HUMAN REPRODUCTION

REPRODUCTION
Reproduction is the biological process by which new organisms are
produced to ensure the perpetuation of the species. There are 2 main
reproductive methods:
❏ Asexual
❏ Sexual
MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
PARTS OF THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
 SEMINAL FLUID
Semen is a thick white fluid that contains less than 5% sperm.

❏ Fructose provides sperm with energy to swim towards the ovum.

❏ The mucous fluid lubricates the urethra during copulation.
❏ The alkalinity of semen increases the motility of sperm. It also
neutralizes the acids in the male urethra and in vaginal secretions.
 GAMETOGENESIS
Gametogenesis is the process by which diploid cells undergo meiotic
division to become haploid gametes (sex cells)

❏ In males, this process is called

spermatogenesis and
produce spermatozoa
(sperm).

❏ In females, this process is

called oogenesis and produce
ova (eggs)
 TESTIS
The hypothalamus secretes
gonadotropin-releasing hormone
(GnRH) which stimulates the pituitary
gland to release:

❏ Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)

❏ Luteinizing hormone (LH).

In each testis, seminiferous tubules (the

site of spermatogenesis) are tightly
coiled and have a large area
 SPERM PRODUCTION
❏ FSH initiates spermatogenesis and activates Sertoli cells to release
nourishment for developing sperm.
❏ LH stimulates testosterone production.
❏ Testosterone completes spermatogenesis, stimulating the formation
of mature sperm.

Spermatogenesis is a
continuous process, beginning
at puberty and ending at death.

Sperm production can

decrease with age
 SPERM STRUCTURE
Sperm cells are organized into a head, middle piece, and tail.
❏ The head contains the haploid nucleus, which protects the genetic
material.
❏ The acrosome contains hydrolytic enzymes that digest the membranes
around the ovum.
❏ The middle piece is densely packed with mitochondria, which provides the
energy for the sperm to swim.
❏ The tail is a flagellum that
rotates counterclockwise,
enabling movement of the
sperm.
 EFFECTS OF TESTOSTERONE
Testosterone also causes the development of secondary sexual
characteristics in males at the start of puberty. Male secondary sexual
characteristics include:
❏ Tall height
❏ Broad shoulders
❏ A deep voice due to a
large larynx and long
vocal cords
❏ Muscular development.
❏ Extensive facial and
body hair
❏ Receding hairline.
SECONDARY SEXUAL CHARACTERISTICS
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
PARTS OF THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
 OVARIAN CYCLE
At puberty, a woman has 300,000 – 400,000 immature ova. Only about 450
immature ova will mature in a woman’s lifetime, in the ovarian cycle.

This cycle lasts roughly 28 days and consists of 3 phases:

❏ Follicular phase (Days 1 – 13)

❏ Ovulation (Day 14)
❏ Luteal phase (Days 15 – 28)

Primary follicle: An immature ovum, surrounded by a layer of cells.

 OVARIAN CYCLE
In the follicular phase, follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), released from
the pituitary gland, stimulates the primary follicles to develop into a
Graafian follicle and for the ovum to mature.

The Graafian follicle produces oestrogen, which inhibits the secretion of

FSH, preventing multiple primary follicles from developing.

Oestrogen stimulates the

pituitary gland to release
luteinizing hormone (LH)
 OVARIAN CYCLE
On Day 14, a surge of LH causes ovulation, and the mature ovum is
released from the Graafian follicle into the oviduct.

In the luteal phase, the mass of cells surrounding the ovum forms the
corpus luteum, which secretes progesterone. Oestrogen levels drop
slightly, while FSH and LH drop significantly.
If the ovum is not fertilized, the
corpus luteum degenerates, and
the progesterone levels decrease.

The FSH levels increase at the end

to repeat the cycle.
 OVUM STRUCTURE
❏ Corona radiata: Follicular cells that
provide support and nourishment
to the ovum.
❏ Zona pellucida: A jelly coat which
acts as a barrier to sperm entry

❏ Cortical granules: Prevent

polyspermy upon fertilisation

The ovum contains all cell organelles

(mitochondria, ER, ribosomes, etc.)
unlike the sperm cell
 EFFECTS OF ESTROGEN
Oestrogen is the main sex hormone responsible for the development of
secondary sexual characteristics in women, which include:

❏ A rounded appearance due to

high fat accumulation under
the skin
❏ A large pelvic girdle (wide hips)
❏ Breast development
❏ Growth of hair on the head and
pubic areas
❏ High pitched voice
SECONDARY SEXUAL CHARACTERISTICS
SPERM VS OVUM
 THE
MENSTRUAL
CYCLE
 MENSTRUAL CYCLE
The menstrual cycle describes recurring changes that occur within the
female reproductive system to prepare for pregnancy. The average
menstrual cycle lasts 28 days but can range from 21 to 35 days. This cycle
comprises two main events:

❏ Menstruation: The loss of the uterus lining from the body

❏ Ovulation: The release of an ovum from an ovary.
 MENSTRUAL CYCLE HORMONES
❏ Pituitary hormones act on the ovaries, causing them to develop
follicles
❏ Ovarian hormones act on the uterus, preparing it for pregnancy
 MENSTRUAL CYCLE
Days 1 – 5: The menstrual cycle starts with menstruation, lasting for 5 days.
The endometrium breaks down and flows out of the body. The body may
release prostaglandins, causing cramps.

