SALVADORAN FOUNDATION FOR SOCIALPROMOTION

AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

Funsalprodese

Training Manuals
CATTLE MANAGEMENT GUIDE
GRASS CONSERVATION

SAN SALVADOR, 2000

 Cattle Management Guide

Bovine Livestock Management Guide

AT BIRTH

[Link] a preventive injection of Emicina LA to the mother (1ml for every 10 Kg of live weight). To reduce
genital tract infections and improve the reproductive efficiency of the cow.

[Link] the mucus and secretions from the calf's face and nose to facilitate breathing; massage
also the rib cage.

[Link] Emicina LA, 2 ml per calf to prevent respiratory and digestive infections.

d. Cut and disinfect the navel, which should be between 8 and 10 cm long with Vanodine to obtain a
healing and preventive effect of maggots.

[Link] the calves with tattoos or tags as soon as possible, apply Larvicidin immediately on the
wound.

f. Ensure that the calf ingests or suckles colostrum as soon as possible, always within 6 hours.
born and for at least 3 days.

GENERAL FOOD MANAGEMENT

a. While the calf is nursing, always try to maintain a regular schedule (Example: 5 AM and 5 PM)

If using milk substitute, provide at least 8% of their body weight, divided into 2 daily feeds.
Add during the first month to this supplement Neoterramicina soluble powder, 1 gram per gallon of milk or
constant substitute to avoid diarrheal problems.

c. In confined heifers (especially dairy) after 1 to 1.5 months of age, provide chopped grass.
up to 10% of its live weight, to do it gradually.

d. Provide hay after 3 weeks to 1 month of age.

e. Do not give silage before 4 months of age.

f. If concentrated feed is provided, do so after the first week of age and in quantity
equivalent to 1% of its live weight.

g. Provide sufficient water and minerals (salt and mineral pre-mixture) constantly and throughout their life.
complete).

From 1 to 2 months old

In dairy cattle, dehorning should preferably be done by burning with a cauterizer or fire at the bud.
of the corneal tissue. Apply Terramycin topical ointment or Larvicide to the burn or wound.

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From 2 to 3 months of age

a. Apply the first dose of double or triple Bacterin (black leg, malignant edema, and hemorrhagic septicemia).

From 3 to 6 months (5 months is ideal)

a. Deworm with an internal antiparasitic Banminth soluble powder, 1 g per 40 to 80 kg of live weight.
Levamisole Pfizer, 1 ml for every 16 to 20 Kg of weight.

b. Vaccinate against Brucellosis Strain XIX, only females.

From 6 to 8 months of age

a. Castration on farms where this practice is carried out, employ the best hygiene measures and
disinfect with larvicide to also prevent worm infestations.

At weaning (from 6 to 10 months of age)

a. 2nd dose of double or triple Bacterin.

b. 2nd dewormed using the same products mentioned above and in the same doses.

[Link] AD3E Pfizer deep intramuscular of 1 to 2 ml per calf.

d. Mark with the definitive iron of the farm. Apply larvicide to the burned area.

At one year old

3rd dose of double or triple Bacterin.

1st dose of vaccine against Anthrax.

c. Deworm with Banminth 1g for every 40 to 80 kg of live weight orally, Levamisole 10% Pfizer 1 ml per
every 16 to 20 kg of live weight.

d. Vitamin AD3E, 2 ml per calf, deep intramuscular.

Subsequently, each change of season

a. Deworm all livestock with Banminth soluble powder, 1 gram for every 40 to 80 kg of live weight or Levamisole.
10% Pfizer 1 ml for every 16 to 20 kg of body weight.

[Link] AD3E Pfizer, 3 to 5 ml per animal.

Annually

a. Anthrax vaccine (before the dry season). In some high incidence areas, 2 is recommended.
annual vaccinations.

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 Cattle Management Guide

NOTE: In an outbreak of black leg or anthrax do the following:

1. Treat with Emicina LA, 1 ml for every 10 kg of body weight for all clinically sick animals and
keep them isolated from others.

2. Take the temperature in the early hours or in the afternoon and treat all animals with a fever above 39.
ºC, conEmicina LA, 1 ml for every 10 kg of live weight.

3. Vaccinate healthy animals.

4. If they are confined or in a pen, move them and avoid having them excessively grouped.

PROPHYLAXIS PLAN

Age Vaccine Medication

One day old. Apply Emicina LA 2ml per
calf.
From 2 to 3 months old. First dose of double bacterin or
triple.
From 3 to 6 months of age. Vaccinate against brucellosis only First Deworming.
females.
At weaning (From 6 to 10 months of age) Second dose of double bacterin or First application of vitamin
age). triple. AD3E deep in general.
At one year old. Third dose of double bacterin or Second Deworming y
triple and first application against Second application of vitamin
Anthrax. AD3E deep.
Each change of season. Deworming in general y
application of vitamins AD3E
profound.
Annually. Vaccine against Anthrax.

ADMINISTRATION OF MEDICINES

When vaccination in animals is to be carried out, there are several routes for administering them.
among them:

1. Oral
Intramuscular
3. Intramammary
Intravenous
5. Intraperitoneal
Intraruminal
Subcutaneous

Before carrying out any type of vaccination, certain hygiene measures must be taken into account to avoid
the spread of infections from one animal to another or to prevent it at the injection site.

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Steps to follow:

Sterilization of equipment (syringes, needles, etc.) must be carried out by boiling the instruments in water.
before being used for 15 to 20 min.

2. The equipment must be protected to avoid contamination before and after use.

3. The injection site must be cleaned and disinfected using an appropriate disinfectant.

4. The needles must be disinfected between one animal and another.

The caps of the product vials must be disinfected before inserting the needle.

6. Before proceeding to fill the syringes, do not forget to read all the instructions and directions for use.
to be managed.

7. Shake all biological products well before use.

8. Use a needle to fill the syringe, leaving it in the bottle between fillings.

Using a number 14 needle will facilitate filling.

10. Eliminate the air bubbles in the syringe before using it.

HYGIENIC MEASURES

Hygienic measures are vital in the health of the company or livestock operation, as when they are not
The presence and continuity of diseases is greater.

The following are some of the most important hygiene or sanitary measures:

1. Environmental hygiene of the facilities (Ventilation, sunlight, pastures, watering troughs, feeders, etc.)

2. Disinfection of facilities.

3. Milking hygiene.

4. Acquisition of healthy animals (health certificate).

5. Quarantine of newly arrived animals.

6. Disposal of corpses by deep burial or, if not possible, they should be cremated.

7. Treatment of excreta.

8. Periodic diagnostic tests.

9. Rodent control (rats or mice).

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 Guide to Cattle Management

10. Control of vampire bats.

11. Control of internal and external parasites.

Environmental hygiene

The facilities must have good ventilation, adequate sunlight, and good drainage, thus avoiding excessive
humidity and thus the development of respiratory diseases, foot rot, etc.

The grasslands must be kept free of weeds, as well as avoid sources of contamination near or within.
the pastures.

