Components a Hydraulic System

2.1. I Basic
Hydraulic systems are power-transmitting assemblies employing pressurized liquid as
a fluidfor transmitting energy fro an energy-generating source to an energy-using
work.
point to accomplish useful
Load
Motor 1-0ff 2-Forward 3-Return

1
3 a
Pressure
Filter
regulator

Pump

Direction
control
valve
Actuator

Oiltank

[Link] circuit of a hydraulicsystem with basic components.

25
Functions of the components
1) The hydraulic actuator is a device used to convert the fluid power into
power to do useful work. The actuator may be of the linear
type (e.g., mechanical
hydraulic
cylinder) or rotary type (e.g. hydraulic motor) to provide linear or
respectively. rotary motion,
2) The hydraulic pump is used to force the fluid from the reservoir to rest of the
hydraulic circuit by converting mechanical energy into hydraulic energy.
3) Valves are used to control the direction, pressure and flow rate of a fluid
through the circuit. flowing
4) Extemal power supply (motor) is required to drive the pump.
5) Reservoir is used to hold the hydraulic liquid, usually hydraulic oil.
6) Piping system carries the hydraulic oil from one place toanother.
7) Filters are used to remove any foreign particles so as
keep the fluid system clean
and eficient, as well as avoid damage to the actuator and valves.
8) Pressure regulator regulates (i.e., maintains) the required level of
pressure in the
hydraulic fluid.
The piping is of closed-loop type with fluid transferred fromn the
storage tank to one
side of the piston and returned back from the other side of the piston to the
tank. Flujd
is drawn from the tank by a pump that produces fluid
flow at the required level of
pressure. If the fluid pressure exceeds the required level, then the excess fluid
returns
back to the reservoir and remains there until the pressure
acquires the required level.
Cylinder movement is controlled by a three-position change over a control valve.
1) When the piston of the valve is changed to upper
position, the pipe pressure line is
connected to port A and thus the load is raised.
2) When the position of the valve is changed to
lower position, the pipe pressure line
is connected to port B and thus the load is
lowered.
3) When the valve is at center position, it locks the fluid into
the cylinder
(thereoy
holding it in position) and dead-ends the fluid line (causing all the pump output ue
to return to tank via the pressure
relief).

26
In industry, amachine designer conveys the design of hydraulic systems using a
circuit diagram. The components of the hydraulic system using symbols. The working
fluid, which is the hydraulic oil, is stored in a reservoir. When the electric motor is
switched ON, it runs a positive displacement pump that draws hydraulic oil through a
flter and delivers at high pressure. The pressurized oilpasses through the regulating
valve and does work on actuator. Oil from the other end of the actuator goes back to
the tank via returm line. To and fro motion of the cylinder is controlled using
directional control valve.

Cylinder
Extended

Retract

Motor Directionalcontrol vave

Pump

Pressure regulator
TFilter

Breather

Reservoir

Figure.2.2
broken down into four main divisions
Ine hydraulic system discussed above can be
system.
nat are analogous to the fou main divisions in an electrical
 station.
1)The power device parallels the electrical generating
pressure
2) The control valves parallel the switches, resistors, timers,
etc.
switches, relays, A) The valves are used to
air.
3) The lines in which the fluid power flows parallel the clectrical lines. 5) Extermal power supply
4) The fluid power motor (whether it is a rotating or a non-rotating cylinder or a 6) The piping system carri
power motor) parallels the solenoids and electrical motors.
fluid
Air is drawn from the atm
2.2. Basic Components of a Pneumatic System by an air compressor. As
cooler is provided to coc
Apneumatic system carries power by employing compressed gas, generally air, as a moisture. The treated pres
fluid for transmitting energy from an energy-generating source to an
point to accomplish useful work. energy-using With the storage reservoi
motor when pressure falls
Power Opens when set The three-position change
supply pressure is reached
Load way similar to its hydraul;

1-0ff 2-Forward 3- Return Electrical drives

Pressure
switch 1 These are direct current (I
Motor
Storage in size and are easy to cor
Air cooler reservoir
Air fiter

Air compressor

Direction
Air from control
valve
atmosphere
Air actuator
AC.
Air to atmosphere

Figure.2.3. Simple circuit of a pneumatic system with basic components.

1) The pneumatic actuator converts the fluid power into mechanical power to perfom Synchronous
useful work. motors
2) The compressor is used to compress the fresh air drawn from the atmosphere.
3) The storage reservoir is used to store a given volume of compressed air.

28
 4) The valves are used to control the direction, flow rate and pressure of compressed

air.

5) External power supply (motorn) isused to drivethe compressor.

