Date: 5th May, 2025

Subject: Biology
Topic: Pollination in Plants
 LEARNING OBJECTIVES: Learners should be able to:

-Describe the types of pollination

-Distinguish between wind- and insect-pollinated flowers
-Explain the fertilisation and process of development in flowering plants.
-Explain the conditions necessary for germination of seeds.
Pollination is defined as the transfer of mature pollen grains from the
anthers of one flower to the mature stigma of the same flower or
another flower of the same plant or closely related species
 TYPES OF POLLINATION

There are two types of pollination. These are

self-pollination and cross-pollination.
Self-pollination is the transfer of mature pollen grains
from the anther of a flower to the stigma of the same
flower or to that of another flower of the same plant,
e.g. pea, cotton and tomato.
Cross pollination is the transfer of mature pollen grains
from the anther of a flower to the stigma of a flower of
another plant of the same or closely related species, e.g.
morning glory, Hibiscus, pride of Barbados.
 AGENTS OF POLLINATION

Agents of pollination also called pollinators are organisms and other means by which pollen
grains are transferred from the anthers to the stigma of flowers.
Agents of pollination include insects, wind, water and other animals like snails, birds, bats
and man. Common insects involved in pollination are butterfly, moth and bees.
Conditions or Devices which Aid self-pollination

These conditions are homogamy and cleistogamy.

Homogamy refers to the ripening of the anthers and stigmas of a bisexual flower at the same
time eg. Mirabilis, Ixora.
Under this condition, self-pollination may occur in the following ways:
-A gentle breeze may blow the mature pollen grains which may be shed on mature stigma that
are situated below.
-A visiting insect may transfer the mature pollen grains to the stigma of the same flower.
-Self-pollination may also occur when mature stigmas push their way out of the
corolla tube during which they are brushed against the anthers and in the process,
pollen grains are collected.
-In a situation where the filaments are longer than the stigma, the filaments may recoil
to touch the mature stigmas.
-In like manner, self-pollination may occur where the styles are longer than the
filaments; the styles may also bend or recoil to make the stigmas touch the anther.
Cleistogamy is defined as a condition in which ripe pollen grains are
deposited on the stigma which becomes ripened at the same time. This
situation usually occurs among closed flowers, that is, bisexual
flowers which never open at all. Cleistogamy is a characteristics of
many legumes eg. Groundnut.
Advantages of Self Pollination

1. It is a sure way of ensuring pollination, especially in bisexual

flowers.
2. lt may not waste pollen grains.
Disadvantages of Self Pollination

1. It leads to the production of weak offspring as a result of

continuous or repeated self-pollination.
2. The offspring or individuals produced are less adapted to the
environment.
 Conditions or Devices which Aid
Cross-Pollination

These are dichogamy, unisexuality and self-sterility.

1. Dichogamy refers to the ripening of the anthers and stigmas of a bisexual flower at
different times. Dichogamy occurs in two ways. These are protandry and protogyny.
Protandry refers to the condition in which the anthers of a flower mature earlier than the
stigmas of that flower or other flowers of the same plant so that
the mature pollen grains are only useful to flowers of other plants which have mature stigmas
to receive them.
Protogyny refers to the condition in which the stigma of a flower matures earlier than its own
pollen grains or those of other flowers of the same plant so that it can only receive pollen
2. Unisexuality is a situation in which some plants bear only male or female flowers and not
both on the same plant, e.g. pawpaw.
3. Self-sterility refers to a situation in which some plants make themselves sterile. The
presence of pollen on their stigmas is injurious to further development of the plants. For
example, they may wither and die. However, when pollen grains come from other plants,
fertilisation can take place in such plants. Examples are found in passion flowers and tea.
 Advantages of Cross-pollination

1. Cross-pollination leads to the production of healthier offspring than self-pollination.

2. It also produces viable seeds.
3. Offspring or individuals produced are more adapted to the environmental conditions.
4. It also leads to the formation of new varieties with good characteristics.
 Disadvantages of Cross-pollination

1. It relies on external agents such as wind and insects whose presence at the right time
cannot be guaranteed.
2. It may lead to wastage of pollen grains, especially pollination by wind.
 Differences between self-pollination and
cross-pollination
Self-pollination Cross-pollination
Self-pollination takes place only bisexual Cross-pollination takes place in both unisexual
plants. and bisexual plants.
Only one parent is involved. Two parents are involved.
Pollination may occur without an This requires external agents, e.g insects and wind
external agent.
It does not ensure new varieties. It results in the formation of new varieties.

Much of the pollen effectively utilised. Pollen grains are wasted.

Major Agents of Pollination

Two major agents of pollination are wind and insects.

