MODULE II.

The Philippines Society in Transition

PRE- SPANISH PERIOD

Prior to the arrivals of the Spaniards, the early Filipinos had already developed their own unique
culture, beliefs, practices and civilization. Today, some of these beliefs and practices are still being observed
by some Filipinos.

SOCIAL CLASSES

The rest of Philippine society was divided into three classes:

The nobles, the freemen, and the dependents. Stratification of these social classes was not absolute, for
there existed no caste system. A noble could fall to the level of slavery, while a slave could rise to freedom.
In other words, there was a high level of social mobility in early Philippine society.

A. The Noble- consisting of chief and their families, enjoyed great political and social rights in the
barangays. In the tagalog region, they usually carried the title of gat or lakan.
B. The Freemen- they were next to the nobles, fondly called maharlika by the tagalog and timawa by
the Bisayans.
C. Dependents- they occupied the lowest strata. They were called Alipin by the Tagalog’s, olipon by
the Ilocanos.

Among the ancient Tagalogs, two kinds of dependents existed.

a. The aliping namamahay, who were essentially serfs rather than slaves because they had their own
property and live in their houses, could marry without their masters' consent, and could not be sold.
b. The aliping sagigilid, the real dependents or slaves who owned no property, lived in their master’s
houses, could not marry without their master's consent, and could be sold anytime.
A dependent could emancipate himself/herself and become free through. By purchase, marriage, and
voluntary action of the master to liberate his slave

WOMEN’S POSITION IN EARLY SOCIETY

Women occupied a high position in early Philippine society, early laws and customs recognized
them as the equal of men. They could own and inherit property. They could engage in trade and industry.
They could inherit the chieftaincy and rule barangays if there were daughters of datus with no sons. The
prestigious position of the babaylan was often occupied by women. There is a preponderance of priestesses
based on the existence of local terms in various parts of the country. They can demand that their husbands
use penis pins or penis rings. The mother in the family enjoyed the exclusive privilege of naming the
children. As a sign of deep respect, the men, when accompanying women, walked behind them.
MARRIAGE CUSTOMS

Generally a man belonging to one class married a woman of the same class. Nevertheless, this
custom was not rigid and it was possible for a noble to marry a dependent and a dependent to marry outside
his rank.

Except for muslims, the early Filipinos generally practiced monogamy. In certain cases, however,
men were allowed to have as many wives as they could support, but the first wife as always considered the
legitimate spouse.

Only the children of the wife were regarded legitimate and legal heirs, whereas the children of other women
were not considered as such and therefore, were barred from inheriting any property.

Marriage was usually arranged by parents even during the young age of the boy and the girl.

There were two prerequisites to marriage: the lover’s servitude to the girls family, and second, the dowry,
which was a sum of money, gold, property or anything of value given by the man to the girls parents.

Divorce was resorted to in case of marital troubles. The grounds for divorce were.

a. Adultery on the part of the wife

b. Desertion on the part of the husband
c. Loss of affection
. Cruelty
e. Insanity
f. Childishness
g. Lack of sexual satisfaction
Any couple who had divorced each other could remarry if they so decided.

7. If the married couple belonged to different classes, say a freeman and a dependent, their children were
equally divided among the parents in so far as social status was concerned.

GOVERNMENT
1. The government of the pre-Spanish Filipinos was patriarchal in form. There are two models here, namely,
the
a. Barangay which was a socio-quasi political/ administrative unit, and the
b. Sultanate which was more elaborate with a central authority.
The unit of administration was the barangay which was a settlement consisting of 30 to 100 families. The
early barangays were independent from each other. Each was ruled by a datu or taba who obtained his
position by

a. Inheritance, being the son of the datu

b. Wisdom
c. Physical prowess and courage
d. Wealth
The datu had wide powers, for he exercised all the functions of government, but he was not an absolute
leader nor a ruler. He was assisted by elders who advised him on important matters.

The causes of conflicts between barangays, according to Loarca (in Jocano,1975) were:
a. When one goes to another village and he is put to death without cause.
b. When their wives are stolen from them; and
c. When they go in friendly manner to any village and there under the guise of friendship are
wronged or maltreated.

LAWS OF THE EARLY FILIPINOS

1. Laws were either customary or written

a. The customary or oral laws were customs and traditions handed down orally from generation to
generation.
b. The written laws were promulgated by the datus, particularly in Islamic communities

2. Among the subjects covered in ancient Filipino laws were family relationships, property rights,
inheritance, contracts, partnerships, loans, usury, crimes, and their punishment, adoption, and
divorce.
3. Those considered as major crimes were rape, incest, murder, witchcraft, insult, trespassing,
sacrilegious acts, and larceny. A person guilty of any of these crimes was punished by death or by a
heavy fine.
4. Minor crimes, on the other hand, consisted of such misdemeanors as adultery, cheating, petty
theft, perjury, disturbance of peace at night by singing, and destroying documents owned by a chief.
These misdemeanors were punished by exposure to ants, by a small fine, by flogging, by cutting the
fingers of one hand, or by swimming for a number of hours.
JUDICIAL PROCESS

All trials in pre-Spanish Philippines were held in public. The litigant- plaintiff and defendant pleaded their
own case and had to present their own witness. Before testifying the witness took an oath to tell the truth and
nothing but the truth. The barangay court decided the case in favor of the litigant who had presented more
proofs than the other. Disputes between datus, or between residents of different barangays were sometimes
settled by arbitration, with some datus, or elders from other barangay.