2. Disinfection of facilities

Disinfection of facilities is necessary on a quarterly, semi-annual, or at least once a year basis.

especially when there are outbreaks of infectious diseases such as Anthrax, Brucellosis and
Leptospirosis.
Among the disinfectants that could be used are: iodine, lime, chlorine, formalin, etc.

3. Milking Hygiene

During this activity, strict hygiene measures must be practiced, such as the following:

a) Milkers must wash their hands with water and soap, trim their nails, and try to keep their clothing
the milking clean.

b) Wash and keep the floors of the facility clean before, during, and after milking.

c) Wash the udder with plenty of water and soap, then dry it with a clean cloth.

Wash and disinfect the milking utensils.

e) Those quarters with mastitis should be milked separately and the milk discarded; cows with mastitis must be milked.
finally.

f) Milking must be thorough and as quick as possible.

g) Apply a teat sealant at the end of milking.

4. Acquisition of healthy animals

When acquiring animals, they must be completely healthy. Before purchasing them, it is necessary to carry out
laboratory tests to identify diseases such as Brucellosis, Tuberculosis, Leucosis, Leptospirosis
etc., thus avoiding contaminating our herd.

5. Quarantine of newly arrived animals

All animals entering the herd must undergo a quarantine for at least two
weeks, in order to observe the possible development of a certain disease.

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6. Bury or burn the corpses

This practice is of great importance, as it helps to reduce the dissemination and perpetuation of
diseases.

7. Waste treatment

Every day, the excrement must be removed from the facility and taken to an appropriate location that is not close to
this, in order to prevent the proliferation of insects and diseases.

8. Periodic diagnostic tests

Bovine brucellosis, tuberculosis, and leucosis tests must be carried out every six months; or when herds are involved.
They are free to carry it out every year or when the technician or veterinarian considers it appropriate.

9. Rodent control

Their control is very important as they are carriers or transmitters of many diseases such as: Typhus,
Bubonic plague, Trichinosis, Poliomyelitis, and Rabies.

10. Control of internal and external parasites

a. Internal parasites: Parasitological stool examinations should be performed every three to six months, to
which samples are taken from a limited number of animals and based on the results, carry out the
corresponding treatments.

b. External parasites: Among the most common we have ticks, horsefly, deerfly and fly.

The losses are due to damage to the hides, anemia, decreased production, and transmission of others.
diseases such as anaplasmosis and babesiosis.

Livestock can be bathed with insecticides regularly every 21 days according to the reproductive cycle.
of the ticks.

Recommendations for the care of the cow before calving and after calving

Drying of the cow

Taking one birth per year as a parameter, and since lactation or milk production lasts from 9 to 10 months, it is
It is necessary to dry off the cow two months before calving, in order to provide a rest and for her to
it allows the regeneration of the mammary gland, its body reserves, and the subsequent fetal development.

Drying technique. It should start by eliminating the intake of concentrate and reducing the frequency of the
milking, which can be on alternate days, until the cow completely ceases milk production.

It is advisable to apply slow-absorption antibiotics in each quarter, via intramammary route for prevention of
mastitis.

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2. Management of the pregnant cow

Once the cow has been dried off, it should be kept in a calm environment with proper feeding.
and pastures, plenty of water, sufficient shade, the cow should be kept in the paddocks until calving.

This should be separated from the others to avoid a bump that could cause a miscarriage.

3. Care before, during, and after childbirth

The cow close to giving birth (one month before) should be given vitamin AD3E, especially when the diet is
deficient.

The cow must be kept free of endoparasites and ectoparasites.

Types of injections and suitable application sites

1. Intramuscular Injection: These are administered into the larger muscles such as the thigh and hips.
back and neck. (Before applying the injection, the area should be cleaned with alcohol or any
disinfectant.

Generally, with this type of injection, antibiotics, dewormers, and vitamins are applied. It should not
apply more than 15 cc at once, in the same location, within 24 hours.

For this type of injection, the following types of needles should be used:

∗ Cows: Caliber# 16, from 2 to 2 ½ inches long.

∗ Calves: Size# 18, from ¾ to 1 ½ inches long.

∗ Pigs: Caliber# 16, from 2 to 2 ½ inches long.

∗ Caliber# 18, from ¾ to 1 ½ inches long.

∗ Birds: Caliber# 21 - 22, from ¾ to 1 inch long.

2. Intramammary Infusions: This is a very common practice in the treatment of mastitis.

- Completely milk the quarter of the udder, wash and dry the udder, cleaning the teats and their openings.
with 70% rubbing alcohol. Wash your hands well and dry them with a clean towel.

- Insert the syringe nozzle into the nipple channel and squeeze all the contents into the room.
Remove the nozzle, grab the end of the teat with one hand using the index fingers and the thumb of the other and
I am forced to upload the content that is in the teta channel inside the room, later on.
give a gentle massage so that the medication is distributed throughout the room.

3. Intravenous injection:
This injection is the one that poses the greatest danger when applied, so it is recommended that only those who...
people with enough technical knowledge and plenty of practice. This is applied in the jugular vein the
which is located on both sides of the neck.

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 Cattle Management Guide

The needles used for this type of injection are:

∗ Cows: caliber# 14 - 16, from 2 to 2 ½ inches long.

∗ Pigs: caliber# 16 - 18, from 2 to 2 ½ inches long.

With this type of injection, large amounts of serum, antibiotic, and reconstituting agent are applied.

4. Intraperitoneal Injection: This injection is applied to the right side of the cow's body at the point
center of the triangle formed by the spine, the hip bone, and the last rib.

For this type of injection, the following needles are used:

∗ Cows: caliber# 16, from ¾ to 2 ½ inches long.

∗ Caliber# 14, from 2 to 3 inches long.

This type of injection is especially used for administering serums and antibiotics.

5. Intraruminal Injection (I.R.): This injection is applied to the left side of the cow's body, always in
the center of the triangle formed by the spine, the hip bone, and the last rib, when the needle is correct
placed, gas or liquid leaves the stomach through it.

For this type of injection, the following needles are used:

Cow: Caliber# 16, 2 to 3 inches long.

Caliber# 14, from 3 to 4 inches long

Medicines are applied to control gas (tympanism).

6. Subcutaneous: Subcutaneous injections can be applied to any part of the body where the
skin is loose or flexible, like the neck, any part of the sides, the chest, the flanks, or behind the
front legs.

The needles used for the administration of this injection are as follows:
∗ Cows: caliber# 16, from 1 to ½ inch long.
∗ Calves: caliber# 18, from 1 to ½ inch long.
∗ Pigs: caliber# 16, from 1 ½ to 2 inches long.
∗ Birds: caliber# 20, 1 inch long.

To perform the application of this injection, a fold of the skin is lifted and the injection is introduced.
the needle in this, it should be checked that the needle is in between the skin and the muscle.

With this type of injection, serums, reconstitutives, and some antibiotics are generally applied.

