paramagnetism ↔ unpaired in π* or other MOs.

4) Ionic vs Covalent Character (Fajans)

More covalent if: small/high-charge cation, large/polarisable anion, cation with ns2np6nd10 (e.g., Ag+), low dielectric
medium, high temperature.

5) Hydrogen Bonding Effects

Raises bp/mp/viscosity; affects density (ice < water); intramolecular H-bonding lowers bp in o-nitrophenol vs
p-isomer (intermolecular).

6) Key Formulas
Quantity Formula / Relation
Formal charge FC = V − (N + B/2)
Bond order (MOT) (Nb − Na)/2
Dipole moment µ = q × d (1 D = 3.336×10■³■ C·m)
% ionic character (Pauling) %IC ≈ [1 − e^(−0.25(∆χ)²)] × 100
Average bond enthalpy ∆H°rxn ≈ Σ(BE broken) − Σ(BE formed)
Lattice enthalpy (qualitative) ∝ (Z■Z■)/r (Born–Lande/Born–Mayer for exact)
Steric number SN = no. of σ-bonds + lone pairs (central atom)
Resonance hybrid Actual structure is weighted average; lowers energy
Hybrid s-character sp (50%) &lt; sp² (33%) &lt; sp³ (25%) — ↑s ⇒ shorter, stronger

7) Quick Predictions
• CO2: sp hybrid C, linear, µ = 0 (symmetry).

• H2O: sp3 O, bent, µ ≠ 0; angle < 109.5° due to LP–LP repulsion.

• NH3 vs NF3: both pyramidal; µ(NH3) > µ(NF3) due to bond directions & lone-pair vector.
• SO4^2−: all S–O bonds equivalent by resonance; S shows expanded valence.

• Ordering of bond length: C≡C < C=C < C–C.