Whenever a case cannot be readily decided upon by the barangay court, a trial by ordeal was resorted to.
This was especially true in criminal cases. It was believed that the gods protected the innocent and punished
the guilty. Thus, an accused person who was innocent was believed to succeed in the ordeals because the
gods made it so.

According to Loarca (in Jocano, 1975 ), three ordeals were utilized by the court to find out the guilty
person, namely:
a. The river ordeal where suspected persons were made to plunge into the river with their spears and he
who rose to the surface first was adjudged guilty.
b. The boiling water ordeal where all suspected person were ordered to pick a stone placed in pot of
boiling water, and he whose arm or hand was burned the most was believed to be guilty.
c. The candle ordeal where each of suspected person was given a lighted candle of the same size, and he
whose candlelight died out first was considered guilty.

RELIGIOUS BELIEFS AND PRACTICE

Pre-Spanish Filipinos, with the exception of muslim, were animistic. They worshipped a supreme
god, called bathala by Tagalogs. The early Filipinos believed in spirits called anitos or diwatas who were
either good or bad. The religious leaders were called babaylan, babaylana, or katalonan. In muslim areas,
they were called imam or a pandina. They served as herbalists, psychologists and psychiatrists, fortune
tellers and advisers of the datu.

Early Filipinos were worshipers of nature and ancestors. It is here that concept of mariit comes into
play. Certain places, landmarks, and trees have to be respected or have become restricted (taboo) because
are inhabited by spirits. Ancient Filipinos believed in an afterlife and subscribed to the idea of heaven and
hell. The panayanons, for example, believed that souls travel in a river, thus they used coffin shaped like
boats. Disease or illness was attributed to the environment spirits and the soul-spirits of dead relatives.
DIVINATION AND MAGIC CHARMS

Early Filipinos were fond of interpreting signs in nature as good or bad omens depending upon
circumstances. Among these are sounds of insects and animals, flight of the birds, and barking of the dogs.
They believed in black magic and sorcerers who could victimize people.

They believed in aswang and manogbiwit and many more who could destroy or harm them.

They also believed in the efficacy of anting anting or amulets as well as lumay or gayuma (love potion).

The Islamization of the Philippines

The Islamization of Southeast Asia was generally accomplished by peaceful means through Muslim traders,
missionaries, and teachers. Serif Kabungsuan was responsible for the spread of Islam in Mindanao. He led
a force of Muslim Samals from Jahore that conquered the natives of what is now Cotabato and converted
them to Islam. He also married a lady from an influential family and founded the first sultanate in Mindanao,
with himself as head.

When the Spaniards arrived in the Philippines during the first half of the 16th century, many parts of Luzon,
including the large native kingdoms of Manila and Tondo, had already been Islamized. However, the further
spread and influence of Islam were stopped by Spanish colonization of the Philippines.

SPANISH PERIOD

Spain’s title over the Philippines was based on Magellan’s discovery of the Islands in 1521 and its
conquest by Miguel Lopez de Legaspi 45 years later. The first Spanish settlement was established in the
Philippines in 1565, marking the onset of Spanish colonial rule.

We were ruled by Spain for almost 400 years until Spanish Rule was terminated in 1898 when the Treaty of
Paris was signed, the agreement which stipulates that Spain would cede the Philippines to the United States.
Looking into the reasons why the Spaniards came to the Philippines it all points out to the search for a new
trade route and the desire for spices. Making the food more palatable to the most discriminating medieval
tastes triggered the search for spices of all sorts: pepper, cinnamon, cloves, nutmeg, and ginger which were
indigenous to the East. Spices accented the bland taste of meat and fish, while preserving them, in the
absence of refrigeration. So expensive were spices like black pepper that it could even buy land, pay taxes,
liberate a city, even pay dowries.

When the Spaniards came to the Philippines, the natives were disunited. To put the natives under their
control, the Spaniards used a method of divide and conquer where they befriended certain groups of
Filipinos and used them in subjugating other natives. Through the policy of attraction, Spaniards have
obtained the support of local chiefs by giving them gifts and exempting them from tributes and polo. They
concluded blood compact with native rules. The first blood compact was between Magellan and
Kulambo in Limasawa in 1521.

The colonization of the Philippines was viewed as the conquest of sword and the cross. Catholic
missionaries converted the native chiefs and family members to the catholic faith. The converted natives
became fanatic and began to follow blindly the dictates of the friars because of their value to the salvation of
the soul. The friars allowed the natives to go on with some folk beliefs and practices like sacrificial
offerings, etc. which resulted to “folk christianism”.

The church and the plaza became the center of all significant activities of the natives from birth to death.
The plaza became witness to the injustices, oppression, and exploitation suffered by Filipinos in the hands of
colonial masters.

Impact of Spanish Colonization to Philippine Governance and Development: Doctrine of Discovery

and Regalian Doctine.

