Unit 1

Introduction to Networking
A computer network is a system of interconnected computing devices that can exchange data and share
resources. These devices, called nodes, can be computers, printers, servers, or other devices capable of
sending and receiving data. Networks allow for efficient communication and resource sharing among
users.

A computer network is a collection of two or more computer systems that are linked together. A
network connection can be established using either cable or wireless media. Hardware and software
are used to connect computers and tools in any network.

Key Aspects of Computer Networks:

 Interconnection:
Devices are linked together, typically using wired or wireless connections.
 Resource Sharing:
Networks enable the sharing of resources like data, applications, and hardware (e.g., printers,
storage).
 Communication:
Networks facilitate communication between users through various means like email, instant
messaging, and video conferencing.
 Data Transmission:
Data is transmitted in packets over communication channels, which can be physical cables or
wireless signals.
 Examples:
The internet, local area networks (LANs), and wide area networks (WANs) are all examples of
computer networks.

Why are computer networks important?

 Enhanced Communication:
Networks allow for faster and more efficient communication between individuals and organizations.
 Resource Efficiency:
Sharing resources like printers and storage devices reduces costs and improves resource utilization.

 Collaboration:
Networks enable teams to collaborate on projects, share documents, and work together more
effectively.

 Access to Information:
Networks provide access to a vast amount of information and resources, empowering users with
knowledge and tools.
In essence, computer networks are the backbone of modern digital communication and resource
sharing, enabling a wide range of applications and services that we rely on every day.

Computer Network Applications:

1. Communication:
Email:
Facilitates sending and receiving messages electronically.

Social Media:
Platforms like Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram rely on networks for real-time communication
and content sharing.

Video Conferencing:
Enables face-to-face communication over long distances using platforms like Zoom and
Skype.

Instant Messaging:
Provides real-time text-based communication through apps like WhatsApp and Slack.

2. Resource Sharing:
Hardware Sharing:
Allows multiple users to share printers, storage devices, and other hardware resources.

Software Sharing:
Enables centralized installation and sharing of software applications across a network.

Data Sharing:
Facilitates the exchange of files and information between users and systems.

3. Information Access:
World Wide Web: Provides access to a vast repository of information through websites and
online resources.
Remote Access: Enables users to access and control computers or resources from remote
locations.
 Databases: Allows users to access and manage data stored on centralized servers.

4. Entertainment:
Online Gaming: Supports multiplayer gaming experiences over the internet.
Streaming Services: Enables access to movies, music, and other media content through
platforms like Netflix and Spotify.
Interactive Entertainment: Provides access to various online games, virtual worlds, and other
interactive entertainment options.

5. Business and Finance:

E-commerce: Facilitates online shopping and financial transactions.
Banking: Enables online banking, bill payments, and other financial transactions.
Remote Work: Allows employees to access company resources and collaborate remotely.

6. Other Applications:
Education:
Supports online learning platforms, virtual classrooms, and access to educational resources.

Transportation:
Enables traffic management, vehicle tracking, and efficient transportation systems.

Healthcare:
Supports remote patient monitoring, electronic health records, and telehealth services.

What Do Computer Networks Do?

Computer Networks are one of the important aspects of Computer Science. In the early days, it is used
for data transmission on telephone lines and had a very limited use, but nowadays, it is used in a
variety of places.
Computer Networks help in providing better connectivity that helps nowadays. Modern computer
networks have the following functionality:

 Computer Networks help in operating virtually

 Computer Networks integrate on a large scale
 Computer Networks respond very quickly in case of conditions change
 Computer Networks help in providing data security

Key Components of a Computer Network

In simple terms, a computer network is made up of two main parts: devices (called nodes) and
connections (called links). The links connect the devices to each other. The rules for how these
connections send information are called communication protocols. The starting and ending points of
these communications are often called ports.
 Fig. : Key Components of Computer Network

1. Network Devices
Basic hardware interconnecting network nodes, such as Network Interface Cards (NICs), Bridges,
Hubs, Switches, and Routers, are used in all networks.