A The piping systemn carries the pressurized air from one location to another.
Airis drawn from the atmosphere through an air filter and raised to required pressure
hyan air compressor. As the pressure rises, the temperature also rises; hence, an air
cooler is provided to cool the air with some preliminary treatment to remove the
moisture. The treated pressurized air then needs to get stored to maintain the pressure.
With the storage reservoir, apressure switch is fitted to start and stop the electric
motor when pressure falls and reaches the required level, respectively.
The three-position change over the valve delivering air to the cylinder operates in a
way similar to its hydraulic circuit.
Electrical drives

These are direct current (DC) or alternating current (AC) servo motors. They are small
in size and are easy to control.

Electronic
motors

A.C. motors D. C. motors

Synchronous Induction Brushed Brushless

motors motors motor motor

Figure.2.3

29
 speed
Electric drives are mostly used in position and control systems. The
be classified into two groups namely DC
mnotors and AC motors (Fig.). In motors can
advantages and this session
we shall study the operation, construction, limitations DC and
of
motors.
AC
Stepper motor

Astepper motor is a pulse-driven motor that changes the angular position of the
widely used in rotor
in steps. Due to this nature of a stepper motor, it is low cost, open loop
position control systems.
Types of stepper motors:
" Permanent Magnet- Employ permanent magnet, Low speed, relatively high toraue
"Variable Reluctance- Does not have permanent magnet, Low torque

Variable Reluctance Motor

The construction of Variable Reluctance motor. The cylindrical rotor is made of sof
steel and has four poles as shown in Fig. It has four rotor teeth, 90° apart and six stator

poles, 60° apart.

Electromagnetic field is produced by activating the stator coils in sequence. It attracts
the metal rotor.

When the windings are energized in a reoccurring sequence of 2, 3, 1, and so on, the
motor will rotate in a 30° step angle.
In the non-energized condition, there is no magnetic flux in the air gap, as the stator is
an electromagnet and the rotor is apiece of soft iron: hence. there is no detent torque.
This typeof stepper motor iscalled a variable reluctance stepper.

30
 Stator
Windings
with poles
2

Rotor
with poles
3

Figure.2.4
Permanent magnet (PM)stepper motor

In this type of motor, the rotor is a permanent magnet. Unlike the other stepping
motors, the PM motor rotor has no teeth and is designed to be magnetized at a right
angle to its axis.

Figure shows a simple, 90º PM motor with four phases (A-D). Applying current to
cach phase in sequence will cause the rotor to rotate by adjusting to the changing
magnetic fields.

Alhough it operates at fairly low speed, the PM motor has a relatively high torque
characteristic. These are low cost motors with typical step angle ranging between 7.50
to 150

31
 Rotor
Windings
N

D Stator
S

Figure.2.5

Servomotor

Servomotors are Special electromechanical devices that produce precise degres of

brushless DC motor combined with.
rotation, A servo motor is a DC or AC or
position sensing device.
involved in controlling a
Servomotors are also called control motors as they are
as showa
mechanical system. The servomotors are used in aclosed-loop servo system
in Figure.

A reference input is sent to the servo amplifier, which controls

the speed of the
encoder
servomotor. A feedback device is mounted on the machine, which is either an
or resolver. This device changes mechanical motion into electrical signals and is useu
as a feedback.
wit
This feedback is sent to the error detector, which compares the actual operation
ampliticr.
that of the reference input. If there is an error, that error is fed directly to the
which will be used to make necessary corections in control action.

32
. many servo systems, both velocity and position are
monitored. Servomotors provide
accurate speed, torque, and have abilityof direction contro.

Error
Amplifier Servomotor
detector

Input
Output

Feedback loop

Figure.2.6
DCservomotors

DC operated servomotors are usually respond to error signal abruptly and accelerate
the load quickly. A DC servo motor is actually an assembly of four separate
components, namely:
"DC motor

"gear assembly
"position-sensing device
"control circuit

ACservo motor

In this type of motor, the magnetic force is generated by a permanent magnet and
Current which further produce the torque. It has no brushes so there is little
noise/vibration. This motor provides high precision control with the help of high
resolution encoder. The stator is composed of a core and a winding. The rotor part
Comprises of shaft, rotor core and a permanent magnet.