The Regalian Doctrine is a legacy of Spanish colonialism to the Philippines that has very broad
impact to governance and development. It is anchored to another colonial doctrine, the doctrine of
discovery. These two doctrines have a lot of similarities, one being the root ( doctrine of discovery ) and
other being the fruit ( Regalian doctrine). The doctrine of discovery is a clear remnant of the conservative or
orthodox view of Roman Catholicism, which traces its origin from a papal document issued forty years
before Columbus' historic voyage.
In 1452, wherein Pope Nicholas V issued to King Alfonso V of Portugal the bull Romanus
Pontifex, declaring war against all non-Christians throughout the world, and specifically sanctioning
and promoting the conquest, colonization, and exploitation of non-Christian nations and their territories,
to "put them into perpetual slavery," and "to take all their possessions and property." The two rival
countries in annexing territories that time were Spain and Portugal, so as to avoid conflict between the two
states Pope Alexander stipulated in a subsequent bull - issued May 4, 1493 - that Spain must not attempt
to establish its dominion over lands which had already "come into the possession of any Christian lords."
Then, to placate the two rival monarchs, the pope drew a line of demarcation between the two poles,
giving Spain rights of conquest and dominion over one side of the globe, and Portugal over the other,
which is founded on the Treaty of Tordesillas.

The other doctrine which is the Regalian doctrine is a national fruit of conquest, a manifestation of
the colonialist governments to own, use, the natural resources of their colonies. The Regalian Doctrine
dictates that all lands of the public domain belong to the State, that the State is the source of any asserted
right to ownership of land and charged with the conservation of such patrimony. The doctrine has been
consistently adopted under the 1935, 1973, and 1987 Constitutions.

As to the impact of these doctrines to us Filipinos, first and foremost, we become the first Christian
nation in Asia, with close to 400 years of Spanish domination, many of the Spanish influences can be seen
in our culture, language, laws, customs and mores. Spain was among the first country to adopt a first
democratic constitution in 1812 to include freedom of speech and of expression, but denying religious
freedom. However such democratic principle was never extended to the Filipinos. Also to include the
abuses of the Spaniards to our natives, and the slow growth and backward economy that the Filipinos
experienced that time, like for instance many of the countries in Europe had experienced revolution in
technology as early as of 16th to 19th century brought about by industrial revolution, but the Filipinos were
still living backwardly, like for instance, many of our natives could not even afford to have slippers and
would walk barefooted during that time.
Spain also introduced a system of government called Frailocracy- where the two important
institutions- the government and the church united, having the Friars as being more powerful than the
Governor- General. Early in the late nineteenth century, the friars of the Agustinian, Dominican and
Franciscan orders conducted many of the executiveand control functions of government on the local level.
The friars were responsible of the following:

a. Education and health measures – they have dominant position in the monopoly of education at
all levels, hence, religion was the main subject in school. Fear of God was emphasized and
obedience to the friars was instilled in the minds of the people. The Indios were constantly
reminded that they had inferior intelligence and that they were fit for manual labor.
b. Supervised the selection of local police and town officers
c. Maintaining public morals and reporting incidences of sedition to authorities- the friars
can send a man to jail and be penalized.
d. Collection of taxes, or tributes.

The Philippines become the source of raw materials for them, and the country served as the extended
territory for their fellow Spaniards who became homeless after when most of the countries in Latin America
in the late part of 19th century gained their independence from Mother Spain.
The adoption of the Regalian doctrine in the Philippines can be cited to have provided
historical roots to poverty. The Regalian doctrine created the culture of poverty especially during the
Spanish time, when there was massive land grabbing, many Filipinos were displaced from their own
farmlands, especially the indigenous peoples who were not educated on the Land titling that was introduced
to them by the Spaniards, plus the strict colonial policies implemented by Spain among the natives, saying
that they were not allowed to carry fire arms, or any weapon that could protect from them against the
abusive guardia civil in the Philippines. In the essay of Dr. Jose P. Rizal entitled “ The Indolence of the
Filipino People” he tried to know the cause of the little love for work of the Filipinos, what causes our
laziness? The reasons provided was not only because of the hot climate that we have in the country, but also
due to abuse and discrimination, government inaction, rampant corruption and red tape, misplaced church
doctrines. As quoted, many Filipinos become indolent because of the teaching in the church, where the
friar would say during his sermons that “the rich man cannot go to heaven, the rich man is always
subject to troubles and vexation”, thereby indirectly encouraging the natives to donate their riches in the
church, and would not desire to work hard anymore, that is the reason why also our national hero believed
that education is the cure to all ignorance.

Significant Events which led to the Founding of Revolutionary Movements in Spanish-

Philippines

Many notable figures launched movements which aimed for Philippine independence from Spain. The most
common causes of the revolts were:

a. Racial discrimination
b. Abuses of the Friars and the Authorities in the implementation of policies
c. Exploitation of manpower through forced labor
d. Land grabbing, unjust eviction of farmers from their lands, arbitrary increases in land rents
e. Collection of taxes or tributes
f. Desire of the Filipino priests to run Filipino churches

The rise of Filipino nationalism was awakened when the three priests GOMBURZA ( Fathers’ Mariano
Gomez, Jose Burgos, and Jacinto Zamora) were executed in 1872, being accused as leaders of the Cavite
mutiny. It was when Governor General Isquirdo, a ruthless Governor General who replaced a liberal-minded
Gov. Gen. de la Torre, repealed the exemption from rendering the Polo and the payment of the tribute that
the soldiers in the shipyard and arsenal in Cavite had been enjoying under the Governor- General dela Torre.
As a result of their discontentment two hundred soldiers mutinied against the Spanish authority.