ZOONOTIC DISEASES IN CATTLE

CETONEMIA, KETOSIS OR HYPOGLYCEMIA

Etiology: Metabolic disease, hypoglycemia, and presence of ketone bodies.

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 Cattle Management Guide

Age at which it occurs: It can occur at any period of lactation. More frequently in cows after
from the third lactation and high production.

Main symptoms: Two main forms of the disease have been described:

1- Depressive: there is a slow but progressive loss of appetite, loss of skin elasticity, slight
constipation, depression and the cow ends up lying down, typical smell of acetone in the breath and the milk.

2- Nervous: Here the animal seems aggressive, it shows blindness, constantly ruminating or chewing.
muscle tremors, extreme nervousness, and constant mooing.

None.

Mortality (Without treatment): Low.

Prevention: Good diet particularly rich in carbohydrates or energy sources. Calcium propionate
(Mycoban, 10g/day for 6 weeks starting at childbirth or Propyl Englicol in the same dosage).

Treatment: 5% Dextrose solutions intravenously, 500 to 1000 ml every 24 hours,

Intramuscular corticosteroids (Dexamethasone, Betamethasone, etc.).

2-INFECTIOUS DIARRHEA OF NEWBORNS OR WHITE DIARRHEA

Etiology: It is a bacterial or viral disease (salmonellas, E. Coli, Rotavirus BVD)

Age at which it is presented: During the first two weeks of age.

Main symptoms: Poor absorption of food, dehydration, abdominal pain, septicemia, toxemia,
whitish stools with a very foul odor, bloody and with the presence of mucus. Blood in the stools, remnants of
feces in the tail and hind limbs, sunken eyes and dry skin.

Fever (ºC): 40 - 41 ºC. At the beginning of the infection, then there is hypothermia.

Mortality (Without treatment): It is high if timely treatment is not carried out (more than 90%).

Prevention: Hygiene, do not make abrupt changes to food, provide colostrum before 6 hours of age.
born.

Supply Neoterramicina soluble powder 1g /animal / day during the first month of life.

Administer LA (1 ml/10 kg of body weight) on the second or third day after birth.
Administer LA (1 ml/10 kg of live weight) at 12-15 days of age.
Administer LA (1 ml/10 Kg of body weight) at 21-25 days of age.

Treatment: Neoterramicina soluble powder in milk or substitute (1g/4 liters of milk for 5-7 days
consecutivos).

Emicina LA (1 ml/10 kg of body weight), repeating the dose every 5-7 days.

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3-TIMPANISM, METEORISM OR AVENTAZON

Etiology: Based on diet, which has to be very rich in fermentable carbohydrates in excessive production.
of gases. Foods with high content of saponins, pectins, and hemicelluloses.

Age at which it occurs: When they have developed the rumen. Frequently in exhibition animals.

Main symptoms: Distension of the left flank, difficulty breathing, and absence of the burp reflex.

There is no presence of fever.

Mortality (Without treatment): It is high if treatment is not administered quickly.

Prevention: Good diet, do not provide too much fermentable grass, and add surfactants to the diet.

Treatment: If the cause is esophageal obstruction, a tube or trocar should be inserted every 6 hours if it is
necessary.

If it is due to indigestion and excessive fermentation of bacteria, dilute 20 cc of Emicina in 100 to 200 cc of water and
administer orally.

3- TETANUS OR LOCKJAW

Etiology: Caused by toxic substances. Toxin of Clostridium tetani.

Age at which it occurs: It can occur at any age, there must be an entry point through wounds or
punctures.

Main symptoms: The first thing observed are muscle tremors and contractions of the muscles of the
way.

Jaw stiffness, which makes it difficult to ingest water and food.

Stiffness of all muscles, especially in the upper and lower limbs; which makes it difficult to
mobilization.

The ears are held up just like the tail. Exaggerated responses to external stimuli.

Fever (°C): 42 °C due to muscle contractions.

Mortality (Without treatment): High with more than 50%.

Prevention: Avoid sharp objects, disinfect wounds with Larvicid, using tetanus toxoid.
as an immunization program in problem areas. Antitoxins in case of contaminated wounds to give
immediate protection for about 15 days (neutering, surgeries, etc.)

Treatment: Emicina LA (1 ml/10 kg of body weight). Open and disinfect the wound. Tetanus antitoxin (150,000
units)

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 Guidelines for Cattle Management

Muscle relaxant of the phenothiazine derivative type. Keep the animal in a dark and quiet place.

5- LEPTOSPIROSIS

Etiology: It is a bacterial disease, whose name is Leptospira sp., L. Ponona, L. Australius, etc.

Age at which it appears: In calves, although in an outbreak it can spread throughout the entire cattle herd.

Main symptoms: The disease presents itself in two forms.

a) Acute: It especially affects heifers, there is fever, septicemia, anorexia (loss of appetite), depression,
hemolytic anemia, jaundice, hematuria (red urine), dyspnea (difficulty breathing) and as a consequence
low milk production.

b) Sub-acute: similar to the acute but less obvious, with a slower development. Abortion in the last third of
gestation, blood in the milk without affecting the udder.

40.5-41.0 ºC

Mortality (without treatment): 5%.

Prevention: A vaccination program with homologous bacterin to the serotypes found in sera.
Recommend a usual or semiannual dose. In case of an outbreak, a dose of Emicina LA to all pregnant cows.
ml/10 kg of live weight.

Treatment: Emicina LA, 1 ml/10 Kg of live weight.

For sick animals; in some cases, it is recommended to repeat the dose on the fourth or fifth day. Also, Emicina.
100(1 ml/ 10 Kg of live weight) for 5-7 days.

Injectable solution 1 ml/5 Kg of live weight for 5-7 days.

6- MILK FEVER, HYPOCALCEMIA OR PARALYSIS OF THE PARTURIENT

Etiology: It is a metabolic disease in which there is a decrease in calcium levels in the blood.

Age at which it occurs: Adult animals in production. There are breeds like Jersey with greater predisposition.
generally within 24-48 hours postpartum.

Main symptoms: The disease presents in three phases:

a) Tetanic excitation or hypersensitivity. There are muscle tremors in the neck and upper limbs.
lower, anorexia (loss of appetite), teeth grinding and temperature may be normal or
elevated.

b) The cow falls depressed in a self-examination position. The tetany disappears. Dry muzzle and hypothermia.
(36-38 ºC) and the pupil appears dilated.

Fever: Only in the initial phases, then hypothermia (36-38 ºC).

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 Cattle Management Guide

Mortality (without treatment): High if treatment is not established at the right time.

Prevention: Low calcium diets in prepartum. Provide a good mineral pre-mix immediately after.
during childbirth and lactation.

Treatment: Administer calcium salts intravenously, as soon as possible but injected slowly.
the longer the time taken to establish the therapy, the less successful it is.

500-1,000 ml of solution at 25-70%, in many cases it is necessary to repeat the treatment after 24 hours.

7- KERATOCONJUNCTIVITIS

Etiology: Caused by the bacteria Moraxella bovix.

