Practical Algorithms

Third Edition

© 2000, 2001, 2002, 2014

by George Richard Yool

ISBN-13: 978-1500173456
ISBN-10: 1500173452
 Contents
Unit 1―Analyzing Requirements
Objectives Communication Failures
Attitude Adjustments (Yours) Overcoming Fear
Steps to Successful Selling Analyzing Bus. Requirements
Customer & Manager Perceptions (MCSD)
Worksheet 1
Unit 2—Hardware & Software
Lesson 1—COMPUTERS Lesson 3—SOFTWARE
Objectives Objectives
Computers in General Operating Systems
Computer Types Major Software Types
System Unit Components Lesson 4  PURCHASING…
Motherboard Components Objectives
Lesson 2—HARDWARE System Source
Objectives Expandability
CPU (Central Processing Unit) Peripherals
Other Major Computer Chips Software
Secondary Storage Worksheet 2
Input and Output
Expansion and Peripheral
Components
Unit 3—System Architectures
Objectives: Distributing Solutions (MCSD)
Tier Systems Architecture Model Operating Systems (MCSE & A+)
(MCSD) Worksheet 3
Networking (A+, MCSD & old
MCSE)
Unit 4—Logic
Objectives: Flowcharting Examples
Logic Basics Solving a Heuristic
Logic of Reality Refining the Heuristic
Logical Syllogism (Presentation Solving a Median
Approach) Worksheet 4
 Flowcharting
Unit 5—Programming & Coding
Objectives: Programming Process
Terminology Data Structures
System Development Life Cycle Control Structures
Purpose of Systems Logic Worksheet 5
Unit 6—Problem Solving
Objectives: Applying the Paradigm
RAM Model Graph Problems
Problem Solving With Reasoning Worksheet 6
Unit 7―Database Design

Objectives Data Type, Field Size and Input

General Terms Masks
Advantages of Using a Database Normalizing (MCSD)
Database Qualities Relationships (MCSD)
Database Types Data Flow Diagrams (MCSD)
Database Objects Integrity and Validation (MCSD)
Planning a Database Integrating Business Rules
Field Design (MCSD)
Math on The Computer
Worksheet 7
 Foreword
No two logicians can agree on a definition for logic.
—Bertrand Russell

At a minimum, algorithms is an upper division subject. Ideally it is a

graduate-level course for computer engineers and project managers.
Gaming theory is an entirely separate subject that could be taken
simultaneously with this course, but does not belong in this course. Both
belong in the computer science division of a math department, not the
information technology division of a business department. The materials
provided here were designed for an upper division course requiring only the
introductory computer class, but were also used inappropriately and
prematurely in a community college that thought it should also contain
gaming theory (a thought I ignored).
The choice of materials here is unique for several reasons. First,
algorithms is about solving classes of problems. While pseudocode is
included for the sake of literacy, it does nothing to solve real problems. As a
consultant it was my job to actually solve problems, and the first one was
establishing the problem in a meeting with those who used pseudocode, and
the pseudocode played no role in that process. Second, marketable skill
create academic integrity, not difficulty. As an academic dean, I taught
virtually every subject and was responsible for the curriculum of literally
every class. Algorithms was the most difficult class for both students and
instructors, and no college or university seemed to know what the course
really meant or how difficult it was. It needed simplifying into practical
marketable skills.
Tasked with making the course work at one university, I poured over
the available textbooks with grave disappointment. I had a mountain of
classroom-tested materials available, so I put them together into this book.
My choice in materials was partly guided by MCSE, MCSD, and A+
requirements, and partly guided by experience both in the field and the
classroom. I decided the best thing I could do was teach the students how to
think, how to interface with both subjective business requirements and
objective resources, and be practical problem solvers who provided scalable
solutions. It was not my job to teach a programming language or math skills
in this course. This gave administration at every college the misconception
that these were not needed prior to taking the class. Having seen
universities put trigonometry before algebra and nuclear decay before
periodic table basics, this was no surprise. It was my job to produce
marketable graduates, not drive them out of classes with unreasonable
expectations. Unlike most classes, students taking algorithms or gaming
theory have a significant and specific career goal requiring the subject. This
class is not for general audiences, and if the school cannot fit it correctly
into its curriculum, they shouldn’t offer it. It does not belong in any two-
year school.
I made many important innovations for this book. The most significant
was expanding the subjective elements of Microsoft’s programs by teaching
sales, analysis, and proposal skills. As a consultant I regularly had to clean
up the messes of previous consultants. The most common mess was failure
to lock in the expectations and requirements of the project. The next most
common mess was solving the “unsolvable” which is code for “unsolved.”
The point of algorithms is to find such object-oriented solutions, not to rely
on some rapid aided design technology. If RAD is all you need, then you
really don’t need the algorithms class. Solving the unsolved meant teaching
the tools used for such tasks like flowcharting and symbolic logic. Since
pseudocode and flowcharting are virtually incompatible and C++ is
intuitively simple, I primarily used C++. Years earlier I tackled Russell’s
issue of logic (above), having distilled and established a mathematically
consistent system of practical symbolic logic. This had proven helpful over
the years in a variety of applications, from the classroom to solving cutting
edge cosmology problems.
It may seem strange to some for a programmer to take on cosmology
problems. Computers were an awkward tool when I began working with
them. You had to program to accomplish anything. Even printers came
without drivers, so you had to work out the machine language without
instructions. As soon as I could walk away from programming, I did. It
followed me and put food on the table, so I welcomed a host of
certifications I had no personal interest in and priced myself out of the
market before I could enjoy the job benefit of taking the MCSE and MCSD
exams (which I had prepared for). As an antiquarian predating these things
and not really needing them, I saw no point getting them. They are certainly
relevant to newcomers and those who depend on a paycheck, and I
integrated many of their concepts and even details in this book.
 This book serves a double purpose. On one hand it has the practical
value for computer programming. On the other it outlines problem solving
tools that will help readers understand and apply my later works, some of
which are at least as difficult and for which this material is a meaningful
prerequisite. I am gravely concerned with technological dependence, the
first victims of which are memory, attention (delayed closure), and problem
solving. My goal is not to make things difficult, but rather to encourage
critical thinking skills that are clearly at risk of extinction. It is my hope that
we can tackle the “difficulties” today so future generations are raised with
this thinking as second nature. These things are not truly that difficult. Our
culture has made them difficult. This has led to a lot of erroneous if not
destructive thinking. Science is not about blindly accepting results, yet it is
clear that mathematicians and other scientists have no idea how problems
are actually solved. If they did, they would question much of what they
think they know. This book is as much for them as it is for programmers
and project managers.
This edition does not contain the unit-by-unit class project of previous
editions, since this publication does not support simultaneous multimedia
publication. If you are self-taught, you will do fine if not better creating
your own projects. If you are an instructor the projects and data would be
useful. Contact me (dobit1969 at yahoo) for electronic copies of classroom
materials. I am not generally available for other requests. I no longer take
clients and do not guarantee response even to specific questions, especially
computer related questions.
 Unit 1—Analyzing Requirements
Objectives
Dealing with computers only seems difficult. In reality computer problems
can always be solved logically. Humans, on the other hand, account for the
vast majority of errors and are ultimately the source of problems.
Considering the nature of physics, and discounting normal wear and tear,
humans are ultimately responsible for all computer problems. Students
will understand:
1. Attitude Adjustments 4. Communication Failures
(Yours) 5. Overcoming Fear
2. Steps to Successful Selling 6. Analyzing Business
3. Customer & Manager Requirements (MCSD)
Perceptions

Attitude Adjustments (Yours)