The Campaign for Reforms

The unjust execution of Gomburza was a turning point in the Philippines history because it ushered a
new –era the reform movement. These movements are the following:

a. The Propaganda Movement was a period of time when native Filipinos were calling for reforms,
lasting approximately from 1880 to 1886 with the most activity between 1880 and 1895.
Prominent members included José Rizal, author of Noli Me Tángere and El filibusterismo, Graciano López
Jaena, publisher of La Solidaridad, the movement's principal organ, Mariano Ponce, the organization's
secretary and Marcelo H. del Pilar.

Specifically, the Propagandists aims were the following:

 Representation in the Philippines in the Spanish Cortes, the Spanish parliament

 Secularization of the clergy (i.e. usage of secular or diocesan priest rather from a religious order)

 Legalization of Spanish and Filipino equality

 Provision of Spanish citizenship to Filipinos

 Recognition of the Philippines as a province of Spain

 Abolition of polo y servicios (labor service) and the bandala (forced sale of local products to the
government)

 Guarantee of basic freedoms

 Equal opportunity for Filipinos and Spanish to enter government service

La Liga Filipina (lit. 'The Philippine League') was a secret organization. It was founded by José Rizal in the
house of Doroteo Ongjunco at Ilaya Street, Tondo, Manila on July 3, 1892.

The organization derived from La Solidaridad and the Propaganda movement. The purpose of La Liga
Filipina is to build a new group sought to involve the people directly in the reform movement.

The league was to be a sort of mutual aid and self-help society dispensing scholarship funds and legal aid,
loaning capital and setting up cooperatives, the league became a threat to Spanish authorities that they
arrested Rizal on July 6, 1892 on Dapitan

During the exile of Rizal, The organization became inactive.

The Failure of the Reform Movement

The intensive campaign of La Solidaridad for reforms did not yield any tangible result in the form of
changes in the administration of the Philippines, due to the following reasons:

a. Spain was too pre occupied with its own internal problems to give a moment’s thought to colonial
problem.
b. The Friars were too powerful even in Spain to be sidetracked by the Spanish authorities so that
whatever good impressions the La Solidaridad had created in the minds of the Spanish officials in
 Spain were counteracted by the influential and powerful newspaper of the friars, La Politica de
Espana en Filipinas.
c. Lack of funds of the propagandists to carry its aims,
d. The propagandists were divided against themselves by petty jealousies. The result was the
weakening of the ties that bound them together.

The Katipunan or KKK( Kataastaasan Kagalang galang na Katipunan nang mga Anak ng Bayan)

Katipunan was the secret organization which led the revolution on August 26, 1896. It was organized by
Andres Bonifacio on the night of July 7, 1892, after they knew that Rizal was arrested and deported to
Dapitan, the remote town in Zamboanga, upon the public order signed by Governor-General Eulogio.
Rizal lived in exile in far-away Dapitan from 1892 to 1896.

The Katipunan formed a government structure through which the country would be governed, composed of:
Supreme Council Kataastaasang Sanggunian, Central Government
Provincial Government (Sangguniang Balangay)
Judicial Council (Sangguniang Hukuman

Kalayaan is the official newspaper of KKK.

Under the leadership of Bonifacio, the Katipunan laid down three fundamental objectives or aims:
political, moral and civic.

a. Political objective- consisted of working for the separation of the Philippines from Spain.
b. Moral objective- revolved around the teaching of good manners, hygiene, good morals, and
attacking obscurantism, religious fanaticism, and weakness of character,
c. Civic Aim- revolved around the principle of self-help and the defense of the poor and the oppressed.

However, the discovery of KKK due to misunderstanding between Teodoro Patino and Apolinario de la
Cruz, which the former revealed the secrets of Katipunan to father Mariano Gil, was followed by mass arrest
of Filipino suspects known as “ reign of terror”. On the afternoon of August 22, in the yard of Juan Ponce,
the son of Melchora Aquino, called as the “ Mother of the Katipunan” Bonifacio and his men brought out
their cedulas and tore them into pieces shouting Long Live Philippines known as the Cry of Pugadlawin.

The Tejeros Convention

The Tejeros Convention (alternate names include Tejeros Assembly and Tejeros Congress) was the meeting
held on March 22, 1897 between the Magdiwang and Magdalo factions of the Katipunan . These are the first
presidential and vice presidential elections in Philippine history, although only the Katipuneros (members of
the Katipunan) were able to take part, and not the general populace.
The convention was called to discuss the defense of Cavite against the Spaniards during the Philippine
Revolution. The revolutionary leaders held an important meeting in a friar estate residence in Tejeros to
resume their discussions regarding the escalating tension between the Magdalo and Magdiwang forces; And
also to settle once and for all the issue of governance within the Katipunan through an election. Amidst
implications on whether the Katipunan, which operated as an alternative revolutionary government, should
be established as a monarchy or as a republic, Bonifacio defended that it should be maintained as a republic.
According to him, all of its members of any given rank shall serve under the principle of liberty, equality
and fraternity, upon which republicanism was founded. Despite Bonifacio's concern on the lack of officials
and representatives from other provinces, The Magdalo was obliged to proceed with the election.