2. Links
Links are the ways information travels between devices, and they can be of two types:
Wired: Communication done in a wired medium. Copper wire, twisted pair, or fiber optic cables are
all options. A wired network employs wires to link devices to the Internet or another network, such as
laptops or desktop PCs.
Wireless: Wireless means without wire, media that is made up of electromagnetic waves (EM Waves)
or infrared waves. Antennas or sensors will be present on all wireless devices. For data or voice
communication, a wireless network uses radio frequency waves rather than wires.

3. Communication Protocols
A communication protocol is a set of rules that all devices follow when they share information. Some
common protocols are TCP/IP, IEEE 802, Ethernet, wireless LAN, and cellular standards. TCP/IP is a
model that organizes how communication works in modern networks. It has four functional layers for
these communication links:
Network Access Layer: This layer controls how data is physically transferred, including how
hardware sends data through wires or fibers.
Internet Layer: This layer packages data into understandable packets and ensures it can be sent and
received.
Transport Layer: This layer keeps the communication between devices steady and reliable.
 Application Layer: This layer allows high-level applications to access the network to start data
transfer.
Most of the modern internet structure is based on the TCP/IP model, although the similar seven-layer
OSI model still has a strong influence.
IEEE 802 is a group of standards for local area networks (LAN) and metropolitan area networks
(MAN). The most well-known member of the IEEE 802 family is wireless LAN, commonly known as
WLAN or Wi-Fi.

4. Network Defense
While nodes, links, and protocols are the building blocks of a network, a modern network also needs
strong defenses. Security is crucial because huge amounts of data are constantly being created, moved,
and processed. Some examples of network defense tools are firewalls, intrusion detection systems
(IDS), intrusion prevention systems (IPS), network access control (NAC), content filters, proxy
servers, anti-DDoS devices, and load balancers.

Network topology:
Network topology refers to the physical or logical arrangement of devices and connections in a
computer network. It defines how nodes, such as computers, routers, and switches, are interconnected
and how data flows between them. Understanding network topology is crucial for optimizing network
performance, troubleshooting, and ensuring efficient data transmission.

Types of Network Topologies:

 Physical Topology:
Describes the physical layout of devices and cables in a network. Examples include:
 Point to Point Topology : A direct connection between two devices.
Point-to-point topology is a type of topology that works on the functionality of the sender and
receiver. It is the simplest communication between two nodes, in which one is the sender and the
other one is the receiver. Point-to-Point provides high bandwidth.

Fig. : Point to Point Topology

 Bus Topology: All devices are connected to a single cable (the bus).
Bus Topology is a network type in which every computer and network device is connected to a
single cable. It is bi-directional. It is a multi-point connection and a non-robust topology because if
the backbone fails the topology crashes. In Bus Topology, various MAC (Media Access Control)
 protocols are followed by LAN Ethernet connections like TDMA (Time Division Multiple
Access) , Pure Aloha, CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access) , Slotted Aloha, etc.

Fig. : Bus Topology

Advantages of Bus Topology

 If N devices are connected to each other in a bus topology, then the number of cables required to
connect them is 1, known as backbone cable, and N drop lines are required.
 Coaxial or twisted pair cables are mainly used in bus-based networks that support up to 10 Mbps.
 The cost of the cable is less compared to other topologies, but it is used to build small networks.
 Bus topology is familiar technology as installation and troubleshooting techniques are well
known.
 CSMA is the most common method for this type of topology.

Disadvantages of Bus Topology

 A bus topology is quite simpler, but still, it requires a lot of cabling.
 If the common cable fails, then the whole system will crash down.
 If the network traffic is heavy, it increases collisions in the network. To avoid this, various
protocols are used in the MAC layer known as Pure Aloha, Slotted Aloha, CSMA/CD, etc.
 Adding new devices to the network would slow down networks.
 Security is very low.
A common example of bus topology is the Ethernet LAN, where all devices are connected to a
single coaxial cable or twisted pair cable. This topology is also used in cable television networks.

 Star Topology: All devices connect to a central hub or switch.