33
 magnetic type. It gives digital signals,
Digital encoder can be of optical or
proportionof rotation of the
shaft. which are in
HorsePower
simply a rate at which work
Horsepower, like any unit of power, is is
experiment which set out to m being done
Literally, the horsepower unitoriginates from an
the power of a single horse.
measure
It was determined that a horse is capable of performing 33,000 ft-1bf. of work per min
explanation.
We willaddress to this number later in the
horsepower:
First, a few equations tohelp youcalculate your
POWER= WORK / TIME

POWER = (FORCE X DISTANCE) /TIME

torque and speod
For electric motors, power or horsepower can be calculated trom the
3,000 RPM and 6 in-Ibf then t
For example, if you have a motor rated for
horsepower is calculated below.
HORSEPOWER=(3,000X6) /63,025 =0.286
torque units. 5.252 is
63.025 is a constant when using RPM for speed and in-lbf for
is in ft-1bf. If the units ae
another common constant if the speed is in RPM and torque
different than simply make the unit conversion.
ft-lbf /min = I horsepower.
The derivation of these constants is done using the 33,000
ft-lbf/min, it is not critical to
Though horsepower units are a derivative of the 33,000
understanding how to calculate motor horsepower for speed and torque.
is watts. The conversion from
Another common unit of power that motors are rated in
watts to horsepower is 745.7 watts = 1hp.
"Calculate Speed. Torque and Power
Motor Selection
"Calculate Estimnated Electrical Current and Losses for Optimum
"Easily and Accurately Convert Units of Measurement
"Customizable, Printed Report Function
"Calculate Operating Costs
34
 Furthermore. deflection the desired
motion, the Thean aof by stress be theis of discovered therin
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 Robotics-Control and Programming
shape
66 caused by a change in temperature is called the thermally induced shape-memory effect Ihte
past, shape-memory materials have been used in various forms, such as wires. sheets and helica
springs, to function as an actuator. The shape-memory-effect actuators have the clear advantage in
strength to weight ratio. With the high inherent strength of these actuators comes the advantage
being abletoimplement direct drive devices. Direct drive devices eliminate the use of gearS with theig
large strains has
inherent problems of backlash and wear. Their abilityto generate
andsmooth mnotions of
promoted
these their
The high force/mass
as an "artificial muscle". applications.
ratio, silent
actuators
has
applied in numerous materials: metallic shape memory alloys
been
shape There
memory polymers
are two main (SPM).
groups of shape-memory
The former class (SMA)
of metallic shape memory alloys are characterizetand
structures (phases). That is the
transformation between two different crystal SMA actuator. This OCcurs ability to
by reverse phase obtained from physical changes in
a
memorize a specific shape ismolecular rearrangement. The two phases that occur inthe shape me through
solid-state phase change by transformations of
austenite. Figure 2.9 shows the phase
and
alloy systems are martensite
material.

Austenite
Heated

Cooled THeated
Deformed

Twinned Deformed
Martensite Martensite

stimulus.
materials driven by thermal and mechanical
Fig. 2.9. Phase transformnations of SMA
austenite phase. As the temperature is lowered, tne
At higher temperatures, the material is in the until sufficiently low temperatures. This varnattod
material changes to the martensite phase and grows
the material, particularly in its length, u
in the microscopic structure induces shape changestoingenerate motion or force in electromechana
sample is wire-shaped. This property can be used traditionally been used as "on-on
devices by electrically heating the material. These have the martensit
electromechanical actuators, because of the intrinsic difficulty in controlling accurately
austenite proportion. This is due to the fact that the microscopic rearrangements involved
fashion, introduen
structural changes take place quite sharply and in a highly complex and nonlinear for a giveninput,
the significant hysteresis in the actuator response. This may result in multiple outputs
depending on its time history. Thisis the
If the SMA material is used in an actuator, it can produce the specific work up to 5 J/g.
(electrostatic,
most energy-dense actuator when compared with other actuator materials
electromagnetic, piezoelectric,etc.). The ability of SMA materials to absorb the heat energy roonilt
martensite ’
austenite
surroundings and convert it into the mechanical work during the
 Components of Robotic System 67
transformation and the reverse process, to dissipate the heat energy during deformation, can classify
engines".
the SMA materials as "thermodynamics heat copner.
The two major SMA systems that have significance today are the Ni-Ti alloys and the
base alloys. Table 2.1lists some of the SMA alloys.
Table 2.1 List of some shape memory alloys with basic parameters
Alloy Composition Transition temp. (°C)
Ag-Cd 44/49 at. % Cd -190to -50
Au-Cd 46.5/50 at.% Cd 30 to 100
Cu-Al-Ni 14/14.5 wt.% Al, 3/4.5 wt.% Ni -140to 100
Cu-Sn approx. 15 at.% Sn -120 to 30
Cu-Zn 38.5/41.5 wt.% Zn -180to -10
In-Ti 18/23 at. %Ti 60to 100
Ni-Al 36/38 at.% Al -180 to 100
NI-Ti 49/51 at. %Ni -50to 110
Fe-Pt approx. 25 at.% Pt Approx.-130
Mn-Cu 5/35 at.% Cu -250 to 180
Fe-Mn-Si 32 wt.% Mn, 6wt.% Si -200to 150