Failure is...
A learning experience
The game played in order to win
Practice for perfection
Feedback guiding in new directions
Opportunity to develop a sense of humor
Null if you approach all choices with a win-win objective
And finally...The more I fail, the more likely I am to succeed.
Reasons to do good (what is right)...
The following seem demotivating. On the contrary they must be motivators
or you will burn out and wallow in self-pity with false ideas of
omnipotence. After the list I have a little story to help you understand these
as motivators.
People are unreasonable, self-centered, illogical, and ignorant (if
not completely stupid).
Love them anyway.
Although the underdog is favored, people will chum up to the top
dog to look good.
Fight for the underdog
 Honesty and frankness make a person vulnerable.
Be honest and frank.
Give your best and you will likely suffer.
Give your best anyway
The good done today will be forgotten tomorrow and you will be
accused of selfishness.
Do good anyway.
What takes years to build can be destroyed in an instant.
Build anyway.
A thief was staying in a monastery. The monks grew tired of his steeling
and went to the master. "If he doesn't go, then we will," they pleaded. "I
understand," empathized the master. "It is our duty here to help those
whom the rest of society rejects and to guide them toward righteousness.
Clearly he needs to remain because he needs guidance. You should go
because you do not. The choice is yours." The thief overheard the
exchange and never stole again. The reasons listed above assure your work
as a professional. When you take them as motivations then they do not
become obstacles. With the obstacle removed you can look on others and
find their real value, what they have to offer humanity, and respect them.
Even if all they have to offer are good intentions. You cannot be
disappointed with this view.

Steps to Successful Selling

Fact: All jobs are sales jobs. You must be able to sell the values and
benefits of yourself and the products you have to offer. The following
sequential steps are proven effective:
1. Opening (Meet and Greet)―The first 54 seconds of contact
establish the entire atmosphere of your communication. You
absolutely must make a good first impression with your appearance
and verbiage. When you meet someone, welcome them, introduce
yourself and get their name. For example, approach the person,
shake their hand and say: "Welcome to ______, my name is _____.
Your name is...?" The trick is to keep shaking until they give you
their name. If it is a group of people, offer your hand to the middle
of the group and take the first offering. Do not neglect a single
member of the group either. You must greet each one and learn
their names. If you are not good with names, get good at talking to
 people without making it obvious you forgot their name. A
handshake should be firm and consistent. If you are answering a
phone always identify yourself and your company first, then ask
whom you are speaking with. If you are calling them, ask for them
by name then identify yourself and your company.
2. Fact-Find―Ask questions leading to discovering the purpose of the
visit, what they expect and what they have to offer. For example,
"What brings you to _____?" and "How did you learn about us?"
This is a continuing process in which you identify their interests and
motivations. You can talk about what is of interest to them to pass
time during slow moments of the process, which will help build
rapport. Remember: The person asking questions is in control of
the communication.
3. Buy What They Offer―Even if you aren't really buying from them,
learn what it is they do, what they have to offer, let them sell
themselves and their products and services. This gives them hope
for gain, which will encourage them to stick with you.
4. Sell From Stock―Sell what you have, because you do not want to
run the risk of selling something else then not being able to provide
it. At this stage you guide them through observing your products.
Never start with exactly what they are asking. At the least, always
step sell them. This means to take them to a lesser product, which
you know they will reject. Let them see what it is, how much it is,
and what it has to offer knowing they will reject it. When they do
then you have prepared them to spend more because it is obvious
that their expectations are higher so the price will be also. Through
this and the demonstration process pay close attention to body
language. Poor negotiators will often let you know blatantly how
much they like what you have to offer. A good negotiator will not
be obvious.
5. Demo―Demonstrate what you have to offer. This is a very
sensitive subject because you can't just go "Here's the product."
You must be able to show them the elements of your product in
terms they can sense (e.g. the sight, smell, touch and tastes) and
how these can be of value or benefit to them. Think of the adage:
"Don't sell me bacon, sell me the sizzle and the smell." It can be
difficult to get a customer past the demo stage. Many will try to
 escape even if they really want what is being offered. The most
common reason is money. Another common reason is the product is
not what they really want. You must smoke out any objections
(reasons for not purchasing). What do they like and what do they
not like in the product? If necessary show them something else.
You would be surprised how many customers come looking for one
thing and leave with something completely different. If money is
the problem, do not make any promises you cannot keep, but you
can say something like "You would purchase this for ___ wouldn't
you? Then let's see what we can do." You would also be surprised
at how many customers will spend much more than they say they
will.
6. Relax―Sit down with them, get them a drink and discuss just about
anything other than the product. When you give the customer
something then they feel like they owe you something. This allows
you to build a little more rapport also before beginning the
negotiation process.
7. Write-Up―Begin preparing for the sale by doing any necessary
paperwork. This does not mean to stop talking to them. Hand them
insensitive documentation to fill out for themselves that only
requires listing their personal information. If you deal with credit
applications then remember that you must never hand them a credit
application to fill out. The credit application does not get filled out
at this stage anyway.
8. Call Management―The salesperson's advantage is they are not
personally involved with the selling decision. The customer's
disadvantage is they are personally involved with the purchase
decision. The reason is simple: emotions. Management knows the
pricing and what can be done to "make a deal." If you know, then
you must put the knowledge aside to ensure you can get the most
from the customer. Never rush a sale. When you call management
tell them who the customer is and what they wish to purchase.
Management must then determine if the product is available. While
management is doing this you explain to the customer that
availability is being checked, which gives them fear of loss.
Management will then tell you if the item is available, and if it is
what it will take to make a deal. Write down the details
 management gives you about the deal. Note: The phone call is
important because you do not want to leave the customer alone.
While the manager is checking availability they should be asking
you questions, which you relay to your customer, or answer back so
the customer understands the questions such as "Did they try what
we have to offer?" "Did they like it enough to buy it?" If you are
trying to sell yourself and there is no management involved, then
this step is replaced with an intermission in which you excuse
yourself to consider the offer. Remember that being in demand will
help make the sale. Never rush into the decision, but don't make
them wait long either.
9. Negotiate Offer―When you hang up the phone turn the paper
around which you were writing on. Start with what they have to
offer if they are giving you something. Next identify what it is they
are purchasing, including its features. Finally tell them the
conditions of purchase. Draw an X under the initial sale offer and
say, "Please sign here to accept the offer." Shut up! Remember:
The first person who speaks is at a negotiating disadvantage. If
they reject the initial sale offer then ask them what it would take to
make the deal. Write down exactly the conditions of their offer. In
some industries you will make a second call to management,
provide their offer, get a counter offer, show it and explain why then
write down their next offer. Have them sign the offer accepted by
the customer with a statement to the effect of "I will buy and accept
(what they are purchasing) today." Have them write a check or
provide some other form of payment or assurance that they are
purchasing. They may likely resist. Explain that you will use the
surety to convince management their offer is serious, and that
without it you will have no negotiating power against management.
This keeps you on their side as their advocate in the sale. You must
feel like you are their advocate to take this responsibility. If a credit
application is required, this is when you fill it out. You must get
these three things if you want to make a deal: Cash, Credit
Application (if necessary), and Commitment. They are called the 3
Cs. If you cannot get these then I recommend showing them the
product again and explaining the values and benefits. Remember:
Some industries, particularly with large purchases, require a credit
 application even if a loan is not involved. The minimum reason is
for identification purposes. Before you proceed on to the next step,
if they have signed a counter offer then explain that management
does not have to accept their offer but that you will do your best.
Ask them to wish you luck.
10. Speak to Management―This is when you must leave the customer
and meet with management in person. It is purely psychological as
is the rest of this process. If you have not succeeded in getting the 3
Cs, then a closer must go in. If a closer comes in, you go with, but
you say absolutely nothing unless the closer asks you a direct
question. Closing is a fine art discussed below. If a deal is not
established, then management must always have the opportunity to
talk to the customer before contact is broken. If all goes well, at this
stage you finalize the sale.
11. Log Efforts―You must keep track of all sale efforts. Keep detailed
records whether they purchased or not. This leads to step 12.
12. Follow-Up―Follow the customer until they die (or ask you to quit
following). If the customer is serious about making a purchase,
72% will buy within 48 hours & 92% will buy within 14 days. If
you do not follow, then you can rest assured that somebody else
makes the sale. If they do purchase, then continue the relationship
to be sure of their satisfaction, that they remember you for the next
purchase, and they recommend you to others.
Closing Deals
Closing is essentially reselling, but taking to extremes. The closer will
meet and greet and ask the customer about the product they are purchasing
and their terms. Where you asked the customer if they liked the product
well enough to own it, the closer will treat this differently. Here is an
example of a typical close:
Closer Customer
"Did you try our product?" "Yes."
"Did you like it well enough to "Yes." If the customer seems at all
own it?" hesitant, then the closer will go
through the Demo step again.
"Sorry, I can't sell it to you if you The customer often changes their
only like it. If you don't love it you tone here and becomes an instant
 will hate whatever I offer within buyer. If they don't, the closer must
the next 6 months." (This is true!) recommend they find something
The closer gets up to leave. else, even if that means starting
over from scratch.
The closer now has all the advantages. You have spent time wearing the
customer down (attrition). The closer has entered, quite often, with
absolutely no reference point, so they can start completely fresh. Since the
closer is fresh, they do not need to deal with their own emotions. Often by
this time the salesperson is also exhausted and having to deal with their own
emotions. When you start having to deal with your own emotions you
cannot expect to guide someone else's. Without you actually having the
sales experience, developing closing skills is nearly impossible.