Age at which it occurs: At any age, animals belonging to depigmented breeds are more
sensitive.

Main symptoms: Unilateral or bilateral conjunctivitis, constant tearing, whitish or gray opacity of the
cornea. The disease is very contagious and spreads quickly to other animals and eventually could
lose the affected eye.

There is no presence of fever.

Mortality (Without treatment): None, only the risk of losing the eye.

Prevention: Difficult, since it would involve selecting animals that have pigmentation in their eyes.

Treatment: Emicina LA, 1 ml/10 kg of live weight; in difficult cases, the treatment should be repeated after four or
Fifth day. A topical terramycin ointment can be applied twice a day for about 5-7 consecutive days.

8- GASTROINTESTINAL PARASITISM

Etiology: Caused by Nematodes: Chapertia sp., Bunostomum sp., Trichostrongylus, Cooperia, Haemonchus, etc.

Age at which it appears: During the first two years of age, although in high-producing animals and
Those subjected to high environmental pollution can exceed that age (lactating cows).

Main symptoms: Diarrhea, weight loss, rough and bristly hair, swelling of the jaw and neck.
anemia, paleness of the mucosa, atrophy in normal development, increased susceptibility to infections and decrease
of the production.

No presence of temperature.

Mortality (without treatment): It is low.

Prevention: Pasture rotation, young animals in individual pens, continuous program every three months
conBanminth, 1 gr/40-80 Kg. of live weight.

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Treatment: Banminth soluble powder (1 sachet of 5 g/200-400 kg of live weight or one sachet of 25 g/1,000-
2,000 Kg of live weight. After 15 days of deworming, administer vitamin AD3E intramuscular deep.
simultaneously 3-5 cm/adult animal or 2 cc/calf. This product can be used without any
restriction on animals in production.

9-BRUCELLOSIS, BANG'S DISEASE OR CONTAGIOUS ABORTION

Etiology: Caused by the bacteria Brucella abortus.

Age at which it occurs: Especially in sexually mature animals.

Main symptoms: Abortion (in the fifth or sixth month of gestation), retained placenta, metritis and
reduction of milk production. In males, inflammation of the testicles and infertility.

No presence.

Low.

Prevention: Effective vaccination program in females aged 5 to 6 months with strain XIX and elimination.
clinically positive animals.

Treatment: There is no specific one.

10- TUBERCULOSIS

Etiology: It is a bacterial disease caused by a Mycobacterium.

Age at which it occurs: At any age, especially in dairy cattle.

Main symptoms: Variables according to the primary focus of infection in general or weight loss.
progressive, capricious appetite, fluctuating temperature, dry skin and coat.

Variable.

Low.

Prevention: Periodic tuberculin tests for the entire herd and removal of positive animals. Good
Nutrition and hygiene through disinfection with Vanodine in facilities at a rate of 3ml/l of water.

Treatment: There is no specific one.

11- ONFALITIS OR UMBILICAL INFECTION

Etiology: It is a bacterial disease, the species that produce it are Echerichia Coli, Salmonellas,
Streptococci.

Age at which it appears: In the first days of life.

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Main symptoms: Inflammation of the navel, lethargy, fever, anorexia, inflammation of the joints,
limping, bad smell in the navel due to the presence of myiasis or maggots.

40 to 41 °C.

Mortality (without treatment): It is high if not prevented and treated in time.

Prevention: Eliminate the entry point with the routine use of navel disinfection with Larvicide.
Vanodine installations at a rate of 3 ml/l.

Treatment: Emicina LA, 1 ml for every 10 kg of body weight; every 24 hours for 3 to 5 days.

12- BLACK LEG, SYMPTOMATIC CARBON OR PALATE DISEASE

Etiology: it is a disease caused by the bacterium Clostridium Chauvoei.

Age at which it appears: frequently from 6 months to 2 years old. In some cases from the
2 months old.

Main symptoms: Lameness, muscle inflammation, depression, anorexia, fever, pain and heat in the area
injured, rapid evolution, rancid smell and cooked meat color of the muscle masses.

41 ºC

Mortality (without treatment): 90 to 100%.

Prevention: Immunization with simple, double, or triple Bacterina; which varies by region.
A possible program would be:

1st dose from 1 to 2 months of age.

2nd dose at weaning.
3rd dose at one year of age.

It is not necessary to reimmunize after 1 ½ years of age.

In outbreak cases, inject all animals with fever with Emicina L at 1 ml/10 Kg of live weight.

Treatment: difficult due to the course of the disease; apply Emicina LA, 1 ml for every 10 kg of body weight.

Emicina 100.1 ml for every 10 kg of live weight every 24 hours for 3 to 5 consecutive days.

Emicina injectable solution, 1 ml for every 5 kg of body weight every 24 hours, for 3 to 5 consecutive days.

Local treatment with disinfectants such as hydrogen peroxide in case of skin rupture.

13-MALIGNANT EDEMA, GANGRENOUS OR GASEOUS

Etiology: Caused by the bacteria Clostridium Septicum, C. Perfringens, C. Chauvoei, and C. Novyi.

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Age when it appears: at any age, it is related to contaminated wounds or injuries as a gateway to
entry.

Main symptoms: deep wounds infected with edema or infection. Frequently post-partum or as
consequence of omphalitis or castration.

41 to 42 °C.

Mortality (without treatment): approximately up to 80%.

Prevention: Immunization with simple or triple Bacterin, containing the agents that cause the disease.

Treatment: Emicina LA, 1 ml for every 10 kg of body weight in a single dose.

Emicina injectable solution, 1 ml for every 5 kg of live weight every 24 hours for 3 to 5 consecutive days.

Local therapy with drainage and hydrogen peroxide.

14-MASTITIS OR MAMITIS

Etiology: Multiple bacteria, including Streptococcus and Staphylococcus, Echerichia Coli, Salmonella, Pseudomonas,
etc.

Age at which it occurs: cows in production.

Main symptoms: they vary according to the type and severity of the disease. It presents in three
stages

Periaguda: severe inflammation of a chamber and marked systemic reaction.

Acute: severe inflammation of the fourth without systemic reaction.

Sub-acute: slight inflammation with persistent abnormality of the milk.

Recurring attacks.

Fever (°C): Subacute and Acute: 40 °C.

Acute and Chronic: normal 38.5 ºC.

(without treatment): Low.

Prevention: Hygiene, sealing of nipples with Vanodine or a suitable program using Terramycin.
mastitis at drying, periodic control, hygiene program and control in dairy farming and its personnel.

Note: solution for nipple sealing: Vanodine 150 ml and Glycerin 50 ml, distilled or boiled water 800 ml.

Acute and Periacute: Vanodine and Glycerin. One tube in the affected quarter every 24 hours for 3 to
5 consecutive days after milking and applying Emicina LA for 3 to 5 consecutive days.

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15-METRITIS OR UTERINE INFECTION

Etiology: Multiple bacteria: Brucella, Campylobacter, Trichomonas, Streptococci, Staphylococci, Protozoa,

etc.

