• Microprocessor is a controlling unit of a micro-
computer, fabricated on a small chip capable
of performing ALU (Arithmetic Logical Unit)
operations and communicating with the other
devices connected to it.
Program controlled semiconductor device (IC)
which fetches (from memory), decodes and
executes instructions.
It is used as CPU (Central Processing Unit) in
computers.
Why called microprocessor ?
• When semiconductor technology reached the level of
integration that the CPU of a computer could be
implemented on a single-chip, then these computers
were called microcomputers (in the sequence of
"computer", "minicomputer", "microcomputer"). This
single chip CPU was called "microprocessor" , i.e. the
processor of microcomputer.
• Another reason for the name ‘Microprocessor’ comes
on the basis of its processing speed. For example,
consider 8085 microprocessor , it's operating
frequency is 3MHz, so naturally it's time period will be
1/T, which comes in microseconds.
Basic computer organization
• Though the size, shape, performance, reliability and
cost of computers have been changing, the logical
structure (based on stored program concept) as
proposed by Von Neumann, has not changed.
• The major units of a computer system are:
– 1) Input Unit
– 2) Output Unit
– 3) Storage Unit
– 4) Central Processing Unit (CPU)
Basic organization of a computer system
Storage Unit
Secondary Storage
Program Output Information
Input
and Unit (Results)
Unit
Data
Primary Storage
Control Unit
Indicates flow of
Instructions and
data
Arithmetic
Indicates the
Logic Unit
control exercised
Central Processing Unit (CPU) by the control unit
Harvard architecture (1939)
Von Neumann Architecture
(1945)(more popular than harvard)
Difference between a von Neumann
architecture and a Harvard
architecture
• Harvard architecture has separate data and instruction
busses, allowing transfers to be performed simultaneously on
both busses. A von Neumann architecture has only one bus
which is used for both data transfers and instruction fetches,
and therefore data transfers and instruction fetches must be
scheduled - they can not be performed at the same time.
• Using a simple, unified memory system together with a
Harvard architecture is highly inefficient. Unless it is possible
to feed data into both buses (address and data) at the same
time, it might be better to use a von Neumann architecture
processor.
Computer Bus System
• The key elements of a stored-program computer
system are connected to each other by a bus.
• A bus consists of a set of wires carrying address,
data and control information. The computer bus
may be divided into three sub-categories as
following:
– A) Address bus
– B) Data bus
– C) Control bus
Computer Bus System (cont.)
Address Bus
CPU Memory I/O
Control Bus
Data Bus
Fig: Configuration of bus system in a computer
Computer Bus System (cont.)
• Address Bus:
– It is also called system bus.
– The content of an address bus specify the address of
the memory cell or the I/O devices with which the
processor wishes to communicate
– Since the address information always generates from
the processor, so address bus is unidirectional
– The size of the bus varies from 16 to 32 bits.
– With the 32-bit address bus, CPU can access over 232
different address locations
Computer Bus System (cont.)
• Data Bus:
– It is also called memory bus
– The data between the processor and external unit
is transferred via the data bus
– The data bus bidirectional by nature
– The size of the data bus typically lies in the range
from 8 to 32 bits.
Computer Bus System (cont.)
• Control Bus:
– It is also called timing control bus.
– The control bus carries necessary commands and
other signals
– These commands and signals are primarily used to
synchronize the I/O activities.
Microprocessor Fifth Generation Pentium
Fourth Generation
During 1980s
Low power version of HMOS technology
(HCMOS)
Third Generation 32 bit processors
During 1978 Supports increased number of addressing
HMOS technology Faster speed, Higher modes
packing density
16 bit processors 40/ 48/ 64 pins Intel 80386
Easier to program
More powerful interrupt handling
capabilities
Intel 8086 (16 bit processor)
Second Generation
During 1973
NMOS technology Faster speed, Higher
density, Compatible with TTL
4 / 8/ 16 bit processors 40 pins
First Generation Better interrupt handling capabilities
Between 1971 – 1973
PMOS technology, non compatible with TTL Intel 8085 (8 bit processor)
4 bit processors 16 pins
8 and 16 bit processors 40 pins
Due to limitations of pins, signals are
13
multiplexed