 Characteristics of Insect-pollinated Flowers

Insect-pollinated flowers, also called entomophilous flowers, have the following

characteristics:
-They have large conspicuous petals/sepals
-Flowers are usually brightly coloured.
-They possess scent.
-Nectar is also present.
-Pollen grains are rough, sticky and relatively few.
-The stigma is flat with a sticky surface to enable it receive pollen grains.
-Petals are shaped and arranged to enable visiting insects become dusted with pollen
Examples of insect-pollinated flowers are hibiscus, Delonix, cowpea, crotalaria and pride of
Barbados.
 Characteristics of Wind-pollinated Flowers

Wind-pollinated flowers, also called anemophilous flowers, have the following characteristics:
-They have small, inconspicuous petals/ sepals.
-Flowers are usually dull-coloured.
-There is absence of scent.
-There is absence of nectar.
-Large quantities of pollen grains are produced.
-Pollen grains are small, smooth, light and not sticky.
-Stigma is elongated and sticky with large surface area.
-Anthers are attached to the flower in such a way that they readily swing in the air and release the
pollen grains. Examples of wind-pollinated flowers are maize, guinea grass, rice, millet and
wheat.
 DEVELOPMENT OF NEW SEEDS

The pollen grain and the ovule are the main sex cells (male and female) respectively
involved in the formation of zygote in flowering plant.
Structure of the Pollen Grain
-The pollen grain is a haploid cell consisting of an exine which is the outer membrane;
-the intine which is a dense matrix; and
-a centrally placed nucleus.
The exine encloses the intine while the nucleus is embedded in the intine.
A mature ovule has the following parts:
-Hilum: Hilum is the point of attachment of the
ovule to the placenta.
-Integuments: These are two coverings of the
ovule.
-Embryo sac: This is the tissue that produces the
female gamete.
-Nucellus: This tissue is enclosed by the
integument. It is nutritive in function.
-Micropyle: Micropyle is an opening into the ovule
left by the integuments.
 FERTILISATION IN FLOWERING
PLANTS

In flowering plants, the zygote is formed through the following processes:

After pollination, the pollen grain absorbs a sugary liquid on the stigma, swells and
germinates.
The outer Coat of the pollen grain, the exine, splits. The pollen tube grows out and down
inside the style.
 GERMINATION OF SEEDS

Germination is defined as the process which involves the gradual development of the embryo of
the seed into a seedling or a young plant. In other words, germination is the series of changes by
which an embryo in a seed grows into seedling.
 Types of Germination

There are two types of germination. These

are epigeal germination and hypogeal
germination.
Epigeal germination is defined as the type of
germination in which the cotyledons or seed
leaves are carried above the soil surface.
Epigeal germination is associated with
dicotyledonous plants, e.g. germination of
cowpea, groundnut, melon and mango.
Hypogeal germination is defined as the type of germination in which
the cotyledons, seed leaves or endosperms remain below the soil
surface.
Hypogeal germination is associated with monocotyledonous plants,
e.g. germination of maize, oil palm, guinea corn, millet and wheat.
 Differences between epigeal germination and hypogeal
germination

Hypogeal germination Epigeal germination

Pericarp splits Testa splits
Cotyledons remain in the soil Cotyledons are carried
above the soil
Epicotyl elongates Hypocotyl elongates
Foliage leaves are the first Cotyledon is the first
photosynthetic tissue. photosynthetic tissue.
 Conditions Necessary for Germination

The conditions which are necessary for the germination of the seed include: water or moisture,
air or Oxygen, warmth or suitable temperature, enzymes, energy or food and viable seeds.
 Experiment to demonstrate the conditions
necessary for germination
Materials required: Four conical flasks, cotton wool, string, stopper, bean seeds, solution of
pyrogallic acid and caustic soda, test tube and water.
Method: Place a few bean seeds in four conical flasks labelled A, B, C and D.
A is left in a warm place
Pour into flask B a little water to moisten the cotton wool. A test tube containing pyrogallic
acid and caustic soda is also suspended in flask B by means of string. Pyrogallic acid absorbs
oxygen while caustic soda absorbs carbon dioxide from the flask. A little water is then poured
into flask C and D to moisten the cotton wool. Flask C is placed in a warm place while D is
placed in a refrigerator. The four flasks are left for few days. Water is added to flask B, C and
D at intervals to ensure that the cotton wool is always moist.
The conditions present in each of the flasks are as
follows:
Flask A: Warmth, oxygen, no water
Flask B: Warmth, water, no oxygen
Flask C: Warmth, oxygen, water
Flask D: Oxygen, water, no warmth
Observation: Only the seeds in flask C germinated
because they have all the conditions necessary for
germination of seeds which are not complete in other
flasks.
 Seed dormancy

This is defined as an inactive period of a seed during which growth is

slow or completely ceases due to certain internal or external factors.
WAYS OF BREAKING SEED DORMANCY
1. Removal of testa
2. Treatment of seed with acid or digestive enzymes or water.
3. Exposing to alternating high and low temperature
4. Addition of dormancy-breaking hormones
 REVISION QUESTIONS

1. a) Name two types of germination of seeds giving one example of each type b) Describe a
simple experiment to demonstrate that oxygen water and warmth are necessary for
germination of seeds (WASSCE JUNE, 2010).
2. . What are the conditions necessary for germination?
3. Describe the processes that occur from the time pollen grain is deposited on the stigma of
a flower to the formation a zygote (WASSCE JUNE, 2003)
4. . a) Describe epigeal germination of seeds b) In a tabular form, state three differences
between epigeal germination and hypogeal germination c) What is seed dormancy? d) State
three ways by which dormancy in seeds can be broken. (WASSCE JUNE, 2012).
5. a) Distinguish between pollination and fertilization in plants b) State five features which
ensure cross-pollination in plants. c) Name one plant example for each feature d) Name the
agents of pollination (WASSCE JUNE, 2004)