Age at which it occurs: Sexually active animals.

Main symptoms: vulvar secretions, placental remnants, foul odor, expulsion efforts, back
arched, loss of condition, infertility, and anorexia.

40 to 41 °C.

Mortality (without treatment): it is low.

Prevention: Use of Emicina LA, 1 to 2 days before the time of delivery as a prophylactic program in doses
1 ml for every 10 kg of body weight.

Treatment: Emicina LA, 1 ml for every 10 kg of body weight by intravenous route in a single dose and administer boluses.
uterine for 3 to 5 consecutive days to recover from any infection of the genital tract.

16-ANAPLASMOSIS

Etiology: Produced by the bacteria A. Centrale and A. Marginale.

Age at which it occurs: 1 ½ years old.

Main symptoms: anorexia, anemias, yellowish mucous membranes, constipation followed by diarrhea, pallor of
mucous membranes, abortion, hirsute hair and depression.

40 to 41 °C.

Mortality (without treatment): 40 to 50%.

Prevention: the best method of preventive control of the disease will be to implement a good control program.
from ticks and other vectors (horseflies, infected needles, etc.), using residual action pesticides; it can be
use the TM-50%, add salt at a rate of 6 to 8 kg mixed with 45 kg (100 lb.) of common salt during the
critical stages to free consumption.

Treatment: Specific therapy with Emicina LA, 1 ml for every 10 kg of body weight in a single dose. In severe cases.
the treatment can be repeated for 3 to 4 days.

Eminicina 100.1 ml for every 10 kg of body weight every 24 hours for 3 to 5 consecutive days.

Apply iron as prescribed by a doctor.

17-BABESIOSIS, PIROPLASMOSIS, TEXAS FEVER OR TICK FEVER

Etiology: produced by Protozoa, B. Bigémina, B. Bovis, B. Argentina B. Sp.

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Age at which it occurs: animals frequently affected are those 6 to 8 months old.

Principales síntomas:anorexia, depresión, parálisis ruminal, baja en la producción láctea, palidez de mucosas
oculars, oral, vulva and rectum; high fever, hemoglobinuria (red urine) and alterations of the nervous system
central.
41 to 42 °C

Mortality (without treatment): 90%.

Prevention: tick control with a residual action acaricide program.

Treatment: control of ticks with tickicide at least during the season of highest incidence
the animals. Application of iron to raise hemoglobin to blood levels.

18- ANTHRAX, CARBON BACTERIA, RAY OR PLAGUE

Etiology: it is a bacterial disease, caused by the bacteria B. anthracis.

Age at which it occurs: it can occur at any age, but it is more common in animals 1 ½ years old.
of age.

Main symptoms: animals appear dead suddenly, there is fever, muscle tremors,
hemorrhage in natural orifices, bright red blood without clotting, abortion, diarrhea, edema in the neck
sternum, Pyrenees and flanks.

42 °C.

90%

Prevention: Vaccinate annually, generally starting at one year of age; 1 or 2 months before the dry season.
(November or December).

Treatment: Emicina LA, 1 ml per every 10 kg of body weight in a single dose.

Emicina 100.1 ml for every 10 kg of live weight every 24 hours for 3 to 5 consecutive days.

Emicina injectable solution, 1 ml for every 5 kg of live weight every 24 hours for 3 to 5 consecutive days.

19- HEMORRHAGIC SEPTICEMIA, DISPATCH FEVER, PNEUMONIC FEVER OR COMPLEX OF

RESPIRATORY DISEASE

Etiology: Complex virus plus bacteria plus stress.

Age at which it appears: it can appear at any age, but generally stress is one of the
factors that accelerate the disease.

Main symptoms: Aerosaculitis, nasal discharge (mucopurulent and ocular), depression, anorexia, fever,
pleural and pulmonary noises when breathing or sometimes without the need to do so.
40 to 41 ºC

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Mortality (without treatment): variable from 10 to 50%.

Prevention: permanent immunization program throughout the herd every 6 months with bacterin. In transfers.
suddenly apply a dose of Emicina LA, 1 ml for every 10 kg of body weight at the time of loading or the
stress as a preventive measure.

specific therapy with Emicina LA, for every 10 kg of body weight. Emicina 100, 1 ml for every 10 kg.
Live weight every 24 hours for 3 to 5 consecutive days. Emicina injectable solution, 1 ml for every 5 kg of weight.
I live every 24 hours for 3 to 5 consecutive days.

Estrous Cycle of Cows

It is of vital importance for all people who work with cattle to have basic knowledge.
about what it is and how the estrous cycle of a cow develops, it will be described in simple terms.
definitions and how the phases of the estrous cycle in cows occur.

ESTRUAL OR SEXUAL CYCLE

Understand the time elapsed between one estrous period and another, and it repeats if the cow does not become pregnant.
Loaded, it is suspended when the cow has become pregnant and appears in heat again 40 to 60 days later.
of calving. The average period between one estrus and the next estrus is 21 days although there may be cows that...
they are 18 days old or cows that have them at 25 days, being these normal periods. The hormone responsible for
this period is the estrogens or estrogenic which is responsible for carrying out this process, to excite
sexually to the cow so that it accepts the service of the bull or artificial insemination.

This menstrual cycle is divided into four phases and they are:

1. PROESTRO:It consists of the preparation and growth of the follicle (ovum) and lasts 3 days.
approximately.

[Link] (celo):Duration of 18 hours. It is the period of desire and acceptance of the bull, it manifests itself through
middle of the growth and maturation of the egg (follicle), it has an average duration of 18 hours and comes
repeating approximately every 21 days, influenced in this case by management and feeding.

[Link] (OVULATION)which lasts approximately 2 days.

In this phase, the rupture of the mature follicle occurs, from which an egg is released, known as
OVULATION, and this occurs 10 to 12 hours after the end of the estrus period.

[Link] (SEXUAL REST):Duration approximately 15 days. Final period of the estrous cycle.
the cow is sexually inactive, it lasts approximately 15 to 18 days. But if it occurs the
Fertilization occurs and the cow becomes pregnant; this condition of diestrus is maintained until parturition occurs.

The phase of the estrous cycle that the insemination technician is most interested in knowing is the ESTRUS, which is why they...
will study in greater detail.

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The inspiration

Also known by the following names: heat, estrus, in heat, in season, and in rut. It is of
It is very important to have full knowledge about the estrous period of the cow to make a clear diagnosis.
about what is being observed, since the success greatly depends on an EFFICIENT CONTROL OF HEAT
of the artificial inseminator, natural mating, and the prestige of the person providing the information on the farm.

The animal can experience its first heat, if well managed and fed, at 5 to 8 months of age, but if
the opposite happens, the animal can enter its first heat at 8 to 12 months of age; however, this does not
indicates that it has reached sexual maturity, that is, the animal is still developing and when it is inseminated
or the bull grabs a heifer of this age generally has problems with giving birth, does not produce quantity
sufficient milk; to go into heat again she has problems because the reproductive system is not working properly.
well developed and the heifer continues to grow.