In Star Topology, all the devices are connected to a single hub through a cable. This hub is the
central node and all other nodes are connected to the central node. The hub can be passive in nature
i.e., not an intelligent hub such as broadcasting devices, at the same time the hub can be intelligent
known as an active hub. Active hubs have repeaters in them. Coaxial cables or RJ-45 cables are used
to connect the computers. In Star Topology, many popular Ethernet LAN protocols are used as
CD(Collision Detection), CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access), etc.
 Fig. : Star Topology

Advantages of Star Topology

 If N devices are connected to each other in a star topology, then the number of cables required to
connect them is N. So, it is easy to set up.
 Each device requires only 1 port i.e. to connect to the hub, therefore the total number of ports
required is N.
 It is Robust. If one link fails only that link will affect and not other than that.
 Easy to fault identification and fault isolation.
 Star topology is cost-effective as it uses inexpensive coaxial cable.

Disadvantages of Star Topology

 If the concentrator (hub) on which the whole topology relies fails, the whole system will crash
down.
 The cost of installation is high.
 Performance is based on the single concentrator i.e. hub.
A common example of star topology is a local area network (LAN) in an office where all
computers are connected to a central hub. This topology is also used in wireless networks where all
devices are connected to a wireless access point.

 Ring Topology: Devices are connected in a closed loop, with data traveling in one direction.
In a Ring Topology, it forms a ring connecting devices with exactly two neighbouring devices. A
number of repeaters are used for Ring topology with a large number of nodes, because if someone
wants to send some data to the last node in the ring topology with 100 nodes, then the data will have
to pass through 99 nodes to reach the 100th node. Hence to prevent data loss repeaters are used in
the network.
The data flows in one direction, i.e. it is unidirectional, but it can be made bidirectional by having 2
connections between each Network Node, it is called Dual Ring Topology. In-Ring Topology, the
Token Ring Passing protocol is used by the workstations to transmit the data.
 Fig. : Ring Topology

The most common access method of ring topology is token passing.

 Token passing: It is a network access method in which a token is passed from one node to
another node.
 Token: It is a frame that circulates around the network.

Operations of Ring Topology

 One station is known as a monitor station which takes all the responsibility for performing the
operations.
 To transmit the data, the station has to hold the token. After the transmission is done, the token is
to be released for other stations to use.
 When no station is transmitting the data, then the token will circulate in the ring.
 There are two types of token release techniques: Early token release releases the token just after
transmitting the data and Delayed token release releases the token after the acknowledgment is
received from the receiver.

Advantages of Ring Topology

 The data transmission is high-speed.
 The possibility of collision is minimum in this type of topology.
 Cheap to install and expand.
 It is less costly than a star topology.

Disadvantages of Ring Topology

 The failure of a single node in the network can cause the entire network to fail.
 Troubleshooting is difficult in this topology.
 The addition of stations in between or the removal of stations can disturb the whole topology.
 Less secure.

 Mesh Topology: Each device is connected to multiple other devices, providing redundancy and high
reliability.
In a mesh topology, every device is connected to another device via a particular channel. Every
device is connected to another via dedicated channels. These channels are known as links. In Mesh
Topology, the protocols used are AHCP (Ad Hoc Configuration Protocols), DHCP (Dynamic Host
Configuration Protocol), etc.
 Fig. : Mesh Topology

 Suppose, the N number of devices are connected with each other in a mesh topology, the total
number of ports that are required by each device is N-1. In Figure , there are 6 devices
connected to each other, hence the total number of ports required by each device is 5. The
total number of ports required = N * (N-1).
 Suppose, N number of devices are connected with each other in a mesh topology, then the total
number of dedicated links required to connect them is N C 2 i.e. N(N-1)/2. In Figure, there
are 6 devices connected to each other, hence the total number of links required is 6*5/2 = 15.

Advantages of Mesh Topology

 Communication is very fast between the nodes.
 Mesh Topology is robust.
 The fault is diagnosed easily. Data is reliable because data is transferred among the devices
through dedicated channels or links.
 Provides security and privacy.

Disadvantages of Mesh Topology

 Installation and configuration are difficult.
 The cost of cables is high as bulk wiring is required, hence suitable for less number of devices.
 The cost of maintenance is high.
A common example of mesh topology is the internet backbone, where various internet service
providers are connected to each other via dedicated channels. This topology is also used in military
communication systems and aircraft navigation systems.

 Tree Topology: A hierarchical structure with a root node and branches.