Andrés Bonifacio, the contemporary Supremo (supreme leader) of the Katipunan, presided over the election.
He secured the unanimous approval that the decision would not be questioned.

Summary of the March 22, 1897 Tejeros Convention

Results
Candidate Faction
Votes %

Emilio Aguinaldo Magdalo 146 57.03%

Andrés Bonifacio Magdiwang 80 31.25%

Mariano Trías Magdiwang 30 11.72%

Valid votes 256 100.00%

Votes cast 256 100.00%

Registered voters 256 100.00%

The results of the election:

Position Name Faction

President Emilio Aguinaldo Magdalo

Vice-President Mariano Trías Magdiwang

Captain-General Artemio Ricarte Magdiwang

 Director of War Emiliano Riego de Dios Magdiwang

Director of the Interior Andrés Bonifacio Magdiwang

Bonifacio accepted the decision, but not before insisting on a recount of the votes. Supporters such as
Severino de las Alas made abortive efforts to help make Bonifacio vice president. However, Daniel Tirona,
a member of the Magdalo party, objected that the post should not be occupied by a person without a lawyer's
diploma, he insisted that Bonifacio was mal educated, ignorant, and did not deserve the post being the
secretary of the interior. He suggested a lawyer like Jose del Rosario is qualified for the suitable
position. Bonifacio was insulted, and demanded that Tirona retract the remark. When Tirona made to leave
instead, Bonifacio drew a pistol and was about to fire at Tirona, but stopped when Ricarte tried to disarm
him. Bonifacio then voided the convention as Supremo of the Katipunan.

Some Magdiwang leaders, led by Pio del Pilar and Mariano Llanera, recanted their previous insistence that
the result of the convention is null and void, thereby recognizing the validity of the elected leaders, and later
occupying the five vacant positions upon appointment from Aguinaldo. The newly appointed officials took
their oath of office on April 24, 1897. Aguinaldo, on the same day, convened the first session of the cabinet
and issued an official circular informing the town presidents of all municipalities that he was duly elected by
the convention and was assuming his position as president.

Trial and Execution of Bonifacio

It was clear then that Bonifacio was a threat to the leadership of Aguinaldo. Together with his brother he
was arrested on charges of sedition and treason against Aguinaldo's government and conspiracy to murder
Aguinaldo. The Bonifacio brothers were executed on May 10, 1897, in the mountains of Maragondon,
Cavite.

The Biak-na-Bato Republic established on November 1, 1897 in Bulacan.

The Dictatorial Government was established on April 25, 1898 in view of chaotic situations in the country
following the outbreak of the Spanish-American War. This government declared independence on June 12,
1898.
Revolutionary Government replaced the Dictatorial government. Its aims were “to struggle for the
independence of the Philippines until all nations including Spain will expressly recognize it and to “prepare
the country for the establishment of a real republic.”
First Philippine Republic.
On September 15, 1898 A Revolutionary Congress met in Malolos, Bulacan under the Malolos Constitution.
The Constitution established a “free and independent Philippine Republic.” It was inaugurated on January
23, 1899 and existed until March 23, 1901. It was never recognized by the international community.

AMERICAN PERIOD

The US annexed the Philippines in February 1899 as a result of the Spanish-American War. General
Aguinaldo was captured in April 1899. The Malolos Constitution had no opportunity to operate.

The American Military rule began on April 14, 1898, one day after the capture of Manila. The Military
Government was established and a military governor exercised executive, legislative and judicial powers.
General Wesley Merritt was the First American Military Commander. Gen. Elwell Otis was the second and
Gen. Arthur MacArthur was the last Military Governor.

The Civil Government was inaugurated in Manila on July 4, 1901 following the passage of the Spooner
Amendment (on the army appropriation act) which ended the Military Government. It was headed by a Civil
Governor who was president of the Philippine Commission, the law-making body from 1901-1907. The
Philippine Commission acted as the upper house of the legislature ad the Philippine Assembly was the lower
house. With the passage of the Spooner Law, the two bodies gave way to the Philippine Legislature.

The Philippines was represented in the US by two resident commissioners who were elected by the
Philippine Legislature. These commissioners had seat in the US Lower House but had no voting rights.

William Howard Taft was the first Civil Governor. He was succeeded by Luke F. Wright who was the first
to use the title Governor General. The last Governor General was Frank Murphy. He was also US High
Commissioner to the Philippines upon the inauguration of the Commonwealth Government.

The Commonwealth Government was established pursuant to the Tydings-McDuffie Act which called for a
ten-year transition period after which independence would be proclaimed on July 4, 1946. It was
inaugurated on November 15, 1935 following the first election under the 1935 Constitution.
The Japanese Military Administration was established on January 3, 1942, a day after the fall of Manila.
Under the proclamation of the Japanese High Command, US sovereignty over the Philippines was
terminated. The Philippine Executive Commission, with Jorge Vargas as chairperson was organized by the
occupying forces.
It had executive and legislative powers. On October 14, 1943, the Japanese-sponsored Philippine Republic
was established with Jose P. Laurel as president. The ultimate source of authority was the Japanese military
authority and the Japanese government. On August 17, 1945, President Laurel proclaimed the dissolution of
the republic.