Almost always, this type of animal remains small in height and reaches good production until the third
delivery, which is when it has reached full sexual and physiological maturity.

Modern technique recommends breeding a bull or inseminating an animal for the first time when it reaches a weight of 700.
at 800 pounds or at 18 to 24 months of age, this depends on the breed, management, feeding, environment
environment, etc., so that it has its first offspring at 27 or 33 months of age, which is the age that is best
results have been given at the national level.

SYPMTOMS OF COW HEAT

It is very important to know the symptoms of the number of cows that are in heat or ready; such as
also know how to accurately determine the right moment to serve the cows since
EFFICIENT CONTROL OF HEAT considerably increases the percentages of pregnancy and childbirth in a
exploitation.

This jealousy process takes place over an average period of 18 hours; we will divide it into two stages which are
INTERNAL and EXTERNAL, for the purpose of better understanding the signs of heat in the animal.

A) - INTERNAL PROCESS: From 0 hours to 6 hours.

This internal period is referred to as such because it is the hormonal process occurring in the cow when
is going into heat and the hormone level (estrogens) is working full time with the development of
hello.

B)- EXTERNAL PROCESS: From 7 to 18 hours.

It is the continuation of the previous process with the difference that the external behavior of can be appreciated.
the cows, the symptoms or visual manifestations mentioned earlier will be described in detail.
measure the process of heat in cows and they are as follows:

The cow seems nervous:Due to the effects of the hormone ESTROGEN, which performs the function
mainly during the cows' heat, they become nervous and this is how the first symptoms appear
EXTERNALS, the cows walk around the fences of the pastures or pens, giving the impression that
they want to skip them and are running desperate.

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2. Muge frequently:As the process advances, the cow becomes nervous, mooing quite a bit and
following other cows which also unsettles the others.

[Link] and tries to mount on other cows:The cow that is in heat licks others.
cows intertwining their heads, licking the back of the neck, smelling the vulva of other cows, urinating
frequently, it shrinks the back giving the impression that the tail joint is very high and tries to
to get on other cows, which run away and she follows them but does not let herself be mounted, but when they try.
she doesn't let herself be mounted either.

Stop eating:Because she is trying to mount other cows and due to the nervousness that the cow has, she doesn't eat.

5. Decrease in milk production:For being nervous and trying to jump to other cows or due to the effect of the
Estrogen hormone in cows reduces their milk production, and when in heat, the milk is
more yellowish, bitter and salty; if production records are kept, this drop in production will be noticeable and
The reasons for this should be investigated, it may be that the cow is in heat.

6. The vulva is inflamed, moist, and pink:As the heat period progresses, the cow becomes more
preparing to accept the male, and it is for this reason that the lips of the vulva swell, in some cows
less than in others.

The increase in size is to facilitate the penetration of the bull's penis, the same happens with the lips of the
the vulva is moistened and the pale pink color is transforming into a brighter pink; as
that increases the amount of blood in the reproductive system of the cow.

The vagina is lubricated and red:The process of heat is reaching its culmination and that is why
that the vagina is completely lubricated by the secretion of clear and transparent mucus that provides the
impression of an egg white.

The function that mucus serves in the estrus process is: internal cleaning of the reproductive system,
it emits a peculiar smell that allows the bull to detect which cow is in heat, it serves as
lubricant so that the bull's penis slides and does not suffer damage at the moment of jumping, the interior walls go
having a more intense and bright red color due to the greater amount of blood, the clitoris becomes erect and the
The outer skin becomes smoother and with fewer wrinkles.

At this point, the cow is expelling clear and transparent mucus, and the insemination technicians must
observe carefully that the mucus does not have pus stains, nor that it is of another color, if the mucus is not
It is preferable not to provide the service.

It allows other cows to [Link] surest sign of heat is allowing other cows to mount and remaining still.
calm, move the tail aside and spread the limbs, looking for a support direction to accept the bull's leap,
it is the last decisive and practical test that the cow is in heat and it is the right time to
to be able to inseminate her (18 hours).

At this moment in the heat process, the cervix is a bit swollen, and the plug is no longer present.
gelatinous and the cervical canal, the folds are open awaiting the passage of the sperm.
or in the case of artificial insemination, the passage of the catheter. The hair is spiky and messy over the
the tail splice, hindquarters, loin, and ribs are dirty with mud and have scratches on the sides, which
It indicates that other cows have been jumping on that cow.

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With all these observations, it is very difficult to make a mistake, and the insemination technician has to follow the
appropriate steps to perform insemination in a technical and efficient manner, which improves
the pregnancy rates, if the cow is not bred at this time, will appear in 21 days
again the period or the symptoms of heat.

9. Secretion of clear and transparent mucus:When 18 to 24 hours have passed after having
once the heat has started, the expulsion of clear, transparent, shiny, translucent mucus is more frequent.
abundant and it can be observed that it is wet around the tips of the hip, thighs, and tail, the same
the mucus hanging from the vulva, as time goes by we will notice that the mucus will
decreasing and appearing attached to the tail, hip, thighs, and already dry vulva; is giving us an indication that the
the sky has passed.

The cow no longer allows itself to be mounted if it doesn't run, it is smelling other ones and the cow is losing its nervousness.
the vulva will start to decrease in inflammation and the cow will begin to eat again, then moving on to the phase of
METAESTRO.

During the heat period, the ovary enlarges and the Graafian follicle (egg) reaches its maximum development.
which is accompanied by the estrogen hormone that gradually ends the estrous cycle and enters the
new period in which ovulation will occur.

OVULATION

It is the process by which one or more mature eggs detach from the ovary and this occurs by
through the hormone ESTROGEN, which occurs 10 to 12 hours after the process has ended.
sky in the cows.

In the reproductive system of the cow, the spermatozoon has a lifespan of 24 to 28 hours and begins
to mobilize until after 6 to 8 hours of having been deposited in the target of the inseminator, to this
the period is called adaptation to the environment of the cow's genital apparatus, after this adaptation
the journey begins to meet the egg through the body of the uterus and then through the uterine horn
that is more inflamed, which is where ovulation will occur.

The egg has its lifespan after having detached from the ovary, that is, after ovulation and
This lifespan is 10 to 12 hours in the reproductive system of the cow.

Fertilization or the fertilization of the egg by a single sperm occurs in the upper third of the oviduct.
Where after fertilization the implantation of the zygote begins, and in this way it starts to form.
a new calf and if the ovum is not fertilized within 21 days, the estrus will appear again in the cow; if it is
Fertilization will not appear until after childbirth (270 to 290 days of gestation).

When the cows appear with drops of blood or blood stains in the mucus they are expelling and it remains.
stuck in the tail or hip and when they are lying in the pens or pastures mucus with blood appears that means that this
the cow ovulated and that the cow was in heat one or two days earlier, we need to check the records to see if
Was that cow served or not; if it was not, note the next date to monitor the next heat.