alloys),
The Ni-Ti alloys have greater shape memory strain (up to 8%, 4-5% for copper-basedexcellent
have higher ductility and more stable transformation temperatures. Further, Ni-Ti alloys have
corrosion resistance, compared to the copper-based alloys; have better biocompatibility and the ability
to be electrically heated for shape recovery. The newly developed FeMnSiCrNi shape memory
stainless steels (SMSS) have attracted substantial interest because of their good shape memory effect,
mechanical properties and corrosion resistance. The Ni-Ti has proven to be the most flexible and
beneficial alloy for the micro-actuator application.
In principle, SMA actuators can be manufactured by simple deposition of the active
material and they therefore are potentially easier to fabricate than electromagnetic or
electrostatic actuators. In practice, there are some practical barriers to monolithic integration
of SMA films.
Shape memory polymers (SMP) are second group of shape memory materials. Similar to SMAs,
they have the capability of changing their shape in response to an external stimulus. The most common
type is temperature and therno-responsive shape memory polymers typically having two polymer
componentsand two phases: one with ahigher melting temperature than the other. The glass transition
temperature T,, is the reference point where the higher temperature component starts to melt. When
heated above ,, the SMP is soft and rubbery and it is easy to change the shape. When subsequently
cooled below T,, it retains the given shape (shape fixing characteristic). The physical of memory effect
in polymers is quite different from that in the SMA. The polymeric phase that exists above I
corresponds to the higher melting temperature component. This acts as the physical cross-link that is
responsible for the permanent shape. The second component acts as a molecular switch and helps to
Ireeze temporary shapes below the transition temperature, with either the glass transition temperature
or the melting temperature serving as the transition/switching temperature. The T, of a SMP can be set
0ver atemperature range of several hundred degrees by control of composition.
 68 Robotics-Control and Programming
The shape-memory effect is in principle abehavior inherent to all polymers. However.
that exhibit a useful shape-memory effect must demonstrate a sharp transition temperature n
rubbery plateau, along with relatively largestrain capacity without local naterial darmage.
polymers
(d) Electrorheological( ER) and Magnetorheological (MR) Fluid Actuators:
These are another class of smart materials. ER and MR fluids having rheological behavior can
controlled externally through the use of either an electric or magnetic field, respectively. T
application of either an electric or a magnetic field results in achange in the effective viscosity an
hence, the yield strength of the fluids. MR fluids are usually composed of oil (usually mineral
silicone based) and ferrous particles that are of order 0.0510 um in diameter. When it is not activate
a MR fluid behaves like a free flowing liquid, with aconsistency similar to that of motor oil. In tha
presence of an applied magnetic field, the ferrous particles become magnetic dipoles, which connect to
each other along the lines of the magnetic flux, forming linear chains parallel to the field. This
phenomenon effectively "solidifies" the suspension oil and restricts the fluid's movement, developing
yield strength. The degree of change is related to the magnitude of the applied magnetic field and can
occur in less than a few milliseconds.
A MR-fluid actuator (MRA) consists of an input component driven by a motor, an outpur
component and an MR-fluid clutch between the two. The yield stress of the MR fluid is changed
according to the strength of the magnetic field and the torque is output at an output shaft as shown in
Fig. 2.10. The magnetic filed is controlled by current.

Magnetic field Torque

MR fluid

Fig,2.10 MR Fluid Actuator

As a dual to MR fluids, ER fluids utilize electrically polarized particles to change its viscosity
under an applied electric field. Under an applied electric field, an ER fluid can "stiffen" into a semi
solidand back, with response times on the order of milliseconds. In their non-active or "off" state, both
MR and ER fluids typically have similar viscosity. However, MR fluids are capable of achieving much
higher yield strengths, greater than 60 kPa, compared with ER fluids. Furthermore, ER fluids require
high voltage and low current power, while MR fluids require low voltage and high curent power.
Because the elastic modulus of the fluids can be changed drastically by applying a magnetic or
electric field, these fluids have been extensively used in electrically controlled active or semi-active
viscous dampers.
2.3 SENSORS
Sensors are used to collect information about the internal state of a robot or to communicate with the
outside environment. These are also known as feedback elemnents. Sensors integrated into robots
usually send information about each joint or link to the controller, which determines the configuration
of the robot. Often, robots are equipped with external sensory devices, such as a vision system, touch
and tactile sensors etc., which enable the robot to communicate with the outside world.
Task performance capability of a robot is greatly dependent on the type of sensors used and their
capability. Sensors provide intelligence to manipulators. The most common approach is to locate a
position sensor directly on the shaft of the actuator. If the drive train is stiff and has no backlash, the
true joint angles can be calculated from the actuator shaft positions. For example, when a robot picks