Under the Joint Resolution 93, the US Congress authorized the US President to proclaim Philippine
independence prior to the set date. It was inaugurated on July 4, 1946 with Manuel Roxas and Elpidio
Quirino as President and Vice-President.

The Commonwealth government was presidential in form. The National Assembly later became the
bicameral Congress. During World War II, it functioned in exile in Washington from May 13, 1942 to
October 3, 1944. It was re-established in Manila on February 27, 1945 in a ceremony where Gen. Douglas
MacArthur turned over the powers of government to President Sergio Osmena .

8 Dark Chapters of Filipino-American History We Rarely Talk About

( Adopted from: [Link]
There is no other country in the world has had so pervasive an influence on the Philippines than America.
In fact, the effects of the decades-long American rule of the country can still be clearly seen in our society,
from the way we eat, dress, speak, etc.
While it cannot be denied that America has helped out our country a great deal, let us also not forget the
times that the USA wrecked, backstabbed and bamboozled the Philippines. Aside from the acts of
benevolence so often highlighted, we should get to know the dark chapters of Filipino-American history.
1. America Lied About Giving Independence to the Philippines.

This wartime cartoon from Puck magazine shows the American image of erstwhile ally Emilio Aguinaldo
once he began his rebellion against American occupation of the Philippines. (c) Bettmann/Corbis

As history would tell us, America essentially deceived and lied its way into occupying the Philippines. With
promises of independence and sovereignty, the Americans gained the cooperation of the Filipinos who were
yearning to be free from Spain.
Emilio Aguinaldo himself fell prey to the flowery words being thrown at him by the Americans, with
Admiral George Dewey assuring him that “the United States is rich and needs no colonies” and Consul
Spencer Pratt telling him no formal written agreement as to American recognition of Philippine
independence was necessary because Americans kept their word.
As a result, he and the other revolutionaries gladly helped the Americans defeat the Spanish here in the
country.

Unknowingly, however, America was already negotiating with Spain behind the scenes to acquire the
archipelago. To later rub it in Aguinaldo’s face, Dewey and Spencer denied ever having assured him of
Philippine independence.
After the battle of Manila on May 1, 1898, Aguinaldo’s June 12 Declaration of Philippine independence had
not been recognized by either the United States or Spain, and the Spanish government ceded the Philippines
to the United States in the 1898 Treaty of Paris, which was signed on December 10 1898, in consideration
for an indemnity for Spanish expenses and assets lost. American Commodore Dewey and Consul Spencer
denied ever having assured Aguinaldo of Philippine independence. The Malolos Congress declared war on
the United States on the June 2, 1898, with Pedro Paterno, President of Congress, issuing a Proclamation of
War. The Philippine- American war ensured between 1899 and 1902 ( New World Encyclopedia).

2. Its Occupation of the Philippines was Primarily Self-Serving.

Coined by US President William McKinley, “benevolent assimilation” refers to the American policy of
absorbing the Filipinos into their culture out of their magnanimous desire to “civilize” them. As the policy
would have it, Filipinos are too uneducated and uncivilized to govern themselves, hence the need for
American intervention.
In truth, America valued the Philippines mainly because of economic and strategic reasons. Located in such
a vital area and blessed with many natural resources and natural harbors, the Philippines was a tempting
target for any country seeking to expand its power and influence in Asia.
American businessmen pushed for the colonization of the Philippines because it was “good for
business,” being rich in natural resources and near the prime trading country of China. In the guise
of “benevolent assimilation,” the Americans annexed and exploited the Philippines for their own ends.

As a compromised agreement after World War II, the United States Congress offered $800 million
rebuilding funds if the Bell Trade Act was ratified by the Philippine Congress. The specifics of the act
required the 1935 Constitution of the Philippines be amended. The Philippine Congress approved the
measure on July 2, two days before independence from the United States of America, and on September 18,
1946 approved a plebiscite to amend the Constitution of the Philippines.
One of the foremost oppressive act enacted by Congress was authored by Missouri Congressman C. Jasper
Bell, was the Bell Trade Act, in effect it required:
 Preferential tariffs on US products imported into the Philippines;
 fixed exchange rate between the Philippine peso and the United States dollar;
 No restrictions on currency transfers from the Philippines to the United States;
 "Parity rights" granting U.S. citizens and corporations rights to Philippine natural resources equal to
(in parity with) those of Philippine citizens, to develop and exploit the natural resources and
operation of public utilities.
President Manuel Roxas believed that Philippines needed assistance from the Americans to be able to
rehabilitate its economy. He wanted from them financial assistance (aid and investments) immediately in
order to carry out his plans of lessening the radicals in the country. In exchange of the financial assistance,
Roxas promised that the Philippines will remain loyal to the U.S. Along with this, he even assured of
sacrificing the country’s sovereignty to accommodate the demands of the Americans.
3. The Americans Committed Numerous War Crimes Against Filipinos.