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THE SILENT JEALOUSY

It is called that because cows do not show the external signs of heat like normal cows do, that is,
they are not mooing, a little nervous, they almost never mount on other cows; generally, the heat almost always
It goes unnoticed by the inseminators or by natural mating; for this reason, it is necessary to keep track.
day and to know each and every one of the cows, to understand the behavior of each one of them, since
these jealousies have the entire normal process, unlike the others which do not show the symptoms of
they are as clear as any normal cow.

One way to detect these cows with silent heats is through the use of bulls and steers that are used.
penis deviation so that they can detect them through smell.

TIME TO GIVEARTIFICIALINSEMINATION SERVICE TO THE COW

The exact time to serve the cow is difficult to pinpoint, but based on the symptoms we can
to get quite close to the hour or OPPORTUNE MOMENT TO INSEMINATE her, that is, it has to be at the
18 hours after starting heat; or 12 hours after noticing the external symptoms of it.
as we discussed earlier, just a reminder to the insemination technicians that they need to learn how to calculate the
duration of each heat symptom to get as close as possible to the appropriate service time.

It is worth mentioning the practical rule that says: a cow that comes into heat in the morning should be inseminated in
the last hours of the afternoon, and a cow that comes into heat in the afternoon should be inseminated early in the
tomorrow.

You need to check the control panels before serving a cow to avoid making mistakes.

False heat during pregnancy

The problem that false jealousy represents in livestock can be problematic in herd management;
since studies conducted in other countries have shown that 5% or more of cows in the herd can enter
breasts being engorged, which is neither normal nor rare; since these are hormonal issues that occur in this
periods caused by feeding, poor management, application of medications, etc. Therefore, it is necessary to review the
control panels for mounting and gestation, before inseminating a cow.

If a pregnant cow is inseminated by passing the catheter through the cervix, the cervical plug is broken and a
abortion. If a cow has a dead fetus or the fetus is dying, it may show signs of heat beforehand.
that abortion occurs.

HOW TO RECOGNIZE FALSE JEALOUSY

There are several ways to recognize when a cow has false heat, these are:

Review record tables:

We need to review the following tables:

a) Parturition charts: to know if this cow is suitable for insemination or not.

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b) Breeding record sheet: To know if you have the previous services or not and to observe if the cycles
The jealousy is normal or not; and thus be able to determine precisely in what state the cow is.

c) Control chart of estrus: Here we can observe if this cow is coming into heat or not, or if they have already
After several dates in which she was supposed to feel jealous and did not, it is necessary to note the
date when she came into heat and observe her in her estrous cycle and be able to take her for a check-up with the specialist.

1. By palpation: The hand is inserted into the rectum and the procedure is carried out as if we were going to inseminate.

we locate the cervix and if we find that it is low and a bit large and that when fixing or holding the cervix, it
feels that it has a lot of weight is because it is the FETUS.

2. Introduce Catheter: We proceed as if we were going to inseminate, we introduce the catheter through the vagina.
and we proceed to encase the neck about two to three centimeters and then we take it out and observe the
the end that we introduce and if it has a gelatinous substance at the tip it is because the cow is not in
lit and has a cervical plug in the cervix, so we can deduce that this cow is pregnant and there is no
to inseminate her.

Insemination technicians, the work of artificial insemination requires the work of the
skill, ability, and technical knowledge; in addition to knowing the reproductive system and the
functions that each of them performs, for this reason we recommend that you read this brochure and remember
the following:

1- Observe the cattle two or more times a day in order to detect the cows in heat.

Note the cows that require special attention.

3- Keep the records up to date, organized, and clean.

4- Health within the stable is essential.

5- Keep track of deliveries and possible dates, to provide timely management.

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GRASS CONSERVATION

THE SILAGE
In order for a livestock operation to have efficient production and high productivity, it is necessary to plan and
coordinate all activities related to the management and feeding of livestock, and from this
form, be carried out with the least possible change, keeping both production and reproduction stable.
from the herd.

To carry out the above, it is necessary to make a plan and an annual work calendar, in which there will be...
activities to be carried out and evaluated periodically to correct or reschedule what was not done, because when
If the work is not done on time, we will have problems that are almost always uneconomical.
correct them.

In the conservation of grasslands, we should be aware of the problems and mistakes that arose in previous years, so that
proceed to its correction and avoid negative effects on the production and productivity of the herd.

IMPORTANCE
The conservation of pastures has great economic and nutritional importance among others, as this activity
Within the livestock process, the excess production of pastures during the rainy season is utilized.
to be used in the season when there is no fodder and productive, reproductive, and
of normal growth of the replacement group and prevents the loss of body weight of the entire herd.

Another important aspect is that when we plan before the rainy season begins the calendar of
activities for the conservation of pastures to make use of natural resources, we will have lower costs of
production, that when we improvise.

ADVANTAGES OF GRASSLAND CONSERVATION

Economy: among all the known advantages, the cost factor is the most important, as it impacts everything.
production process, starting from the beginning of the process, using natural resources will be low
costs, we will have good production, reproduction and healthy animals, because it allows us better feeding
from the farm, in addition to being an abundant source of vitamins.

NUTRITIONAL VALUE OF GRASSES

With proper preservation, pastures do not lose their nutritional value; on the contrary, they can be improved and then
the same time allows us to harvest and store the grass when it reaches its maximum nutritional value and if
High-nutrition varieties are cultivated, reducing the need for supplementary foods.

Better utilization of resources

By making an appropriate scheduling for grass conservation, we can achieve greater yield of
tons of fodder per unit area; maximizing forage production during the season
of rains and in the dry season with irrigation.

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THERE IS NO LACK OF FOOD

Being a practical and low-cost process that does not require large investments to preserve the
different varieties of grasses that we have available, including the mixture of grasses and legumes, for
another part allows us to store the necessary amounts of fodder during the time of abundance.

METHODS OF PASTURE CONSERVATION

In our environment, the most commonly used methods are: SILAGE AND HAY MAKING.

THE SILAGE

What is silage?

It is a green grass preserved by a fermentation process without air, for the feeding of animals.

WHAT IS A SILO?

It is a deposit where chopped green grass is stored to undergo its fermentation process.
preserves the nutritional value of the food desired.

TYPES OF SILO

There are a wide variety of types of silos, but the ones that adapt best in the country are: Trench, Bunker, Medium.
Bunker and Montón.

Depending on the size of the herds and the time required to feed the cattle with silage, it is necessary to
make the selection; the first two are advisable for medium and large farms; the last two
for medium to small scale livestock operations.

WHAT KIND OF SILAGE DO WE NEED?

It must be made of the best possible quality so that the livestock can develop its full capacity.
genetics, it is necessary to feed it based on its nutritional requirements and for that it is necessary to resort to
grasses and legumes of high quality for their nutritional value, which must be produced on our farm.

