CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEWED

2.0 Introduction

The review of related literature covers the following: academic

performance, poverty, causes of poverty, effects of poverty, ways schools
can help higher institution students living in poverty. Empirical studies on
the effect of poverty on the academic performance of students were also
reviewed.

2.1 Conceptual framework

2.1.1 Academic performance

According to Shahjahan (2021), students’ academic performance is described

as the extent to which a student, teacher or institution have achieved their short
or long-term educational goals. It is the outcome of education – the extent to
which a student has learned (Adeyemi and Adeyemi, 2014). Academic
performance is the term that indicates a student’s achievement after completing
a course or subject from an institution. It measures students’ learning across
various academic subjects, which is assessed by formative and summative
assessments. It refers to the outcome of students’ efforts to attain some
educational goals (Lamas, 2015).

Academic performance of students refers to the level of achievement and

success that students attain in their educational pursuits. It is an important
metric used to evaluate students' progress and abilities in a particular academic
institution (Ahmed et al., 2019). Academic performance is often measured
through various indicators, such as grades, test scores, and overall academic
achievements. It measures the students' learning level. In this study, academic
performance is measured by the students’ cumulative grade point average.

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2.1.2 Poverty

Poverty is a state or condition in which an individual lacks the financial

resources and essentials for a certain standard of living (United Nations,
2020). According to Chen (2022), poverty refers to the state or condition
in which people or communities lack the financial resources and other
essentials for a minimum standard of living. As such, they cannot meet
their basic human needs. People and families who live in poverty may go
without proper housing, clean water, healthy food, and medical attention.
In addition, poverty refers to the lack of adequate financial resources such
that individuals, households, and entire communities do not have the
means to to acquire the basic necessities for a flourishing life. The World
Development Report (2011) summarises the various dimensions of
poverty as lack of opportunity, lack of empowerment, and lack of
security.

When evaluating poverty in statistics or economics there are two main

measures: absolute poverty which compares income against the amount
needed to meet basic personal needs, such as food, clothing, and shelter;
secondly, relative poverty measures when a person cannot meet a
minimum level of living standards, compared to others in the same time
and place (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization, 2019).

2.1.3 Causes of poverty

The causes of poverty include:

1. Inadequate food and poor or limited access to clean water:

Relocation in search of food and clean water drains limited resources
(especially in poor economies), causing the poor to get poorer as they

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 seek basic necessities for survival (Carnegie Council for Ethics in
International Affairs, 2021)
2. Inadequate, limited or poor access to healthcare: Unhealthy people
work less, are less productive and place demands on an already over-
burdened healthcare system. This cycle causes affected people to stay
poor (The World Bank, 2014).
3. Unequal distribution of resources: Disparities in the distribution of
resources causes systemic poverty while those with more resources get
wealthier and better access to services (European Anti-Poverty
Network, 2020)
4. Discrimination, inequality (racial/gender and other biases):
Individuals treated less favorably because of any kind of
discrimination, bias or prejudice get lesser access to opportunities to
get out of poverty (Myers, 2018).
5. Lack of access to education: Poorly educated individuals get limited
opportunities to succeed in a dynamic work environment. Illiteracy
fosters poverty (Myers, 2018).
6. Climate change, damage to ecosystems and environmental
degradation: Floods, droughts and storms cause food/water
shortages, aggravates basic survival and causes migrations that create
a cycle of poverty (Myers, 2018).
7. Poor governance, corruption, and poor infrastructure: This keeps
the massess locked out of opportunities, wealth and resources, and
denies them ready access to essential goods and services (Myers,
2018).
8. Debt: On a micro level, as evidenced in advanced economies, causes
poverty as more people without money/resources borrow more to
either live within or outside their financial means (Abate, 2022). On a
macro or national level (or even regional level), multilateral lending

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 institutions create unfavorable conditions or terms of debt repayment
to poorer economies, leading to greater burden of repayment that
affects the masses (Hurt, 2020).
9. Unemployment: Without money from employment, individuals and
communities suffer poverty as a direct causation (Myers, 2018).
10.Overpopulation: Overpopulation increases poverty by making many
people compete for resources like food, housing, healthcare, and jobs.
With more people competing for limited resources, many struggle to
access basic necessities. This leads to overcrowded living conditions,
fewer job opportunities, and lower wages. As a result, families face
greater difficulties in improving their quality of life, making it harder
to break the cycle of poverty (Dimick, 2014).

2.1.4 Effects of poverty

According to Eng (2023), poverty affects students’ academic

performance in the following ways:

1. Lack of access to resources: Students from low-income families

often lack the financial resources to purchase necessary school
supplies, textbooks, and other educational materials. This can put
them at a disadvantage when compared to their peers who have access
to these resources. Additionally, being financially deprived can lead to
limited access to technology and internet connectivity which affects
students’ ability to complete homework and research assignments.
2. Lack of access to quality healthcare: Students from low-income
families are more likely to suffer from chronic health conditions such
as asthma and diabetes, which impact their attendance at school and
their ability to concentrate in class. Students from low-income
families are less likely to receive preventative healthcare, such as

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 routine check-ups, which can lead to undiagnosed health problems
that can impact their academic performance.
3. Increased stress levels: Students from low-income families often face
financial instability, which creates constant worry about meeting basic
needs like food, housing, and healthcare. This heightened stress can
interfere with cognitive functions, making it difficult for them to
concentrate during lessons, absorb new information, or engage in
academic tasks. Over time, these challenges can negatively affect their
overall academic performance, resulting in lower grades.
4. Inadequate nutrition: Students from low-income families often face
food insecurity, which is the lack of access to enough nutritious food
to live a healthy life. This can cause inadequate nutrition and
malnutrition. Poor nutrition affects brain development, cognitive
functions, and energy levels, making it harder for students to focus,
retain information, and concentrate in class as hunger can cause
fatigue, weakness, and difficulty concentrating. Health issues
stemming from malnutrition can also cause increased absenteeism,
further hindering their academic progress and overall performance.
5. Limited access to educational opportunities: Poverty can impact a
student’s academic performance by limiting their access to
educational opportunities outside of the classroom. Students from low-
income families often face financial barriers that limit their
participation in extracurricular activities like sports, music, or
academic clubs. These activities provide important opportunities for
students to develop their skills, interests, creativity and build
relationships with peers and adults. Not participating in these activities
limits their exposure to experiences that could positively influence
their academic and social success.