Tree topology is the variation of the Star topology. This topology has a hierarchical flow of data. In
Tree Topology, protocols like DHCP and SAC (Standard Automatic Configuration) are used.

Fig. : Tree Topology

 In tree topology, the various secondary hubs are connected to the central hub which contains the
repeater. This data flow from top to bottom i.e. from the central hub to the secondary and then to the
devices or from bottom to top i.e. devices to the secondary hub and then to the central hub. It is
a multi-point connection and a non-robust topology because if the backbone fails the topology
crashes.

Advantages of Tree Topology

 It allows more devices to be attached to a single central hub thus it decreases the distance that is
traveled by the signal to come to the devices.
 It allows the network to get isolated and also prioritize from different computers.
 We can add new devices to the existing network.
 Error detection and error correction are very easy in a tree topology.

Disadvantages of Tree Topology

 If the central hub gets fails the entire system fails.
 The cost is high because of the cabling.
 If new devices are added, it becomes difficult to reconfigure.
A common example of a tree topology is the hierarchy in a large organization. At the top of the tree
is the CEO, who is connected to the different departments or divisions (child nodes) of the company.
Each department has its own hierarchy, with managers overseeing different teams (grandchild
nodes). The team members (leaf nodes) are at the bottom of the hierarchy, connected to their
respective managers and departments.

 Hybrid Topology: Combines two or more different topologies.

Hybrid Topology is the combination of all the various types of topologies we have studied above.
Hybrid Topology is used when the nodes are free to take any form. It means these can be individuals
such as Ring or Star topology or can be a combination of various types of topologies seen above.
Each individual topology uses the protocol that has been discussed earlier.

Fig. :Hybrid Topology

The above figure shows the structure of the Hybrid topology. As seen it contains a combination of
all different types of networks.

Advantages of Hybrid Topology

 This topology is very flexible .
 The size of the network can be easily expanded by adding new devices.
 Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology
 It is challenging to design the architecture of the Hybrid Network.
 Hubs used in this topology are very expensive.
 The infrastructure cost is very high as a hybrid network requires a lot of cabling and network
devices .

A common example of a hybrid topology is a university campus network. The network may have a
backbone of a star topology, with each building connected to the backbone through a switch or
router. Within each building, there may be a bus or ring topology connecting the different rooms and
offices. The wireless access points also create a mesh topology for wireless devices. This hybrid
topology allows for efficient communication between different buildings while providing flexibility
and redundancy within each building.

Logical Topology:
Describes how data flows through the network, regardless of the physical layout. For example, a
network might be physically wired as a star, but logically operate as a ring.

Importance of Network Topology:

 Performance:
Different topologies offer varying levels of performance and scalability.
 Reliability:
A well-chosen topology can enhance network reliability by providing redundancy and fault
tolerance.
 Cost:
The choice of topology can impact the cost of cabling, equipment, and maintenance.
 Troubleshooting:
A clear understanding of the topology can simplify troubleshooting and fault detection.
 Resource Utilization:
Topology can influence how efficiently resources are utilized within the network.

By understanding and selecting the appropriate topology, organizations can design networks that are
efficient, reliable, and cost-effective.

Protocol Hierarchies in Computer Network


A Protocol Hierarchy is a fixed set of rules and conventions that govern the communication between
two or more computers. The hierarchical structure allows for modular design, interoperability, and
ease of implementation in computer networks. The most well-known protocol hierarchy is the OSI
(Open Systems Interconnection) model, which consists of seven layers. You should be familiar with
the OSI Model to better understand protocol hierarchies in computer networks.
What is Protocol?
A protocol is simply defined as a set of rules and regulations for data communication. Rules are
defined for every step and process at the time of communication among two or more computers.
Networks are needed to follow these protocols to transmit the data successfully. All protocols might
be implemented using hardware, software, or a combination of both of them. There are three aspects
of protocols given below :
 Syntax - It is used to explain the data format that is needed to be sent or received.
 Semantics - It is used to explain the exact meaning of each of the sections of bits that are usually
transferred.
 Timings - This is used to explain the exact time at which data is generally transferred along with
the speed at which it is transferred.