Prostaglandins are a group of lipids made at the sites of tissue damage that control
inflammation, blood flow, and the formation of blood clots.
 MENSTRUAL CYCLE
Days 6 – 13: FSH develops the Graafian follicle, which secretes oestrogen.

Oestrogen repairs the endometrium, making it thicker.

 MENSTRUAL CYCLE
Day 14: The endometrium has thickened considerably and has an
increased blood supply. Ovulation occurs, releasing an ovum as there is a
peak in LH

After ovulation, estrogen levels drop temporarily

 MENSTRUAL CYCLE
Days 15 – 28: The Graafian follicle develops into the corpus luteum, which
secretes progesterone.

Progesterone is responsible for the continued development and

maintenance of the endometrium, preparing it for implantation. The
endometrium lining is the thickest.

Progesterone
inhibits the release
of FSH and LH.
 MENSTRUAL CYCLE
If the ovum is not fertilized, it is passed out during menstruation.

The corpus luteum degenerates, and the level of progesterone and

estrogen decreases.

This causes the endometrium to disintegrate and flow out of the uterus in
menstruation, starting the cycle again.
 MENSTRUAL
CYCLE EVENTS
Day 12 – 15: Nearing
ovulation, the woman will
be most fertile—this is the
best (or worst!) time to try
for pregnancy
MENSTRUAL
CYCLE
 MENOPAUSE
❏ At 45 to 50 years old, menopause is the end of fertility in a female.

❏ At menopause, menstruation ceases, and there is a decline in the

production of estrogen by the ovaries.
Which diagram
matches the hormones
with their functions for
pregnancy?
 CANCERS OF THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Cancer is a disease resulting from abnormal cells dividing uncontrollably
to produce a tumor (lump).
 CANCERS OF THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Metastasis is the spreading of cancer to other parts of the body.

Cancer can be treated by surgery to remove the tumor or the entire

organ containing the tumor, radiotherapy, or chemotherapy.
 COPULATION & EJACULATION
Copulation, or sexual intercourse, brings the gametes close together.

During ejaculation, the epididymis contracts to excrete the semen into the
top of the vagina.

Millions of sperm swim through the

cervix and uterus and into the
fallopian tubes.
 FERTILIZATION
Fertilization occurs in the oviduct, where a sperm and an ovum fuse to
form a single cell called a zygote.

A fertilization membrane immediately develops

around the ovum to prevent other sperm from
entering.

The zygote is a stem cell, which can

differentiate into any type of human
cell.
 IMPLANTATION
The zygote divides repeatedly by mitosis using yolk stored in the original
ovum as a source of nourishment. This forms a ball of unspecialized cells
called a blastocyst after 5-6 days, which moves into the uterus.

Implantation occurs when the

blastocyst sinks into the uterus
lining.

The cells continue to divide by

mitosis and start to differentiate
to form an embryo.
 IMPLANTATION
❏ After implantation, the endometrial lining secretes human chorionic
gonadotropin (hCG) to maintain the corpus luteum and inhibit FSH
and LH production.
❏ Pregnancy tests detect the presence of hCG.
❏ At the beginning of pregnancy, oestrogen levels remain low to prevent
ovulation from occurring again.
 EMBRYO DEVELOPMENT

The gestation period (pregnancy) lasts for 40 weeks, or 280 days, from
the first day of the last menstrual cycle.
 PLACENTA
At week 4, the placenta begins to form from the endometrium and the
embryonic tissue. The umbilical cord connects the embryo and the
placenta. The placenta has many functions.
 FUNCTIONS OF THE PLACENTA
● Provides nutrients and oxygen for the embryo.
● Removes waste materials such as urea and carbon dioxide.
● Allows protective antibodies to diffuse from maternal blood into
embryonic blood.
● Provides a barrier preventing maternal blood and embryonic blood
from mixing.
○ Maternal blood has a much higher blood pressure.
○ Embryo may have a different blood group.
● Produces progesterone which maintains the endometrium during
pregnancy (the corpus luteum degenerates at week 12).
 AMNION
The amnion is a thin, tough membrane enclosing the embryo. The
amniotic sac separates the fetus from the mother, acting as a barrier
against infection. The amniotic fluid:

❏ Absorbs pressure, protecting the

fetus from physical injury.
❏ Creates buoyancy, allowing the
fetus to move freely during
development.
❏ Prevents the dehydration of fetal
tissues.

