Coastal Opportunities

 There are many opportunities that the coast can bring:

 Development including:

o Homes

o Shops

o Hotels

o Roads

o Schools

o Restaurants etc.

 Nature reserves

 Swimming and sports

 Industry

 Fishing and aquaculture

 Tourism

 Agriculture

 Ports and harbours

Coastal Hazards

 Coastal hazards can be either natural or human-induced

 Natural hazards include storms, flooding and tsunamis

 Human actions create consequences and impacts

Urbanisation and transport

 Consequences

o Changing how land is used (for ports, harbours, and airports); traffic on roads,
trains, and the air; and taking water from the ground.

o Getting rid of pollution and waste

 Impacts

o Damage to the environment and loss of species, visual and water pollution,
saltwater ingress, health risks, and introduction of invasive species

Agriculture
  Consequences

o Reclaiming land, overuse of fertilisers and pesticides, animal numbers, water

abstraction

 Impacts

o Loss of ecosystems and species, coastal squeeze, water pollution,

eutrophication and river channelisation

Fisheries and aquaculture

 Consequences

o Ports and harbours construction, fish processing, fishing tackle, fish farm
waste, shrimp farming

 Impacts

o Overfishing, knock-on effects on other species, water and beach pollution,

invasive alien species, habitat damage and changes in marine communities

Industry

 Consequences

o Land use changes, power stations, of natural resource extraction, waste

processing, cooling water; windmills; river dams, weirs and barriers; tidal
barrages

 Impacts

o Loss of habitats and species diversity; water pollution; eutrophication; heat

and visual pollution; decreased input of fresh water and sediment to coastal
zones; coastal erosion

Tourism and recreation

 Consequences

o Development and land use changes, such as: golf courses; road, rail and air
congestion; ports, harbours and marinas; water abstraction; wastewater and
waste disposal; boat tours and water activities (snorkelling, skiing, surfing,
etc.)

 Impacts

o Loss of habitats and species diversity; disturbance of habitats, migration

patterns, and landforms; visual pollution; lowering of water table; saltwater
ingress in aquifers; water pollution; eutrophication; human health risks
Examiner Tips and Tricks

Remember that if you are asked to draw on a case study, you must name and locate the
place and also use place names to locate specific features.

Natural coastal hazards

 Coastal hazards arise from several factors:

o Storm surges are extremely low-pressure storms (like tropical storms), which
cause a rapid rise in sea level

o Storm tides occur when there is a combination of high tide and low-pressure
storm

o Tsunamis are large sea waves due to underwater earthquakes. The closer to
the coast, the bigger the impact

o King tides

o Sea level rise due to global warming

o High river discharge after a storm: when combined with a spring tide, water
in the estuary cannot discharge into the sea, causing a backflow of water and
flooding

 Any number of these hazards can bring coastal flooding

 Although MEDCs have the largest costs, emerging countries experience the greatest
effects

Tropical storms

 Hurricanes, typhoons and cyclones are all types of tropical storms; the only
difference is where they form

o Hurricanes form in the tropical North Atlantic Ocean and Northeast Pacific

o Typhoons form in the Northwest Pacific Ocean

o Cyclones form in the South Pacific and Indian Ocean

Global distribution of tropical storms

 In the northern hemisphere, they form between May and November

 Between October and May in the southern hemisphere

 A tropical storm can destroy coastal areas and kill people and the effects are worse in
LEDCs due to a lack of economic funds

 Other impacts are:

o Destruction of buildings and infrastructure

o Heavy rainfall and storm surges

o Loss of ecosystems, trees, land, crops and animals

o Ships are wrecked at sea and sunk

o Power and communications are lost

o Costs can run into the millions, and the effects are greatest in heavily
populated areas

 Managing tropical storms is difficult but some of the ways to reduce the risks are:

o Sea walls and artificial levees to prevent flooding

o Evacuation plans for the population

o Satellite tracking and early warning systems

o Build homes and buildings to withstand strong winds

 o Raise homes above storm surge levels and have strong shutters on windows

o Emergency supplies and shelters

o Have storm insurance

Changing sea levels

 Rising sea levels produce submergent coastlines, with rias and fjords

 Falling sea levels produce emergent coastlines with relic features such as raised
beaches, cliffs with caves, arches, etc.

 Sea levels have risen and fallen many times in the past

 During the last Ice Age, sea levels fell as the water was locked up in glaciers and ice
sheets, rising again as the ice melted

 Sea levels are linked to global warming and will have a significant effect on many low-
lying coasts and islands

 Rising sea levels put many Pacific Ocean islands, including Kiribati and Tuvalu, in
danger of total submersion

 This issue is made worse as many of the world's densely populated areas are located
on coastal lowlands

 New York and Miami in the US are major cities vulnerable to sea-level rise as the
cities are built at sea level

Influence of geology

 Geology shapes the coastline over time, place and space

 Sands and clays, which are softer rocks, will easily erode by destructive waves to
create low, flat landscapes like bays and beaches

 Coastlines of more resistant, harder rock will take longer to erode and produce
rugged landscapes such as headlands

 The differences between hard and soft rocks will also impact the shape and
characteristics of cliffs

Shape of cliff

 Hard rock cliffs are high and steep

 Soft rock cliffs are generally lower and less steep

Cliff face

 Hard rock cliff faces are bare and rugged

  Soft rock cliff faces are smoother with evidence of slumping

Foot of cliff

 Boulders and rocks are found along hard rock cliff bases

 The base of soft rock cliffs have few rocks and some sand and mud

Erosion

 Coastal erosion is global, but geology has the greatest impact locally

 Limestone, sandstone, and boulder clay beaches erode faster than granite coastlines

 Waves and longshore drift remove sand from beaches and expose cliff bases to high-
energy destructive processes

 Using groynes to limit longshore drift depletes material elsewhere and creates
shallow beaches, which increases coastal erosion

 Coastal erosion is a threat to many islands, endangering residents and visitors

 Tourist and coastal developments accelerate erosion and damage mangroves, coral
reefs, sand dunes, and salt marshes

Worked Example

Study Fig. 2a. Suggest two ways changes in sea level have created coastal landforms

[4 marks]

Solution
  The figure shows that sea level has decreased, which has created an emergent
coastline with a relic cliff and raised beach. Over time, the raised beach has become
vegetated [2 marks].

 Wave action from previous sea levels has eroded the relic cliff to expose a wave-cut
notch, showing that sea levels used to be higher than the present. This has led to a
relic cliff and sea cave, which is shown further back than the current cliff face in the
figure [2 marks].

Marking guidance

 The answer above is just one example of a response to this question.

Mark allocation

 2 marks for identifying each feature.

 2 marks for the development of the feature due to changes in sea levels.

 2 marks max if answers do not refer to the figure.

 The command is 'suggest' and answers should show how changes in sea level have
created coastal landforms.

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