Protocol Hierarchies
Generally, Computer networks are comprised of or contain a large number of hardware and software.
For network design, various networks are organized and arranged as a stack of layers of hardware
and software, one on top of another. The number, name, content, and function of each layer might
vary and can be different from one network to another. The main purpose of each layer is to provide
services to higher layers that are present. Every layer has some particular task or function. The
networks are organized and arranged as different layers or levels simply to reduce and minimize the
complexity of the design of network software.

Fig. : Protocol Hierarchy

Example of Protocol Hierarchy

Below is diagram representing a five-layer network. The diagram shows communication between
Host 1 and Host 2. The data stream is passed through a number of layers from one host to other.
Virtual communication is represented using dotted lines between peer layers. Physical
communication is represented using solid arrows between adjacent layers. Through physical
medium, actual communication occurs. The layers at same level are commonly known as peers. The
peer basically has a set of communication protocols. An interface is present between each of layers
that are used to explain services provided by lower layer to higher layer.
Advantages of Protocol Hierarchy
 The layers generally reduce complexity of communication between networks
 It increases network lifetime.
 It also uses energy efficiently.
 It does not require overall knowledge and understanding of network.

Disadvantages of Protocol Hierarchy

 Protocol Hierarchy require a deep understanding of each layers of OSI model.
 Implementation of protocol hierarchy is very costly.
 Every layer in protocol hierarchy introduce overheading in terms of memory, bandwidth and
processing.
 Protocol Hierarchy is not scalable for complex networks.

Design Issues for the Layers of the OSI Model :

Introduction to the OSI Model:
The OSI Model (Open Systems Interconnection) is a conceptual framework used to understand and
standardize the communication functions of a computer network.
The model is divided into even layers that represent different functions required for network
communication.
The layers are as follows:
1. Application Layer (Layer 7)
2. Presentation Layer (Layer 6)
3. Session Layer (Layer 5)
4. Transport Layer (Layer 4)
5. Network Layer (Layer 3)
6. Data Link Layer (Layer 2)
7. Physical Layer (Layer 1)
Each layer has its own responsibilities, and design issues must be addressed at each layer to ensure
efficient, reliable, and secure data communication.

Layer-Specific Design Issues

Physical Layer (Layer 1)

Transmission Media: The physical medium (e.g., copper wires, fiber optics, or wireless signals)
through which data travels.

Signal Encoding: Conversion of binary data into signals that can be transmitted over the physical
medium.
Data Rate and Bandwidth: The speed at which data can be transmitted over the medium.

Design Considerations:
Transmission Medium Selection: Choosing appropriate media based on performance needs and
distance (e.g., fiber optic vs. copper).

Signal Integrity: Ensuring signals are transmitted without degradation or interference.

Power Consumption: Optimizing energy usage in devices to enhance sustainability.

Data Link Layer (Layer 2)

Error Detection and Correction: Ensuring that data frames are error-free by using checksums or
cyclic redundancy checks (CRC).

MAC Addressing: Media Access Control addresses are used to uniquely identify devices on the
local network.
Flow Control: Prevents data from being sent faster than it can be processed by the receiver.
Design Considerations:
Frame Integrity: Ensuring frames are transmitted without errors.
Medium Access Control: Mechanisms to regulate access to shared communication mediums (e.g.,
CSMA/CD in Ethernet).
Traffic Control: Managing data transmission to prevent collisions and optimize network efficiency.

Network Layer (Layer 3)

Routing: Determining the best path for data to travel across networks.
Addressing: Logical addressing (e.g., IP addresses) to identify devices in a network.
Packet Forwarding: Mechanisms to forward data packets between routers.

Design Considerations:
Routing Efficiency: Optimal path selection using algorithms like Dijkstra’s or Bellman-Ford.
Address Space Management: Effective use of available IP address space, including subnetting and
address allocation.
Network Topology: Design of efficient network topologies that support optimal routing.

Transport Layer (Layer 4)

Reliability: The transport layer ensures reliable data delivery through error detection, correction,
and retransmission.
Flow Control: Prevents congestion by controlling the rate of data transmission between sender and
receiver.
Segmentation: Dividing large messages into smaller, manageable segments for easier transmission.