The varieties of grasses that have been most commonly used in our country for making silage are:

GRASSES WITH SEED

H-5 and H101 corn (yellow reference, for its high content of carotenoids and vitamin A)

Centa SS-41 and S-2 sorghum, imported sorghums (Trudan, Sudan, and Grazer the miracle grass); the value is high.
nutritive value of the seeds of imported sorghum.

• Criollo Maicillo: It is not highly recommended due to its long vegetative cycle and it is affected by the photoperiod (only one
grain harvest per year.

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CUTTING OF THE MATERIAL TO BE SILAGED

This is done when the crop is at its maximum nutritional quality and it is recommended to leave it spread out.
the land of 1.5 to 2 hours after cutting so that it loses an adequate percentage of moisture and that
It facilitates the cutting of the chopping machine and the compaction of the material; the 65% humidity in the grass is what
desirable for silage in our environment; preferably, no cut material should remain for the next
journey.

Transport of the material

This work must synchronize both with the shredding of the material in the silo and with the cutting of the grass in the
place of cultivation,

CHOPPING OF THE MATERIAL TO BE SILAGED

The size of the chopped material largely depends on the moisture percentage of the forage; in the case of the
corn that is cut at 35 days after planting and sorghum at 75 days, with a period of 1.5 to 2 hours of sunlight, is
it recommends a cutting size of 3 to 6 cm. This has been proven, achieving a good process of
fermentation, easy handling for transport, and the animal consumes it in an appropriate way.

DISTRIBUTION OF THE MATERIAL IN THE SILO

When starting to deposit the material in the silo, it should be distributed evenly throughout the storage.
when layers of 40 to 50 cm high are obtained, it should be compacted to achieve a good
result, having to continuously follow the process until the silo is filled.

COMPACTION OR AERATION OF THE MATERIAL

Within the silage process, the most important activity is compaction, as it ensures that...
the aim is to eliminate all the air that is found between the material deposited in the silo and obtaining by the
a good fermentation, since it is anaerobic and therefore the quality of the process depends on it
of the silage.

USE OF ADDITIVES

Depending on the type of material we are going to use and the quality of silage to be obtained, it is determined that
class and amount of additive to be used.

When using cut grass and harvest residues, 7 to 8 gallons of molasses per ton are applied and the
The amount of water for the mixture depends on the moisture percentage of the forage; when it is green grass it
use a mix of one measure of water and one measure of molasses, but when the grass to be silaged has for the
Minimum 40 to 50% humidity, a mixture of 2 to 3 parts water and one part molasses should be made.
to raise the humidity to 65%. The forage in the case of silage from corn or sorghum with grain is not used.
no additives; in the case of legumes, 14 to 16 gallons of molasses should be added per ton.

FILLING THE SILO

The filling of the silo must be carried out with a uniform distribution of chopped material, additives, and compaction.
a consecutive manner until the total filling is complete; additionally, a notch should be made in the center and to the

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length of the silo of approximately 1.50 meters high, so that the material lowers the level by runoff
what happens during the process and in that way do not lower the edges of the silo. After each day's
it is advisable to cover the chipped material with plastic, to prevent it from losing moisture or if it rains in
At night, the humidity percentage increases; if this happens, more time will be needed for compaction.
to remove by draining the excess water percentage that affects the quality of the silage.

SILO SEALING

This stage is of great importance in the silage process, as the chopped material must be isolated and
compressed so that it does not have air entries and the lactic fermentation process can be carried out, to
that the silage does not lose its nutritional value and is of excellent quality.

The procedure is as follows:

If whole green material has been leftover, a layer of about 25 cm thick should be placed;
tip to help seal and prevent losing crushed and compacted material.
A plastic covering is placed that is well adhered, not torn, and larger than the area.
from the silo to protect it better.
c) The entire plastic is covered with a layer of soil about 30 cm thick, for complete insulation of the
silage and let it sit for about 21 days for later use.
d) To obtain absolute confidence that animals will not arrive to stand on top of the silage, it is necessary to
search with barbed wire around for protection.

FERMENTATION OR REST PROCESS

Once the ensiled material is isolated, the fermentation process begins, which consists of three stages:

1- Alcoholic fermentation
Acetic fermentation
3- Lactic fermentation

The third fermentation is the most important, as it is the one that preserves the silage and is completed in 17 days.
after sealing the silo; then comes a resting period of about 4-8 days before proceeding to its
utilization.

UNLOADING OF THE SILO

To start using silage, it is advisable to follow these steps:

1- Start uncovering the silo from one end and no more than 50 cm of the length of the silo, as it is not advisable.
having a lot of exposed surface, as the silo dries out and loses palatability.
2- Start a slice or portion from top to bottom and take only what is needed per serving.
3- Cover it immediately after removing the amount of silage to be used and in this way
proceed until reaching the floor.
4- Start another portion only after finishing the previous one.
5- Take care of plastic, as it can be used multiple times.

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USE OF SILAGE

A bovine can consume 6 to 7% of its live weight, depending on the percentage of DM in the silage.

For better utilization of silage, follow these steps:

1- Take an average weight of U/A and multiply it by the number of U/A you need to feed.
Distribute the daily portion into two or three parts to achieve greater consumption and less rejection.
3- Do not provide silage to the cows for at least two hours before milking; if you do, the milk comes out smelling of
silage fermentation; which is why people reject it for human consumption and its by-products
they come out with a stale smell and taste.

DESIRABLE CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD SILAGE

1- Pleasant characteristic smell of good fermentation (absence of fecal smell, vinegar smell or fruit)
fermented).
Good palatability.
3- Natural color of the forage (yellowish green or light brown).
4- Free from foreign substances (such as fungi and molds).
5- Of high nutritional value.

HOW TO DETERMINE MOISTURE CONTENT BY MEANS OF THE HAND TEST

To conduct this test, you need to have a little forage, make it into a ball, and grip it in your hand to squeeze it and then
release the hand, depending on the moisture content, this is how the forage ball responds and it can be deduced the
next table:

Approximate content of the

Shape of the forage ball Appreciation
humidity percentage

It maintains the shape. Quite a bit of juice. 75% and more.

It maintains its shape. Little juice. 70 – 75 %.

It separates quite a bit. There is no juice 60 – 70 %.

It separates quickly. 60% and less.

HOW TO CALCULATE SILAGE NEEDS

In order to determine the silage consumption needs of a livestock operation, it is necessary to have the
next information:

- Determine the number of days you will feed with silage.

- Reduce the number of animals in the farm to the amount of animal units (U/A).
- Determine the average live weight in pounds of a U/A.
- Determine food consumption of the animal unit in relation to the percentage of its live weight.

- Calculate total silage consumption.

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 Grass Conservation

- Calculate yield in tons of the crop per manzana.

- Determine the area in acres to be cultivated.

Example:

Determine the food needs of:

- Number of days to feed 120 days

- Amount of U/A to be fed 100 U/A
- Average body weight in pounds of U/A 800 lbs
- Food consumption U/A /day (7% of body weight) 56 Lbs
- Food Silage
- Performance 35 Tons average/ha

Funsalprodese 30