Customer & Manager Perceptions

Remember, the customer and your manager are always right until you
convince them otherwise. Attacking or putting down their perspective
immediately creates barriers and conflict. You never want a conflict with a
manager or customer. You will always lose. This does not mean to say Yes
when you mean No (see below). Here our concern is gathering information
adequately before moving into saying "no" without saying no. That means
you must ask questions and effectively listen to what they are telling you.
To be certain, rephrase what they have told you and repeat back for
clarification. You may need to take notes, and clarification may be best
accomplished in writing rather than verbally so you can be sure not to
inadvertently sound negative. It is also highly advisable to take this
information and put it into practice as you examine other possibilities. Here
are some perceptions that can automatically be assumed as incorrect,
meaning they must be handled carefully. Never put down a perception.
The best approach is to repeat the perception for clarity, than empathize
with a statement like "I understand why you would like to have your office
automatically perform all its duties when you click one button."
Perception Reality
I want it all Problem is that you must tell the computer exactly what
to happen you want and provide all the necessary information.
with a single Whenever possible it is preferred the developer provides
click. the simplest procedures possible, but not for this reason.
The simplest procedures reduce human error, which is the
 real problem. Correct, high-quality work is more
important than saving time because poor quality always
costs more in the long run.
I need a If it were simple they would do it themselves. This is
simple potential warning for disaster. Rarely is it as simple as
change... "Bold the title." More likely the simple change involves
something like modifying an argument statement to
change the output, which could affect more than the
desired output. Listen very carefully because you do not
want to make a "simple" global change when it should be
limited.
Why should If it is not broke, don't fix it! Foreseen breakage is just as
I upgrade? good as the real thing. Personally I'd rather foresee
breakage and fix it before it affects my data or output.
Drastically antiquated systems are bound to break at
unexpected times for numerous reasons, and may run
dreadfully slow. These reasons alone should justify
upgrading, but not necessarily jumping to the top of the
market either. Ideally systems should be prepared to be
upgraded to help manage the upgrade costs.
New/More is More is often less, and new is often filled with bugs. To
better. borrow from Gary Gygax (AD&D), these people can be
labeled power users. Power users also like customizing
their toolbars and making their system so unique that they
are lost going to another. Power using runs up the bills
and cuts into productivity. If you do not know what it
does, then learn about it before deciding to upgrade into
it. Remember also that the box and software have a
physical capacity, and that productivity is always slowed
to the slowest component.
I only have There will always be more. If there was no opportunity
X number of for growth, then borrow somebody else's equipment, print
items... masters and photocopy them. Virtually all data is dated
and subject to inflation. When data stagnates it loses its
usefulness.
Instant Always run parallel systems through the training and
 upgrading troubleshooting process. Downtime means money.
Change must be proven effective before it totally replaces
the old. Surprises in IS can be devastating.
Limit testing Nothing seems much worse than testing the upgrade on a
few of the top users for a couple days. Upgrades must be
tested with all denominations of employees in all possible
scenarios. You cannot be certain of anything on such a
limited sampling
All these issues must be treated tactfully. Listen, question, repeat,
empathize then educate without putting down what exists or is desired. In
the end they make the final decision and if they choose incorrectly that is
their problem. If you try deciding for them without their permission, then
they are likely to go elsewhere to someone who will. They cannot blame
you if you follow the steps below.
Saying "NO" Without Saying No
Nobody likes a "Yes-man" and nobody likes confrontation. Outright saying
"no" or putting down someone's ideas or what they have is going to lead to
confrontation. The steps in conflict resolution are identified under
communication failures. No matter how careful you are there will be times
when a conflict emerges, not to mention you are human yourself and it is
remarkably easy to slip and inadvertently cause a confrontation. As the
provider of a product or service to a customer or manager, you will always
lose the confrontation. To avoid confrontations follow these steps (also
listed above) in communication:
1. Listen―This means shutting your mouth, maintaining eye contact,
hearing and understanding what is being said.
2. Question―If you are to ever interrupt, be sure it is a question to
clarify what was just said. If possible listen to everything they have
to say then ask your questions and listen attentively to each of their
answers before moving to the next question.
3. Repeat―This may be integrated with your questions. It further
shows your listening and understanding. I prefer repeating directly,
but at times it may be wise to put the repetition into writing. Put it
in writing if there can be any doubt as to expectations, priorities,
and time frames.
4. Empathize―Show that you understand how they feel, as if you feel
it yourself, or have been there before. This is typically not difficult
to do as you probably have, unless you have no experience with the
product. If you have no experience with the product, then you must
be creative and sound like you understand and sympathize.
5. Educate―Remember that you are the expert or they would not need
you. You do this every day, or at least much more frequently than
they do. Educating someone does not mean you must think of them
as stupid. On the contrary they most definitely have experience and
skills you do not. They are merely ignorant and it is your
responsibility to lift the veil of ignorance by informing them
concisely and expertly. You cannot in a brief time tell them
everything, nor should you. Educate them enough so they
understand the values and benefits of what you are trying to sell.
6. You perform their final decision―This step has some levity
depending on the understanding level of the recipient. This levity is
based on functionality not on your personal benefit. There are times
when you are told to use something that is not appropriate, and the
recipient is so clueless that you must disobey to provide the
requested results. This falls under Captain Kirk's rules of
command, which is seen reflected throughout society. Even our
legal system acknowledges that at times laws must be violated to
enforce laws. As an example, the Constitution may be violated if
and only if there is a compelling interest. The compelling interest
test is extremely vague but may be summarized by the utilitarian
perspective of "serving the greatest good for the greatest number."
In Star Trek, Captain Kirk regularly finds himself in a situation
where he must violate the Prime Directive of non-interference with
less advanced societies in order to either rescue the society from a
natural disaster or to fill the Prime Directive itself. The stories also
mention a test which all commanding officers must take before
leaving Starfleet Academy called the Kobeyashi Maru. Kirk was
noted as being the only cadet to win, but his solution was to
reprogram the computer so a solution could arise. Basically this
boils down to an attitude: "There is always a way, always
alternatives."
The somewhat knowledgeable recipient needs more than flagrant
 disregard for orders. The reason is they may be able to look at the
work and see that you rewrote the rules. If such is the case, the best
approach is to provide them with what they ask and alternatives
which can then be "sold" as better. If their demand is completely
impossible, then it is necessary to show them personally how
impossible it is and to show in your references that it is not just a
matter of you don't know how.
The fully knowledgeable can be a great resource because they can
tell you how to make it work and they have good reasons for doing
things the way they do.
The worst scenario to deal with is an indirect order. It is always
better to interface with the person who made the decision than a
subordinate. Subordinates have no authority to change the decision
and cannot be expected to effectively sell a change. Do your best to
interface directly with the decision maker. This may mean
providing alternatives in a very brief meeting because it was
delegated for a reason. If such is not possible you must assume the
worst: they know what they are talking about and have their
reasons. Reality is they most likely do not know, but it is better to
assume the worst than pay the consequences later.