Design Considerations:
Error Handling: Mechanisms to detect and correct transmission errors (e.g., checksums,
acknowledgment).
Congestion Control: Methods to prevent network congestion (e.g., sliding window protocol, TCP
flow control).
Connection vs. Connectionless: Whether to use connection-oriented protocols (e.g., TCP) or
connectionless protocols (e.g., UDP).

Session Layer (Layer 5)

Session Management: Establishment, maintenance, and termination of communication sessions
between applications.
Synchronization: Handling of synchronization and checkpoints to maintain data consistency.
Dialog Control Ensuring orderly communication (e.g., half-duplex or full-duplex communication).

Design Considerations:
Session Recovery: The ability to resume communication after a session failure or interruption.
State Management: Maintaining session state information over the course of the communication.
Security: Ensuring that sessions are properly authenticated and secure against unauthorized
interruption.

Presentation Layer (Layer 6)

Data Translation: Converts data formats from the application layer into a standardized format that
can be understood by lower layers.
Compression: Compression algorithms to reduce the amount of data transmitted over the network.
Encryption: Data must be securely encrypted and decrypted when transmitted over insecure
channels.

Design Considerations:
Format Standardization: Need for standardized formats like ASCII, JPEG, and XML for ease of
translation and interoperability.
Data Compression Efficiency: Choosing compression methods that balance speed and the
compression ratio.
Security: Ensuring that encryption methods are strong and compatible across different platforms.

Application Layer (Layer 7)

User Interface Design: The interface must be intuitive and adaptable to various network protocols.
Protocol Design: Application protocols like HTTP, FTP, and SMTP should be standardized,
efficient, and secure to ensure compatibility across devices and platforms.
Data Integrity: Ensuring the data sent from the application is correctly received and interpreted by
the application on the receiving end.
Security: Protection against unauthorized access and data breaches at the application level.

Design Considerations:
Scalability: Applications must be scalable to support more users without significant degradation in
performance.
Interoperability: Ability to work across different operating systems, hardware, and networks.
Error Handling: Applications should be designed to handle errors gracefully, informing the user
without disrupting operations.

General Design Issues Across All Layers

1. Interoperability
All layers must be designed to work together smoothly, allowing devices from different vendors and
operating systems to communicate effectively.

2. Scalability
The design of each layer must account for scalability in terms of network size, traffic volume, and
geographical spread.

3. Security
Security mechanisms, such as encryption, authentication, and access controls, should be integrated
across all layers to ensure data confidentiality and integrity.

4. Efficiency
The protocol mechanisms at each layer should be efficient in terms of bandwidth usage, error
handling, and latency.

5. Fault Tolerance and Recovery

Mechanisms must be in place at each layer to detect and recover from errors and faults, ensuring that
communication remains reliable.

Connection-Oriented and Connectionless Services in Computer Networks

In computer networking, communication can be categorized into two main types based on how data
is transmitted between sender and receiver:

1. Connection-Oriented services
2. Connectionless services.

1. Connection-Oriented Service
A connection-oriented service requires a dedicated communication path to be established between
the sender and receiver before data can be transmitted. It ensures reliable data delivery by
maintaining the sequence and integrity of the data.
Characteristics:
Establishment of Connection: Before the transmission starts, a connection setup is required
between the sender and the receiver (e.g., 3-way handshake in TCP).
Reliable Data Transfer: The system guarantees that the data will reach the destination without
errors, and any lost packets are retransmitted.
Sequencing: Data is transmitted in a specific sequence, and the order is maintained.
Flow Control: Prevents network congestion by controlling the rate of data flow.
Error Handling: Error detection and recovery mechanisms are implemented, ensuring reliable
delivery.
Connection Teardown: Once communication is complete, the connection is closed, freeing up
resources.

Examples:
TCP (Transmission Control Protocol): A common connection-oriented protocol in the transport
layer. TCP ensures reliable communication by using acknowledgment (ACK) mechanisms,
retransmission of lost packets, and ordering.

Virtual Circuit (VC): In networks like ATM, a virtual circuit is established before data transfer.

Advantages:
* Reliable data transfer.
* Guarantees the order of delivery and error-free transmission.
* Flow and congestion control.