Perhaps the darkest chapter of the country’s history with the US concerns the devastatingly bloody
Philippine-American War. Also known as America’s “Forgotten War” or “First Vietnam,” the conflict saw
the outgunned and outmanned Filipinos fight against a better-armed and better-trained American force. And
as what usually happens in wars, atrocities are bound to happen.
For the Americans—frustrated by the Filipinos’ guerrilla tactics—it involved burning down villages,
herding the locals into concentration camps, and inflicting torture such as the infamous “water cure” on
captured combatants.
Massacres also occurred, as what happened during the infamous Balangiga and Moro Crater Massacre. The
first one happened after General Jacob Smith ordered his men to turn Samar into a “howling
wilderness” and kill all the male children ten years and over as retaliation for Filipino guerrillas wiping out
the American garrison in Balangiga.
The second involved American and Philippine Constabulary forces massacring more than 600 Moros
(mostly women and children) in their village located inside the volcano of Bud Dajo, Jolo.
It is estimated that 20,000 – 35,000 Filipino combatants died in the conflict, with the civilian population
suffering anywhere from 200,000 – 1,000,000 deaths (a cholera outbreak also led to high casualty rates).
The Americans, on the other hand, suffered approximately 4,000 deaths.

FAST FACTS: Balangiga Massacre

SEPTEMBER 28, 2018
ALEX EVANGELISTA INFO
The Balangiga Massacre of September 28, 1901, is considered as one of the bloodiest events during the
Philippine-American war.

MANILA, Philippines – The Balangiga Massacre was one of the bloodiest events during the Philippine-
American War.
To this day, the United States considers this as their “worst single defeat” in the history of the 3-year war
from 1899 to 1902. The Philippines has also not forgotten.
Republic Act 6692 enacted on February 10, 1989, declared September 28 of every year as "Balangiga
Encounter Day," a special non-working holiday in Eastern Samar to commemorate the uprising of fellow
Filipinos and to honor the gallantry of those killed.

Why it started?
In the beginning, residents of Balangiga town and Company C, the 9th US infantry regiment, had a good
relationship. According to historians, relations went downhill after two American soldiers allegedly tried to
molest a Filipino woman tending a store.
When locals came to the woman's defense, the soldiers wanted revenge. Since then, people in Balingaga
were subjected to forced labor and detention with only little food and water.
The locals also protested the move of the US garrison to cut food and other supplies in the town.
Balangiga police chief Valeriano Abanador, along with guerilla officers Captain Eugenio Daza and Sergeant
Pedro Duran Sr, plotted the uprising against the Americans.
According to historian Stuart Miller in his book Benevolent Assimilation, Balangiga men disguised as
women hid weapons inside small caskets which were brought to the church under the pretext that a cholera
epidemic had killed many children.
Reinforcements from neighboring towns also entered Balangiga several days before the attack under the
guise of preparations for a fiesta.

How it happened
The plan was executed on September 28, 1901, during the supposed funeral procession for children killed by
cholera. Abanador initiated the first strike by shooting an American sentry after chatting with him.
The church of Balangiga rang its bells, signaling the start of the attack. The men dressed as women pulled
out their weapons – mainly machetes – and attacked the US troops. Locals also headed to the barracks to
attack unsuspecting American soldiers.
At least 48 out of the 78 American soldiers were killed during the surprise attack.
The following day, American forces decided to retaliate. General Jacob H. Smith vowed that he would turn
the town into a "howling wilderness," earning him the nickname "Howling Jake."
"I want no prisoners. I wish you to kill and burn. The more you kill and burn the better it will please me. I
want all persons killed who are capable of bearing arms in actual hostilities against the United States," Smith
said.
Smith's remark became even more infamous when he instructed his men to "kill everyone over 10." Soldiers
also burned and looted the villages in Balangiga.
The killings did not end there, as the US continued to enforce a "scorched-earth policy" until 1902, which
meant the total destruction of the town and its people.
There is no exact estimate on the number of Filipinos killed, despite what some resources have previously
said that about 2,500 were killed during the duration of the massacre.
Recent study by the Balangiga Research group found that most soldiers "counter-manded" the kill-and-burn
order, which meant that some soldiers refused to claim innocent lives and resorted only to destruction of
homes and livelihood.

'STOLEN'. The Balangiga church bells that signaled the Filipino uprising against Company C. Photo from
[Link]

The Americans brought home the church bells of Balangiga as "trophies of war." Two are under the
custody of US troops in the "Trophy Park" of the Francis E. Warren Air Force Base in Wyoming, while the
other is with the US military unit in South Korea.

Moves to return the bells

The Philippines has been asking for the return of the bells as early as 1958, when Jesuit priest Horacio dela
Costa wrote a letter to American military historian Chip Wards seeking help for this purpose.
President Fidel Ramos was the first Philippine president to negotiate the return of the bells with a US
President, Bill Clinton, who agreed to the request. However, the return was stalled due to an apparent
conflict in US military laws.
In his 2017 State of the Nation Address, President Rodrigo Duterte asked the US to return the bells as they
are “reminders of the gallantry and heroism of our forebears who resisted the American colonizers and
sacrificed their lives in the process.”

Return of the Balangiga Bells

[Link]
The bells arrived in the Philippines at Villamor Air base on December 11, 2018, and were returned to the
Balangiga Church on December 15, 2018. While in Manila, the bells were put on display at the Philippine
Air Force Aerospace Museum until December 14.