Communication Failures
Distractions Remove all potential distractions. This can perhaps be
most difficult in an adult classroom where the students
have to attend because their boss said so. Many take
this as the opportunity to catch up on gossip. Decrease
the distance between you and your audience, turn off
fans and other noise sources if necessary, say something
condescending toward yourself that is funny, and if
necessary recommend people separate and work with
others without scolding. For example, "I think you
three would do much better closer to the podium so I
could help you more." Another technique is to keep
talking about the topic (not the distraction) as you
approach them, and be sure that you direct everything
you say at them. Ask them questions about the topic on
 hand. Inevitably they will notice they are being singled
out.
Concision Get to the point. If somebody wants to go into detailed
story telling, let it be the customer. If you are doing
extensive story telling, then the customer perceives you
wasted their time. If, however, you are the audience to
their stories, you are their best friend. That is where
you want to be.
Motivating Motivating is a matter of identifying the needs and
desires of the individual or group then exploiting those
needs and desires. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs from
most important to least are: Physical, Safety,
Belongingness, Esteem, Self-Actualization. If you can
help fill a need inexpensively you can easily purchase
your customer's wallet.
Controlling the Some individuals are control freaks. They will
Conversation dominate the communication by talking too much or
asking nonsensical questions. Remember the person
asking questions is in control, so guide the conversation
with questions and repeating back the needs and desires
you identify. Those who talk too much need an
audience. For such individuals take control by asking
closed questions (they require single word answers like
yes or no). For those who speak too little, ask more
open ended questions then ask even more questions
regarding their responses to get the necessary depth. If
the customer is paying you by the hour and talks to you
the whole time, it is their money, so pay attention and
be sure to accomplish something during the
conversation. No doubt, they are used to accomplishing
dreadfully little in a lot of time, so if you accomplish
something they will fill accomplished.
General Tech talk and the ability to follow directions are major
Comprehension barriers. With most physical product sales, language is
seldom a major issue as the customer has an idea what
they are interested in and you can follow their body
language. Services, on the other hand, require at least
 some ability to communicate in a common language.
Some individuals are completely incapable of following
sequential directions. These individuals need to be
provided controlled physical experiences to learn from
and the assurance that they cannot do anything any
harm. Technical jargon must be avoided unless the
customer exhibits a clear understanding. Even then,
each time you use a technical term, immediately supply
a definition that any human can physically understand.
If you can't, then don't use the term.
Strong All strong emotions are barriers except enthusiasm for
Emotions what you are talking about. They may have other
concerns you must smoke out with questions. If the
concerns may be personal you may pull them aside, tell
them what you perceive and ask if there is anything you
can do. If they are angry do not take it personally.
They have probably had the run-around and are mad at
the situation in general. Empathize by listening to their
woes and avoiding the pitfalls they encountered
previously. If all else fails, assure them you will get to
the bottom of the matter, even if that means taking the
problem personally and tracking down the one person
on the planet who can solve the problem. People do not
want to get bounced around, and will be immensely
happy if you can be the ultimate person to resolve their
problem.
Negativity Use action verbiage like: Right!! Great!! Please follow
(yours) me... Why would you say that? Wouldn't you agree?
Look at this... Sound good to you? Let me show you...
What I would like to do... I understand, however...
Overcoming Objections
Objections are the obstacles between purchasing and not purchasing. A
customer will always buy what they need, so do not count on being able to
fill wants too. The five sequential steps to overcoming objections are:
1. Smoke out the objection (by asking questions about what is the
obstacle and why?)
 2. Identify the objection (listen to their answers)
3. Repeat the objection exactly as stated (or at least concisely)
4. Isolate the object (dissect it into its parts to find the absolute root of
the problem and identify the quality you must meet)
5. Answer the objection (overcome it by meeting the necessary quality
or minimizing it)
Useful Tips
Always assume the sale Start transferring mental
Smoke out intentions ownership
Start building value in your Create desire for ownership
product Create a sense of urgency
In dealing with objections:
Never Always
Give one objection too much Test the validity of the objection
power
Take an objection personally Remind yourself it is not about you
personally
Make verbal proposal or solution Write down proposed solutions and
without writing particulars down summarize your efforts in terms of
values and benefits
Abandon negotiations because of Use the objection as a focal point
an objection for reaching an agreement
Confuse the person with the Address the objection without
objection making it about the buyer (e.g.
without blame)
Let yourself be convinced the Test the objection for its influence
objection will prevent the sale and validity in the process
Put the buyer in a non-reversible Leave it open for the buyer to make
position (corner them) a decision ("If you aren't happy then
I don't expect you to do business
here.")
Let objections get your spirit down Keep your attitude and appearance
up (e.g. smile) no matter what
Totally ignore an objection Show empathy and understanding
Give in to an objection right away Check the validity by asking for
 elaboration
Interrupt while they state their Listen and allow them to explain
objection themselves
Money Issues
Customers are more resistant to making a decision than parting with money,
so eliminate all other objections first. All costs are justified if:
The customer understands the costs of lesser products
The customer understands the values and benefits of the product
The customer perceives good service
The customer perceives timely professionalism
Time Issues
Scotty's Law says you should multiply all time estimates by four, then
provide the results in half the time. The factor of four guarantees the task is
accomplished and is functional without obvious errors. Take twice as long
to provide the results as your personal estimate just to be sure it is correct.
This also gives you time to run drafts past the customer for approval.
Scotty's Law must sometimes be expanded, and most notably with
applications development, such as web design, database design, graphics
design, etc. Those who have worked in these fields know that most projects
can be completed over night.
It is hard to justify charging $30,000 for a database design you did in six
hours if the customer knows you took six hours. These projects may be
quick for a developer, but you should sit on the project and run test data
through it over a period of months before you ask for such a large dollar
amount. If they need a quick patch to get by, charge a lot by all means, then
take your time delivering the rest. This may seem like a big lie, but in
reality there are good reasons for taking your time with development.
Often, in primary research, I find it wise to walk away for months or even
years, then double back to see if the logic still works and provides the
expected results. During the waiting period you must be creative and think
about anything that could possibly break the system you devised. You
should also think of ways it can be made more concise, or provide extra
useful features. DO NOT SHOW A COMPLETE WORKING MODEL
UNTIL CLOSE TO THE END OF THE DELIVERY PERIOD! Even then,
try to only show parts. It is too easy for the customer to try and rush
something that really should be taken slowly and carefully. The more time
you have with the development, the less likely it is to break and the more
satisfied your customer will be. Instant delivery usually results in thoughts
like, "If you could do it that fast, it must be real easy so maybe I should get
a book and do it myself." That is not good for business. If they try this,
they will be going to someone else to fix what they messed up, and I can
almost guarantee they will.