Disadvantages:
* More overhead due to connection setup and teardown.
* Slower compared to connectionless service because of the acknowledgment and error-recovery
mechanisms.
* Uses more resources.

2. Connectionless Service
A connectionless service does not require the establishment of a dedicated communication path
between the sender and receiver. Data is sent independently as packets, each traveling separately
through the network.
Characteristics:
No Connection Setup: Communication can occur without establishing a connection beforehand.
Unreliable Delivery: The system does not guarantee delivery, and packets may be lost or delivered
out of order.
No Acknowledgments: There is no mechanism for ensuring that the receiver has received the data.
No Flow Control: No mechanism to control the data flow.
No Sequencing: Each packet is treated independently, and there’s no guarantee of the order in
which packets will arrive.

Examples:

UDP (User Datagram Protocol): A connectionless protocol at the transport layer that sends data as
discrete packets (datagrams) without establishing a connection or ensuring reliability.
IP (Internet Protocol): The network layer protocol that routes data packets independently from
source to destination, without a connection setup.

Advantages:

* Lower overhead due to no connection establishment or teardown.

* Faster transmission, as packets are sent without waiting for acknowledgments.
* More suitable for real-time applications (e.g., VoIP, streaming) where speed is critical and
occasional data loss is acceptable.

Disadvantages:

* No reliability - packets can be lost or delivered out of order.

* No flow or congestion control, which can lead to network congestion.
* Application layers may need to implement their own reliability mechanisms if required.

Comparison between Connection-Oriented and Connectionless Services

connection-oriented services Connection Less Service

Related It is developed based on the working It is developed based on the working of

System of telephone systems. the postal system.
 connection-oriented services Connection Less Service

An end-to-end connection is
It does not establish any connection before
Definition established before sending data over
sending data between sender and receiver.
different or similar networks.

Virtual path or connection is created Virtual path or connection is not created

Virtual path
between the sender and receiver. between sender and receiver.

Authentication is required before Authentication is not required before

Authentication
sending data to the destination. sending data to the destination.

Order of sent data packets is

Order of sent data packets is not
Data Packets maintained means the receiver receives
maintained means the receiver receives the
Path the packet in the same order as sent by
packet in any order.
the sender.

Higher bandwidth is required by this Lower bandwidth is required by this

Bandwidth protocol for the transmission of protocol for the transmission of packets as
Requirement packets as it establishes a virtual path it does not establish a virtual path before
before data transmission. data transmission.

It guarantees the transfer of data from It does not guarantee the transfer of data
Data
the host to the destination so it’s a from host to destination so it’s an
Reliability
reliable protocol. unreliable protocol.

As it establishes an end-to-end As it does not establish an end-to-end

connection for the data transmission connection for the data transmission
Congestion
between sender and receiver there is between sender and receiver congestion
no congestion. can be there.

Some examples of connectionless

One of the examples of a connection- protocols are Internet Control Message
Examples oriented service is Transmission Protocol (ICMP), Internet Protocol (IP),
Control Protocol (TCP). and Internet Control Message Protocol
(ICMP).

Text Communication, HyperText

Application in Video Conferencing apps like Zoom,
Transfer Protocol (HTTP), Simple
the real-world Skype, Gmeet, etc.
Mail Transfer Protocol(SMTP), etc.
Applications in Real-World Networks
Connection-Oriented Applications:
Web Browsing (HTTP over TCP): HTTP relies on TCP to ensure that web pages are delivered
reliably and in the correct order.
File Transfer (FTP): FTP uses TCP to guarantee the correct transfer of files, handling errors and
retransmissions when necessary.
Email (SMTP/IMAP/POP over TCP): Ensures reliable communication between email servers and
clients.

Connectionless Applications:
Streaming (e.g., YouTube, Netflix): UDP or RTP (Real-time Transport Protocol) is often used
where occasional packet loss is acceptable for better performance and lower latency.
Voice over IP (VoIP): UDP is preferred for voice communication because it minimizes delay, and
slight data loss is often imperceptible to users.
DNS (Domain Name System): Uses UDP for faster queries because the overhead of establishing a
connection is unnecessary for small, simple queries.