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 6. Financial stress: Higher institution students from low-income
families often struggle with financial stress. They may not have
enough money to cover basic expenses such as tuition, housing,
textbooks, and food. Some students are forced to work part-time in
order to cater for their school needs. This can cause a great deal of
anxiety and stress which distracts their attention from their studies.
7. Mental health issues: Being financially deprived can also impact a
student’s mental health. Financial stress, food and housing insecurity,
and limited access to resources can all contribute to anxiety,
depression, and other mental health issues.

2.1.5 Ways schools can help higher institution students living in poverty

Eng (2023) listed several ways that schools can help higher institution
students who are financially deprived:

1. Financial Aid

Schools can offer comprehensive financial aid packages that include

grants, scholarships, and work-study programs tailored to the needs of
financially deprived students. These programs help reduce the
financial burden of tuition, textbooks, and supplies, allowing students
to focus on their studies without the constant stress of managing
finances. Offering emergency grants or flexible payment plans can
further ease financial pressures.

2. Housing Assistance

Some schools offer low-cost or subsidized housing options for

students who cannot afford off-campus housing. Additionally, schools
can provide resources and support for students who are homeless or
facing housing insecurity.

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 3. Academic Support
Students from low-income backgrounds may struggle academically
due to a lack of resources or support. Schools can bridge this gap by
offering free tutoring services, academic counseling, and mentorship
programs. Additional support, such as providing internet access, and
free or low-cost textbooks, can further enhance their academic
success.
4. Career Services
To help students from low-income backgrounds secure well-paying
jobs after graduation, schools can provide targeted career services,
including personalized career counseling, job search assistance, and
internship placement programs. Offering workshops on resume
writing, interview skills, and networking opportunities can further
prepare students for the competitive job market, improving their post-
graduation prospects.
5. Mental Health Services

Financial struggles can add significant stress, which may impact

students' mental health and academic performance. Schools can offer
counseling services, mental health workshops, and peer support
groups to provide a safe space for students to share their challenges.
Offering low-cost or free mental health care and stress-relief activities
can also help financially deprived students manage their emotional
well-being, enabling them to thrive academically and personally.

2.2 Empirical review

Okafor et al. (2024) aimed at ascertaining the effects of poverty on the

academic performance of undergraduates in Nwafor Orizu College of
Education, Nsugbe. Three (3) research questions and one (1) hypothesis
guided the study. The population of the study is made up of year 2, year 3

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and final year B.Ed students of Nwafor Orizu College of Education,
Nsugbe, comprising 3,394 undergraduates. Questionnaire was used to
collect data for the study. The data collected were analyzed using mean
and chi-square. Based on the analysis of the data, it was found that
poverty has significant relationship with the academic performance of
undergraduates in Nwafor Orizu College of Education, Nsugbe, Anambra
State. With view to finding out solutions to the problems in order to
improve the academic performance and wellbeing of the undergraduates,
it was recommended among others that undergraduates will be trained in
the institutions, if only the government should help in alleviating
economic poverty by providing the undergraduates with all their essential
needs both in terms of social, political and economic ways which will go
a long way in developing the man power and state at large. Provision of
the necessary materials needed by the undergraduates will help in the
development of the state.

Uzma et al. (2023) explored the impact of poverty on students' academic

performance, focusing on two universities in Azad Jammu and Kashmir.
The research targeted students at the BS level in these institutions,
employing a causal-comparative design. Six hundred students were
chosen through a simple random sampling technique. The study used a
standard instrument utilizing a five-point Likert scale. The Pearson
correlation was used to explore the relationship between variables, while
simple linear regression was used to assess the impact of poverty on
academic performance. The results indicate a robust and statistically
significant negative correlation between poverty and academic
performance. The linear regression outcomes also reveal that poverty
adversely affects students' academic performance. In summary, the
findings suggest a conclusive relationship wherein an increase in poverty
levels corresponds to a decrease in students' academic performance, and
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conversely, a reduction in poverty levels is associated with an
improvement in academic performance. Amongst others, it was
recommended that Universities should offer students accessible or
affordable services, including food banks, financial counselling, housing
support, and healthcare services with bulk-billing options.

Samuel and Nweke (2020) examined the effect of poverty on the

academic performance of female senior secondary school students in
Shongom Local Government Area, Gombe State. The study adopted a
descriptive survey design. Three research question and three null
hypotheses were used for the study. The population of the study
comprised all female senior secondary school students in Shongom Local
Government Area of Gombe State. Sample for the study was 87
respondents using simple random sampling techniques. The instrument
used for data collection was structured questionnaire. Mean score and
standard deviation were used to analysis the research questions. The
findings of the study revealed that negative correlation between poverty
and student's academic performance also the research found that poverty
significantly affects students' academic performance. Based on the
findings of the study, it was recommended among others that government
should formulate policies such as scholarship for students from low
socio-economic status and soft loans for the parents to enable such
students to have equal opportunity to education as children from high
socio-economic status.