Overcoming Fear
The largest obstacle between the user and understanding is fear. Fear
results from our sense of boundaries, and is useful to our sense of safety.
We learn to build boundaries by borrowing those of our elders as we grow
up. Boundaries get stronger with age because what could take years to
build can be destroyed in seconds, so we get "gun shy." I like to use the
following discussion with new users to help destroy their boundaries.
Consider the discussion and stories carefully as they may prove helpful.
Fear and boundaries are a direct function of age and an inverse function of
knowledge. The greater the age, the greater the fear and boundaries. The
greater the understanding, the lower the fear and boundaries.
Elements of Human Nature
The elements of human nature describe not only our purpose here, but the
entire nature of Primo Levi's book: The Periodic Table (translated from Il
Sistema Periodico). We cannot explore all the elements of human nature,
but will place particular emphasis on our sense of boundaries, their source,
the ways they create fear in us, and how this affects both learning and
interfacing with technology. To accomplish this we will examine two brief
stories: Blade Runner (based on the movie by Ridley Scott and the book
entitled Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep? by Phillip K. Dick) and
Titanium (from Primo Levi's book The Periodic Table). It is easy to think
these stories balance the past with the future, but both have timeless
messages regarding human nature that concern us here.
Blade Runner is science fiction that comes close to home not only in dates
but also in the current advances and capabilities of technology. Some
readers mistakenly are drawn literally into the images based on beliefs and
religion without realizing the underlying meanings. The images themselves
are easily applied to any religion or conception of human symbolism.
Deckard is an anti-hero whose transformation is overcome by what he fears
the most: the technology he is intended to destroy. Not only does he find
the technology is not to be feared, he discovers himself and inner
happiness. There are some factors of the original story omitted from our
reading. For example, Rachel is a replicant whom Deckard has innocently
fallen in love with before being ordered to destroy her. The movie and
book are both overflowing with rich imagery which could not possibly be
fit in this short space.
Titanium is an adorable little story until you realize the context in which it
is told. Primo Levi survived the Nazi prison camps…. Usually that line is
enough to send anyone back to the story because all of a sudden it isn't just
a story about a cute, curious little girl and a painter. Suddenly it is a story
about the deaths of millions of Jews, Gypsies and homosexuals. Not only is
it a story about this, but also of hundreds of millions slaughtered throughout
this century in other mass-executions (Mao Tse Tung, Stalin, etc.). This
story briefly describes a small area of human nature in which we allow
others to construct and destroy our personal boundaries (e.g. values and
fears). In the background are countless images alluding to totalitarianism,
the number one source of unnecessary mass death: controlling the way
other people think. Some of these images include: white (washing: and all
from one can everything is painted! e.g. propaganda), paper boat hat (ships
were and remain the primary instruments of military power). In spite of all
the strange things, Maria trusts the power of the circle. We all do. We all
trust the circles constructed for us by those we looked up to as children.
That is, until we realize them and our own power to escape and explore on
our own.
Why both stories? I have used these stories for several years to teach these
same concepts to students in a wide range of fields. Sometimes one story
works better than another. Other times both are needed. What determines
this is the audience. For this reason the last part of the Windows project is
to respond and describe which story best achieves the objectives
(overcoming personal fears and boundaries) for you and why. Everyone
has fear to one degree or another. Most people have an initial fear of
technology because they do not understand. They fear hurting something
because their parents always told them "Don't force it! You'll break it!"
The most breakable items on a computer are either replaced cheaply or, in
the case of software, easily reinstalled. If you lose information, figure out
why, go back and make sure it doesn't happen again. When we realize
technology is a tool and we are the masters, then we have the courage to
make our servant technology work for us.
Blade Runner
In 1492 a dream began-a dream of prosperity in a far away land, a land
we now call America. For many, prosperity meant material wealth and
power. It is 2017. Millions scramble and work for the so-called American
dream, in the city of the angels: Los Angeles. Monolithic buildings rise
above the street markets, a testament to the success of a few overlooking
the many, the struggling. Billboards remind the masses that there is a better
place, a place off world-and this is a hell to be risen up from. So desperate
and wanton of material, of rising up in success, these so-called humans
have perfected their art: the creation of cybernetic slaves called replicants.
Their motto: to build replicants "more human than human." In their zeal
they succeeded.
Realizing their success, they give replicants a shortened life-four years-
and a death sentence for acclimating with the "humans" of Earth: issued by
bounty hunters called "blade runners." Deckard is a blade runner. He
"retires" replicants seeking the ultimate American dream: humanity.
Deckard does not like his job-he feels like he is killing "people" not
mindless androids. Little does Deckard realize, but his emotion-sense is
very accurate. The replicants, in their abbreviated lives, are forced to live,
forced to love and appreciate life, where humans take their long lives for
granted. The replicants have become more human than the humans.
Today pilgrimages are made to churches, temples and other holy
places. The hope: to someday meet the maker-God. Why? To receive
eternal life and the answers to the questions: where do I come from? why
am I here? where am I going? when? Roy Batty is a religious pilgrim, and
his "God," Tyrell, is in Los Angeles. Roy's crime: he is a replicant. Roy is
Tyrell's "prodigal son," the embodiment of being "more human than
human."
Deckard becomes an unwitting student of Roy's humanity. Deckard
has no aspirations and no faith. Deckard lives one day at a time, from one
bottle of alcohol to the next-knowing no love for himself or anyone else;
without compassion. He drowns the moral dilemma of killing a replicant
with liquor, a coward running from his own humanity. Goff, an omniscient-
insightful blade runner, makes a paper chicken (origami) while Deckard
searches Leon's apartment. The chicken represents Deckard's
cowardliness. Later, Goff makes a matchstick man, as with the manikins
this symbolizes Deckard's falsity, an empty man, a man without a life nor a
soul.
Deckard is asleep at the wheel of life-his eyes do not see. Roy does
see. He says, "If you could see through your eyes what I can see through
mine. . . . " Roy is a prophet, leading his people to the land of salvation, the
promise land, a Messiah of the replicants. To this end he sacrifices himself
and repents: this is Roy's "great moral idea," cementing replicants into a
"solid union" of humanity. He aspires "to eternal aims:" "absolute
gladness" in being human. Roy sees humanity, and repents his birth-sin,
being born a replicant, in the image of Christ-driving a nail through his
palm.
As the story reaches its climax it is easy to believe that the final
conflict is between Deckard and Roy. Deckard is really confronting
himself. He runs-not from Roy but himself. Deckard is still a coward, still
blind to the reality confronting him, still blind to being human. Deckard
leads an unexamined life-guilty of a wasted life. Roy, the prophet replicant,
is a mirror to Deckard's soul. Roy does not intend to kill Deckard. Roy is
ultimately human-compassionate enough to give life to the man who has
opposed him, killed his friends, killed his lover, who would kill him as
well. Roy seeks forgiveness, with room enough in his heart to forgive
Deckard.
As Deckard runs frantically from Roy, he makes a giant leap-a leap for
life. As before, Deckard does not have the strength to complete the leap--
Roy does. As Deckard hangs, clinging to the life he does not have, Roy
gives his prophetic hand, raising Deckard from lifelessness. Roy says,
"Quite an experience to live in fear. That is what it is like to be a slave."
Roy's words are filled with meaning, very deep. Deckard has been a
coward, living in fear of himself. His fear is like a child's fear of "closet
monsters"-absent of realism. Deckard is a slave to his fear. Where children
fear sleep, fearing the "monsters" will come and devour them, Deckard
fears life-being consumed in his own reality.
Roy sets a confused Deckard on the rooftop sanctuary. Deckard is
powerless against Roy's humanity. Roy knows the value of life-giving it to
Deckard. Roy's final achievement is absolute gladness in death-
appreciating his own significance when he says, "All those moments will be
lost in time like tears in rain. Time to die." Roy got what he came for: a
soul. Roy releases a white dove-a symbol of peace and serenity in the hell
where the angels have fallen. His last moments are harmonious: a poet in
words and kind, baring his soul before God and Deckard. Roy's arms,
forming a cross, continue his Christian theme, his messianic character.
Deckard watches with awe as the most human Roy dies. Deckard has
undergone a profound transformation from the esthetical to the ethical.
Only now can Deckard appreciate Goff's words: "It's too bad she won't live
. . . but then again, who does?" Life is precious-not to be wasted in the
bottom of a bottle. He loves life. He loves himself. He loves Rachel. He
is no longer a coward-as Goff says, "You've done a man's job sir." An
origami unicorn-the fabled immortal horse who loved nymphs-presents an
image of purity, immortality and love. Everything has been dark, dismal, a
hell on Earth. Now, Deckard is ready for the pure northern lands-a heaven
to live and love in.
Primo Levi's Titanium
To Felico Fantino
In the kitchen was a very tall man dressed in a way Maria had never
seen. On his head he wore a boat made out of a newspaper. As he smoked
a pipe, he was painting the pantry white.
It was incomprehensible how all that white could be contained in so
small a can. Maria had a great desire to go over and look inside it. Every
so often the man rested his pipe on the pantry shelf and whistled. Then he
stopped whistling and began singing. Every so often he took two steps
back and closed one eye, or he would go spit in the garbage can and rub his
mouth with the back of his hand. In short, he did so many strange and new
things. It was very interesting to stay and watch him. When the pantry was
white, he picked up the pot and the newspapers up from the floor and
carried everything to the cupboard and began to paint that too.
The pantry was so shiny, clean, and white that it was almost irresistible
to touch it. Maria went up to the pantry, but the man noticed and said,
"Don't touch. You mustn't touch." Maria stopped in amazement and asked,
"Why?" "Because you shouldn't," he replied. Maria thought about that,
and then asked again, "Why is it so white?" The man also thought for a
while, as if the question seemed difficult to him, and then said in a deep
voice, "Because it is titanium." The pipe in his mouth made his answer
sound like "tee tahl-ee-oh," which Maria interpreted as "ti taglio" meaning
"I cut you". Maria felt a delicious shiver of fear run through her, as when in
the fairy tale you get to the ogre; so she looked carefully and saw that the
man did not have knives either in his hand or near him: but he could have
one hidden. Then she asked, "Cut what on me?"--and at this point he
should have replied, "Cut your tongue." Instead, he only said, "I'm not
cutting anything: this is titanium."
Maria concluded that he must be a very powerful man. He did not
seem to get angry, but was rather good-natured and friendly. Maria asked
him, "Mister, what's your name?" He replied, "Felice." He had not taken
the pipe from his mouth, so Maria thought he said alice (the i sounds like a
long e) meaning small anchoves. And when he spoke his pipe danced up
and down but did not fall. Maria stood for a while in silence, looking
alternately at the man and the pantry. She was not at all satisfied by his
answer and wanted to ask him why he had such a strange name, but then
she did not dare because she remembered that children must never ask why.
Her friend, a child, was called Alice and it was really strange that a big man
should have the same name. But little by little it began to seem natural that
he should be called Alice, and in fact she thought he could not have been
called anything else.
The painted pantry was so white that comparatively the rest of the
kitchen looked yellow and dirty. Maria decided there was nothing wrong in
going to look at it up close. Only look, without touching. As she
approached on tiptoe an unexpected and terrible thing happened: the man
turned and in two steps was beside her. He took a piece of white chalk from
his pocket and drew a circle on the floor around Maria. Then he said, "You
must stay in there." He struck a match, lit his pipe, making many strange
grimaces with his mouth, and then continued painting the cupboard.
Maria sat on her heels and attentively considered the circle for a long
time. She became convinced that there was no way out. She tried to rub it
at one spot with her finger and saw that the chalk line actually disappeared.
She understood very well that the man would not have regarded that system
as valid. The circle was evidently magical. Maria sat on the floor quietly,
every so often she tried to reach far enough to touch the circle with the tips
of her feet and leaned forward so far that she almost lost her balance. She
soon realized that there was still a good hand's breadth before she could
reach the pantry or wall with her fingers. So she just sat there and watched
as gradually the cupboard, chairs, and table also became white and
beautiful.
After a very long time the man put down his brush and paint pot and
took the newspaper boat off his head. Maria could see he had hair like all
other men. Then he went out by the balcony and Maria heard him
rummaging around and tramping up and down in the next room. Maria
began to call, "Mister!" ―first in a low voice, then louder, but not too loud
because at the bottom she was afraid that the man might hear.
Finally the man returned to the kitchen. Maria asked, "Mister, can I
come out now?" The man looked down at Maria in the circle, laughed
loudly, and said many things that were incomprehensible, but he didn't seem
angry. At last he said, "Yes, of course, now you can come out." Maria
looked at him perplexed and did not move. Then the man picked up a rag
and wiped away the circle very carefully, to undo the enchantment. When
the circle had disappeared, Maria got up and left, skipping and feeling very
happy and satisfied.