❏ Lubricate the vagina during birth to

reduce friction.
 IDENTICAL
TWINS
Identical twins are genetically
identical, and they are the same sex.

They can develop in three different

ways from one zygote; they are
monozygotic
 FRATERNAL TWINS
Sometimes 2 ova are released, which can
both be fertilized to form two zygotes; they
are dizygotic.

Fraternal twins can be the same or opposite

sex, and they are genetically different from
each other.
 PRENATAL CARE
Prenatal (antenatal) care ensures the fetus grows and develops normally
and that the mother remains healthy throughout her pregnancy. This
includes:

❏ Regular prenatal checkups to monitor her health and the

development of her baby
❏ Regular prenatal classes, which teach correct exercises and
breathing rhythms as well as how to care for her baby after the birth.
❏ A balanced diet.
❏ Avoiding drug use
❏ Regular exercise
 ANTENATAL CLINICS
At antenatal checkups, the mother will be asked about her medical record,
general health and personal circumstances.

❏ Her weight, blood pressure and red blood cell count will be measured.
❏ An internal examination of her vagina and cervix to see that she has no
infections.
❏ STI/HIV testing
❏ Ultrasound scans to detect any physical abnormalities and determine
the sex of the baby.
❏ Genetic abnormalities can be determined from the placenta or
amniotic fluid.
 NUTRITION ON PREGNANCY
The mother’s nutrition is vital for the baby’s development. Extra calories
are needed as the mother’s metabolism is increased.

❏ Folic acid – Development of the baby’s nervous system. Spina bifida

develops due to low folic acid (folate).
❏ Protein – Growth of all foetal tissues.
❏ Iron (Fe2+/Fe3+) – Use to manufacture
the fetus’s haemoglobin.
❏ Calcium (Ca2+) – Teeth and bone
development.
 DRUGS ON PREGNANCY
Harmful chemicals found in cigarettes, alcohol, and some
illicit drugs can cross the placenta and damage fetal
developing organs.

Fetal alcohol syndrome can occur if a

mother consumes alcohol during pregnancy.
Symptoms include:

❏ Mental retardation
❏ Growth defects
❏ Abnormal facial features

❏ Central nervous system defects.

 DRUGS ON PREGNANCY
Nicotine from cigarettes can constrict blood vessel, reducing the amount if
nutrients the fetus receives, leading to growth retardation.

Carbon monoxide (CO) has a greater affinity for haemoglobin than oxygen,
leading to a lower rate of respiration in the mother. As a result, there is less
oxygen for the foetus, causing reducing growth.
 CHILDBIRTH
❏ Parturition is the act of giving birth and is controlled by hormones.
❏ By the end of pregnancy, the baby normally lies in the womb with its head
pushing on the mother’s cervix.
❏ This is considered the ideal position to give birth, as the bones in the baby’s
head are in the correct position to enable it to squeeze through the birth
canal.
 CHILDBIRTH
❏ As the baby lies head down on the cervix, this inhibits the secretion of
progesterone by the placenta and stimulates the pituitary gland to secrete
oxytocin.
❏ The cervix gradually dilates enough for the baby’s head to pass through.
❏ Oxytocin causes contractions, which break the amnion sac, releasing the
amniotic fluid.
 CHILDBIRTH
❏ Further contractions push the baby along the birth canal. This releases
more oxytocin, which causes stronger contractions.
❏ Eventually the entire baby is delivered, and the umbilical cord is clamped
and cut.
❏ The placenta is then expelled as the afterbirth by further contractions of
the uterus wall.
 POSTNATAL CARE
Postnatal care ensures the fetus grows and develops normally and that
the mother remains physically and emotionally healthy after childbirth.
This includes:

❏ Breastfeeding for a minimum of 6 months, which can create an

emotional bond between the mother and baby.
 BREAST FEEDING
❏ After birth, prolactin stimulates the mammary glands to produce
breast milk, which contains appropriate proportions of sugar, fat, and
protein suitable for a young human baby.
❏ The balance of the constituents in breast milk changes over time,
varying the needs of the child.
❏ The mother’s diet should be rich in foods that will provide the energy,
proteins, vitamins, and minerals necessary for healthy growth and
development of the infant.
 BREAST FEEDING
❏ Breast milk is sterile, at the right temperature, and rich in antibodies to
protect the newborn from some pathogens.
❏ Breastfeeding also prevents any
infection that can occur when
bottle feeding is caused by the
use of unclean bottles or unclean
water.
 FAMILY PLANNING
Family planning is making decisions about the number and timing of
children in a family. It is important as:
❏ More time can be devoted to each child
❏ It is less expensive to have a smaller family.
❏ There may not be any suitable housing available for a family.
❏ It decreases health risks to women and maternal deaths caused by
unintended pregnancies and unsafe abortions.
❏ It enables parents to decide at what age they wish to have a family
(women can complete their education, advance in the workplace and
participate in society before having a family)
 CONTRACEPTION
Contraceptives hinder conception by preventing fertilization, ovulation or
implantation. Only abstinence and the condom protect against the spread
of sexually transmitted infections (STIs).
Contraceptives reduce population growth, which helps to maintain a
healthy, productive environment without shortages.
NATURAL
METHODS
BARRIER METHODS
 CONDOM &
DIAPHRAGM TYPES
Latex may cause an allergic reaction.
 SURGICAL METHODS
Surgical contraceptive methods are 100% effective and irreversible.