4. They Exploited And Vilified Real Filipino Heroes.

With organized Filipino resistance effectively waning in the late stages of the Philippine-American War, the
Americans looked to pacify the Filipinos and ensure their cooperation—and what better way to do so than to
sponsor and vilify some famous Filipinos.
For one, they heavily promoted Jose Rizal as a “model hero” since he was a patriot who disavowed violent
revolutions in favor of reforms—music to the new colonizer’s ears. Aside from that, the Americans
designated the few remaining revolutionaries who continued to fight them as bandits and conducted a
massive smear campaign against them. The foremost recipient of this would be none other than Macario
Sakay, the leader of the Republika ng Katagalugan.
As a result of effective American propaganda, it would take many decades for Filipinos to realize that Sakay
was no bandit at all. On the contrary, he was a real revolutionary and patriot who took up the cudgels for
his compatriots, fighting for independence up until he was nefariously double-crossed by the Americans and
executed on the gallows.

5. Filipinos Faced Discrimination Here and in the States.

“Positively No Filipinos Allowed” warning sign at a hotel in Stockton, California in 1930 (Courtesy of Little
Manila Foundation) .
The Americans, in their bid to colonize the Philippines, generally looked down on Filipinos as a group of
uncivilized brown savages in need of higher education. That discriminatory attitude, unfortunately, did not
recede even after the Philippine-American War ended.
On the contrary, Filipinos were subject to even more bigotry especially when they immigrated to the United
States to work and study. At stateside, many Filipinos—especially the laborers—suffered discrimination at
the hands of the locals who believed their jobs were being stolen from them due to the Filipinos’ willingness
to work longer hours for less pay.

6. The US Abandoned Filipinos—and Americans—During World War II.

American and Filipino troops surrender to the Japanese at Bataan. Via Wikimedia Commons
One may call it a “strategic retreat,” but to the thousands of Filipino and American forces holed up in
Bataan and other parts of the country when Japan invaded the archipelago during World War II, the move
essentially constituted abandonment.
As part of its overall strategy, the US opted to focus on helping Britain and the Soviet Union defeat Nazi
Germany first, leading President Manuel Quezon to make his famous comment about America caring more
for a distant cousin (Britain) than its own daughter (Philippines).

What’s more, the beleaguered combined Filipino-American forces had been made to believe that
reinforcements from America were coming to help them, a cruel lie propagated all the more by Douglas
MacArthur. No wonder some of his own men wrote scathing remarks about him when he fled to Australia.
The most derisive of all came from his subordinate General William Brougher who commented on his
commander’s order for them to fight to the death while the latter was comfortably stationed in Australia: “A
foul trick of deception has been played on a large group of Americans by a Commander-in-Chief and a
small staff who are now eating steak and eggs in Australia.”
The abandoned troops summed up their feelings best with this fatalistic poem:
“We’re the battling bastards of Bataan:
No mama, no papa, no Uncle Sam,
No aunts, no uncles, no nephews, no nieces,
No rifles, no planes, or artillery pieces,
And nobody gives a damn.”

The Bataan Death March

The American and Filipino defenders of Luzon were forced to retreat to Bataan. For the next three
months, combined U.S – Filipino army fought hard despite lack of food, medical supplies, ammunition,
naval and air support. On April 9, with his forces crippled by starvation and disease, U.S General Edward
King Jr. (1884- 1958), surrendered his approximately 75,000 troops at Bataan. The approximately
75,000 Filipino and American troops on Bataan were forced to march some 65 miles from Mariveles, on
the southern end of the Bataan Peninsula, to San Fernando, the prison camps. The marchers made the
trek in intense heat and were subjected to harsh treatment, by Japanese guards. Thousands perished in
what became known as the Bataan Death March.
The Japanese did not give the prisoners food or water for three days. As the soldiers became weaker and
weaker many of them started to fall behind the group. Those that fell behind were beaten and killed by
the Japanese.

7. It Broke its Promise to Filipino War Veterans.

After the war, many Filipino soldiers were expecting to receive the same benefits as their American
counterparts as promised by the US. After all, they had just fought—and suffered—side-by-side with the
Americans against the Japanese.
Unfortunately, President Harry Truman signed into law the infamous Rescission Act of 1946 which denied
all benefits to Filipino veterans due to a reason by Congress that the US had already provided $200 million
in aid to the Philippines. Essentially, the Filipinos were designated as “second-class veterans” by the very
same country they fought for.
As a result of the snub, the Filipinos and their advocates campaigned for several decades for the right to be
recognized and compensated. Their efforts bore fruit in 2009 when President Barack Obama appropriated a
one-time payment of $15,000 for Filipino vets who are US citizens and $9,000 for those who are not.
However, critics say the move came “too little, too late.”

8. The Establishment of Neo-colonialism in the Philippines.

It’s quite obvious that traces of colonialism left by both the Spanish and the Americans can still be seen in
modern Philippine culture. One look at our society says it all: the preference for American products, the
promotion of materialism and hedonism, and a general obsession for all things American have pervaded our
society up until now.
Neo-Colonialism is the use of economic, political, cultural, or other pressures to control or influence other
countries, especially former dependencies.

Although the US does not actually control the Philippines anymore, the latter’s socio-economic policies and
over-reliance on the former as far as military matters are concerned would suggest otherwise.
No matter how Filipinos try to deny it, the Americans have succeeded in molding us into their ideal “little
brown brothers.” America never really left our shores, and it’s doubtful if the Philippines can truly shake off
its neo-colonial mentality and finally move forward.