Analyzing Business Requirements (MCSD)

TCO and ROI
Total Cost of Ownership (TCO) is the overall short and long-term costs of
implementing a solution. This not only includes development costs but also
the costs of other hardware requirements, corporate infrastructure
requirements (the software and everything outside the computer including
the office, furniture, cords, hubs, personnel, management and services, etc.)
and training. Various models will give or take priority (even eliminating)
these items. The objective is not to minimize but to optimize costs.
Microsoft's Solutions Framework TCO model views TCO as a continual
process with three phases: planning (benchmarks based on industry
averages; baselines of actual costs of acquiring, managing and retiring
assets; validation and ROI), building (simulated impact on ROI) and
managing (validation of TCO optimization strategy against objectives and
projections). Short-term savings seldom, if ever, means lower TCO.
The lifecycle approach to TCO optimizes by element: development of code
and content, downtime/other for planned and unplanned downtime of
development and testing, end-user costs of training and support, hardware
and software costs, support of maintenance (disaster recovery, help desk,
administration and user training), telecommunications fees for distribution
and sharing of information, management of data, networks and systems.
Most costs are incurred from the labor of developing, supporting and
maintenance. To reduce costs take advantage of existing structures like
system policies, logon scripts, and user profiles that require education to
overcome. Also, define clearly asset management procedures, standard
operating environments, and training. A major objective in TCO planning
is to network operations, network and data management, administration and
help-desk as self-sufficient as possible to lower user dependence on the IT
processes (e.g. users do not have to regularly call the developers to
accomplish their tasks).
Return on Investment is a projection estimating how much the client gets
financially for the TCO. This might include accounting for increased
production, decreased overhead costs, increased reliability of results (e.g.
reducing quality control and shrink losses), etc.
Project Scope
The number and complexity of tasks the project components will perform is
the scope. The business process expected to be emulated is the project
domain. This must be divided into what will be implemented by humans
and what processes will be implemented by your solution, which is your
responsibility. The tasks are then divided into modular units. The
modularity of your design is then directly affected by the geography of the
implementation, the number of expected user, the cost and time limitations
of developing. Often the project is bigger than the cost and time limitations
permit. The best approach is to present the problem to the client and adjust
the scope to meet the restrictions in the meantime. Explain what is being
done to accommodate the limitations and what changes are needed to meet
the expectations.
Extent of Requirements
Business requirements are the elements of the project that are required by
the client's needs, and are separate from the needs of system requirements
(e.g. data access and communications) which are also important to your
design. A business requirement is a specific task in the client's workflow.
Parts of the task are called business rules, which are written in English then
coded to function. Managing inventory is a business requirement, while
stating to reorder when the quantity on hand drops below the minimum, is a
business rule. Do not confuse business rules with the internal logic of a
system, like requiring a keep-alive message be sent to the server when
inactivity occurs for a given period of time. Also do not confuse business
rules with operating procedures that apply to humans or formatting rules
applied to documents. Rules often work together. For example, another
rule may specify how an item is reordered.
The extent of requirements is directly affected by the type of problem
(communication, messaging, computation, logic, data access, etc.), the
required qualities (number of users, maintenance scheduling, unscheduled
downtime, etc.), and the quality of the solution. While quality is preferred,
no system is perfect (bug-free). As such you must carefully gauge what
imperfections are acceptable based on time and cost limitations, and how
they are handled. When it comes to cost-effectiveness, businesses do not
always chose what is best for them, and more is not always better. The
benefits of the system must justify the costs.
Security
In the following considerations and their descriptions I am showing
preference for using Active Directory of Windows 2000 as it appears to be
the most efficient in defining security systems. The questions of security
involve who has access to what information, from where, when and how.
Consideration Description
Roles Administrator, Group, Guest, and Client have different
degrees of security access. Often administrators have
the most and guests have the least, but this is not
necessarily correct. It is better to look at roles in terms
of groups (e.g. administrators, guests and clients), their
roles in the network, and their need for access to parts
of the network.
Fault Tolerance This should be approached from a data safety
perspective rather than as fault tolerance. Because
passwords are fallible (and often shared), different
degrees of data safety should be established, then
security measures and rules are established based on
those levels.
Maintainability Going along with fault tolerance this could include
expiration of passwords, validation of passwords as not
 belonging to a particular language and containing both
numbers and text. This category also includes
reviewing additions and changes to the system,
procedures, physical security of the system, and
auditing.
Security Stores logon information including logon name,
Database password, and access rights to network resources. It
appears the easiest system to manage is Active
Directory in Windows 2000, however, for full effect all
computers on the network need to have Windows
2000, which may not be cost efficient. Note: Windows
95 and 98 have limited compatibility with Active
Directory and NT is completely incompatible.
Auditing This has nothing to do with money. Security audits
mean reviewing security procedures, preventing lapses
in security, and tracking unauthorized access.
Security Levels Those with the least have access to the least. Start
with absolute deprivation of resources then allow
access as needed according to grouping of users (see
roles). Typically no single individual has total
autonomy in all security levels.
Existing What security levels exist and why? Based on the why
Methods and you can determine what should be in place, compare
Policies that to what exists and recommend additions or
changes.
Workgroup The workgroup model stores logon and access
information on the individual computers. This is fine
for a very small network where there are occasional
shared files and folders and network devices (like
printers). On a large scale you are better off with a
domain architecture using something like Active
Directory to manage system resources and centralize
the logon and access databases.
Performance
Consideration Description
 Interoperability The solution must meet or exceed existing data
standards.
Response-time This should be minimized as much as possible, and
definitely compared to the existing system, as the client
may be justifiably displeased if the new system is
slower than the old (unless there was poor quality
resulting from the previous system or less features that
justify the time loss).
Transactions Number per time slice, bandwidth consumption, and
capacity of transactions conducted simultaneously and
through time.
Barriers This includes users, infrastructure, computers and other
components that may cause bottlenecking resulting in
slow or failed performance.
Peak vs. It is best to design for functionality during peak usage
Average rather than average. If forced to do average be aware
that the system may fail during peak usage.
Maintenance
The following considerations should be considered in order
Consideration Description
Support Staff You must know the knowledge level and accessibility
of support staff (in-house, third party, etc.) for the
recipients to determine the necessary resources and
training they will need.
Distribution To whom is the solution distributed and where? Is
Breadth support staff available?
Recipient While recipient knowledge is important to determine
Knowledge the training requirements, it is not a function of any
other part of solution development. Solution
developments must follow organization standards, not
be aimed at the lowest common denominator of user.