❏ Vasectomy – The sperm ducts are surgically cut and tied off,
preventing sperm from leaving the body.
❏ Tubectomy (tubal ligation) – The fallopian tubes are surgically cut and
tied off, preventing ova from entering the uterus.
VASECTOMY VS TUBECTOMY
 CHEMICAL METHODS
❏ Spermicides are cream, jellies or foams, inserted into the vagina, that
kill sperm.
❏ While spermicides are readily available and easy to use, they may
cause irritation or an allergic reaction.
❏ They are not 100% reliable if used alone and should be used with a
condom or diaphragm
 HORMONAL METHODS
Some hormonal contraceptives contain only progestogen (an artificial
form of progesterone), while others contain both oestrogen and
progestogen.

Contraceptive pills are very reliable; however, if one pill is missed, its
effectiveness is reduced significantly.

The use of hormonal pills may

lead to lighter, shorter, and less
painful menstruation.

Potential side effects include

nausea, weight gain, increased
blood pressure, and cervical
cancer.
HORMONAL METHODS

Oestrogen and progestogen inhibit

FSH release, which prevents ovulation

Consistently low progesterone levels

thin the uterus lining, which reduces
the chances of implantation

The cervical mucus is thickened,

which prevents fertilization as it
reduces the mobility of sperm.
 INTRAUTERINE DEVICE
The intrauterine device (IUD) is a small, T-shaped piece of plastic that is
inserted into the uterus.

❏ This device is very reliable once fitted correctly, and it creates little to no
side effects.
❏ The IUD must be inserted by a medical practitioner, and it may cause
menstruation to be heavier, longer, and more painful.

The IUD can be fitted within 5 days or

less after unprotected sex.
 INTRAUTERINE DEVICE
There are two types of intrauterine devices: the copper IUD and the
hormonal IUD.

❏ The copper IUD releases copper ions,

which reduce the mobility of sperm and
make implantation more difficult.
❏ The hormonal IUD contains
progesterone, which reduces
fertilization, ovulation, and
implantation.
 ABORTION
Abortion is the termination of a pregnancy by the removal of an embryo
or foetus from the uterus. It can occur spontaneously (miscarriage) or it
can be induced.

Abortion is a very controversial topic and is illegal in many parts of the

world.
 SPONTANEOUS ABORTION
A miscarriage can occur for various reasons:

❏ The foetus has a chromosomal abnormality.

❏ The mother has a uterine abnormality that prevents implantation, or
she has a weak cervix that cannot hold the foetus as it grows.
❏ Medical conditions, such as diabetes and thyroid disease, can make
conditions in the uterus difficult for the embryo to survive.
❏ The mother has an immune system disorder, causing the foetus not
to be accepted by her body.
❏ The mother smokes very heavily, drinks too much alcohol or
overdoses on illegal drugs during pregnancy.
 INDUCED ABORTION
Abortions can be induced by the mother taking an abortion pill or
undergoing a surgical procedure.

❏ Misoprostol causes contractions of the uterus, and it is also used

together with mifepristone, which blocks the action of progesterone.

❏ Surgical abortion involves

the removal of the embryo
by either suction (in the
early stages) or scraping.
 ARGUMENTS FOR INDUCED ABORTION
❏ The health of the mother or the fetus is at risk.
❏ The foetus has a severe genetic abnormality, which would adversely
affect their quality of life (and other family members)
❏ The pregnancy is a result of sexual assault, and giving birth could be a
constant reminder of the traumatic event.

❏ If the parents are unable to support a child,

abortions prevent unwanted children from
being brought into the world.
 ARGUMENTS AGAINST INDUCED ABORTION
❏ They can be used as a form of contraception and lead to
irresponsible behavior.
❏ They can give rise to infections, and can lead to infertility if carried
out illegally by unqualified persons (backstreet abortions).
❏ They can have a serious impact on a woman’s mental state, causing
depression and other psychological problems.
❏ They are considered to be murder by persons who believe that life
begins at conception; many religions believe that abortion is morally
wrong.
THE END : )