Expectations What maintenance is expected and who will provide
it?
Life Cycle This is a major issue potentially affecting everything.
You need to project into the future. Assume first there
 will be no upgrade, and predict how much data will
accumulate and the ability of solutions to
accommodate. Then assume that upgrades will occur
and determine methods so they can occur.
Distribution How will the solution be best distributed?
Method
Redistribution How will you manage reinstallation of applications
because files have been corrupted?
Scalability and Extensibility
Scalability is the ability of services in the system to run concurrently. This
requires independence of services capable of simultaneous operation on
multiple machines. Extensibility is a function of modularity, allowing
services to be individually (asymmetrically) updated (think Component
Object Model), meaning the entire system does not need to be rebuilt to
make a change.
Consideration Description
Data Growth This is a serious issue in database design. It can be
approached in many ways. You must ask: What data
is significant? For how long? Does old data get
destroyed or archived or a combination of both? Can
it be compressed? How?
Organization What is the client's projected growth? This directly
Growth impacts audience and data growth.
Audience Will the number of users increase? Who might they
Growth be?
Cycle of Use How long will the solution be used?
Availability
Consideration Description
Operation In systems where there is no time for maintenance, the
Times best solution is to run parallel systems where the clients
may be automatically rerouted, then pull one system off-
line at a time to perform maintenance.
Levels The number of users who need simultaneous access is
calculated based on peak usage.
 Geography Distributed applications must provide for networking
constraint issues to prevent unnecessary bottlenecking.
This may require replication of components and data.
For example, a quality control system that sends large
amounts of data to a network data where housing server
could reduce the network bottlenecking (and labor of
the data server) by condensing the information and
formatting it on the client computer.
Downtime Prepare plans for both scheduled and unscheduled
downtimes.
Targeting the Audience
While it is important to define solutions that are technically feasible, and
financially practical and profitable, the solution must be sold to the client
(see the first half of this lesson). Individual proposals must each be
addressed and diplomatically resolved, politics must be balanced, and
communications must be metered based on the client's technical know-how
and solution explanations must be thorough in explaining and justifying
choices. Other audience targeting concerns follow.
Consideration Description
Environment Account for the physical environment needs of the
computer.
Accessibility Account for the proximity of the user to the computer
versus the amount and method of use.
Special Needs Account for the physical limitations of the user based on
handicaps, context of use, and other special input
methods.
Users Account for the capabilities of the users, including
linguistic, cultural, experience level, training
requirements and working conditions. Account for
outside access to or portability of resources if necessary
to accommodate roaming users.
Support/Help Account for technical support for the users and
administrators, including any necessary training and
documentation.
Integrating with Existing Systems
Issue Description
Legacy Do not attempt to completely redefine everything
application and deprive the client of existing structures they are
compatibility familiar with (their comfort zone). It is wise to
initially maintain legacy software until the new
software is comfortable with the users. As such the
new system must be compatible with the old (e.g. get
data from it and send data to it). This does not mean
you cannot give new features, because those are
likely the whole reason you developed a new
solution, and will eventually mean all users convert
to the new.
Connectivity to Be cautious of replacing other existing systems just
existing to make the new one work. For example, you
applications introduce a new database system with Access, with
procedures that require users to use Excel instead of
the existing Lotus 1-2-3 unless you can really justify
the change. You want the new system to integrate
with old systems as much as possible.
Format and Prepare for data transfers by identifying its format,
location of how it will be transported, from where to where.
existing data
Data conversion To optimize connectivity to legacy and existing
applications you need to account for conversion
methods, either in code as an utility or less
preferably through procedure. You cannot expect
perfect convertibility with all other applications, so I
recommend at least providing conversion to the most
common and simplest formats.
Data enhancement This may include new formatting methods, data
compression, or simply new data. Each of these will
pose problems with compatibility. A certain obstacle
to compatibility is changing data types and shapes.
Business Methods and Limitations
Consideration Description
EDI Electronic Data Interchange is used for batch
transferring of information between banks and
between businesses. On the Internet, ASP and CGI
are used as a form of EDI available to individuals
also. According to the Electronic Commerce
Innovation Centre: "The transfer of structured data, by
agreed message standards, from one computer to
another, by electronic means." Communicating
systems are synchronized by sequencing and
formatting data at the presentation level of the OSI.
Business Ideally meet current practices, and only if absolutely
Practices necessary propose modifying those practices.
Needs Sometimes the most difficult thing to identify, as often
the client believes the problem is in one place and the
solution is several places removed. You must be able
to smoke out the needs by examining the whole
process to find faults, bottlenecks, points that can or
must be changed, etc.
Organization This includes both business politics and workflow.
Structure
Budget If the solution exceeds the budget constraints seek a
lesser solution and present the issue to the client.
Deployment Distributing, implementing and training may be
affected by existing systems. The schedule must
accommodate for full functionality of the new system,
or full functionality of incremental parts.
Quality Control Aim for optimum in your solution and work with the
client's QC department to ensure you meet or exceed
their requirements and documentation therefore.
Process Attempt to follow or at least understand their methods
Engineering for developing solutions.
Legal Issues While these should be left ideally to the client's
lawyers, you need to be aware of legal issues
surrounding your solutions, not limited to liability,
copyright, privacy and libel conflicts.
Acceptance There is always resistance to change, and the more
 extreme the change the greater the resistance. Always
account for the degree of technical complexity the
client is willing to accept. The simplest solution that
also meets requirements is always the best.
Reluctance comes from: fear of extensive additional
work, fear of inability to interface with the new
system, fear of unfamiliarity/dissatisfaction of
abandoning the familiar, fear jobs are being
challenged, and fear of obsolescence/downsizing.
Computer Hardware and software (operating system) platforms,
Environment and the abilities of the client's technical staff are
serious issues of your solution. Try to retain and
utilize as much of the existing system as possible, and
thoroughly justify any alteration or addition.
Migration Migrating to the new system requires careful planning
and consideration of: impact on production, testing,
post migration interruptions, and contingency
planning for possible conflicts and failures.
Infrastructure The total set of resources necessary to implement and
support an enterprise's computing environment. This
includes technologies and standards, operational
processes (policies, procedures, services), people/staff
and organizational skills (e.g. knowledge and
management). The military uses Logistics in a similar
manner.
Worksheet 1—Analyzing Requirements
 Unit 2—Hardware & Software
Contents
Lesson 1—Computers
1. Computers in General 3. System Unit Components
2. Computer Types 4. Motherboard Components
Lesson 2—Hardware
1. CPU (Central Processing 4. Input and Output
Unit) 5. Expansion and Peripheral
2. Other Major Computer System Components
Chips
3. Secondary Storage
Lesson 3—Software
1. Operating Systems 2. Major Software Types
Lesson 4—Purchasing a Computer
1. System Source 3. Expandability
2. CPU 4. Peripherals
5. Software
 Lesson 1—COMPUTERS
Objectives
1. Computers in General 3. System Unit Components
2. Computer Types 4. Motherboard Components

Computers in General
Data Types
Data types are typically divided into text, graphics, audio and video, but
would include other forms of output when robotics is involved or other
physical operations like printing. Data is stored using binary codes (on/off
or 1/0 switches) called bits in bundles called bytes. The smallest byte
consists of eight bits. All bytes and storage capacities are divisible by
eight. Windows 95 uses a 16-bit bundle per byte, while Windows 98 uses a
32-bit bundle per byte. The advantage of large byte bundles is the ability to
store a wider variety of information in greater detail in less space (e.g.
graphics). The computer only understands binary bundles, so all
information given to the computer is converted into binary, and all output
must be interpreted from binary to provide useful information to the user.
Storage
Primary (internal) storage (memory) temporarily holds information (input,
software, and output), while secondary (external) storage stores the
information for later sessions of use. Secondary storage is typically built
into systems (e.g. the disk drives). The primary storage in a computer is the
RAM. When the computer does not have enough RAM to store all the
information being processes, Windows 95 and above will create swap files,
which are temporary files, on the hard drive to make up for the deficiency.
As we discussed previously, data is stored in binary. Both primary and
secondary storage are measured in the number of bytes they can contain. A
kilobyte (Kb) is one thousand bytes (more accurately 1,024 bytes) of
information. A megabyte (Mb) is a million bytes (more accurately,
1,024,000) bytes of information. A gigabyte (Gb) is a billion bytes of
information. As you may have noted, the actual quantities are slightly
higher. The reason is these are also divisible by eight.
Conventional RAM ranges from 32 Mb (minimum) to 258 Mb and beyond.
Although 32 Mb is adequate, 64 Mb is practical for most general use.
Typically more RAM is not necessary unless the computer is used for heavy
graphics or otherwise is expected to process extremely large amounts of
information. AltaVista’s on-line computers, for example, run several Gb of
RAM to support their enormous database. Computer purchasers should
also be attentive to Shared RAM. Some computers will designate some of
the RAM to video and audio, hence sharing the RAM. Others will use
accelerator cards with their own built-in memory, which should be preferred
but is not necessary unless you expect to do a lot of graphics, video games
or otherwise process large amounts of data. There are a variety of RAM
types, most popular of which at present is PC100. The type specifies the
type of BUS (see Motherboard Components below) necessary to attach the
RAM board to the motherboard. In the case of PC100, the 100 refers to the
speed of the memory in megahertz (100 MHz).
Secondary storage devices have a wide range of storage sizes. 3.5” floppies
store from 720 Kb (for DD) to 1.44 (for HD). CD ROMs store 640 Mb
(CD-RWs store up to 720 Mb). Hard (fixed) disk drives currently range
from 3.2 Gb to over 80 Gb. The typical user will not currently need more
than 6.4 Gb on a hard drive.
Hardware versus Software
Hardware is the physical equipment, while software consists of the
commands that makes the equipment perform actions. Hardware consists
of two major categories: the system unit and peripherals. The system unit is
the computer case and everything inside the computer case. The actual
computer is the CPU (discussed later), while everything not in the CPU
(including the motherboard) is considered external to the computer, even if
it is inside (internal to) the system unit. Peripherals are everything that is
plugged into and is external to the system unit (e.g. mouse, keyboard,
printer, monitor, scanner, etc.)
A program is a set of instructions that tells the computer what actions to
perform and how to perform them. Applications software perform tasks
involving user input and outputting information in a useful format for the
user. System software enables applications software to run on the system's
hardware devices, also called the Operating System.
Computer Types
General Use Microcomputers
Devices using microprocessor technology that perform computations built
into other devices such as calculators, clocks, stereos, microwave ovens,
cars, etc.
Microcomputers (PCs)
Computers constructed using microprocessor technology small enough for
common availability and use. Sizes range from palmtop (handheld) to
desktop. PC and Mac are hardware platforms whose components are
typically incompatible and require different programs to operate.
Midrange Computers
Also called minicomputers, are often used as servers for networks with too
many users to fit the capabilities of a PC. These systems may range from
the size of a desktop to the size of a desk or large filing cabinet.
Mainframes
A large computer, typically filling a room, used in large organizations with
large amounts of data and many network users. These handle high volume
jobs, such as billing for a large company.
Super Computers
Typically not as large as mainframes, but considerably more powerful as
they are capable of performing extensive computations with extreme
accuracy. These are often used in scientific applications and computer
animation for movies.

System Unit Components

Casing/Housing The box that contains the computer's internal
components. Not any box will do, as boxes are
designed for specific boards, power supplies, etc.
Controller Cards These are also called expansion cards. This will
(Add-In Boards) include cards for controlling external devices,
accelerator cards, drive controller cards, most
modems and network cards, etc.
Drives Although drives are technically external storage
 devices, typically at least one floppy drive, a fixed
drive and CD ROM drive are built into the box.
Peripheral/External This includes all the input and output devices:
Devices monitors, keyboards, pointing devices, printers, etc.
These are not part of the CPU but are attached to it.
Motherboard A large printed circuit board (PC board) intimately
connected with all the computer components. The
components of the Motherboard are listed below.
Power Supply Regulates and distributes electricity to the
components of the computer. On examination you
will note that one set of cables goes to the
Motherboard. Other cables also go to the drives as a
minor indication that they are separate from (and
external to) the primary computer unit (the
Motherboard and the controller cards).
System Fan Attached to the hottest part of the computer (the
Power Supply). The fan pulls air through little vents
around the computer (usually opposite of the power
supply so air passes over the Motherboard), and
blows the air out the back of the Power Supply. In
old systems this was the only item to control the
temperature in the computer.

Motherboard Components
The motherboard is a printed circuit board holding most, if not all of the
major computer chips, but always the Processor (CPU). Other components
of the motherboard include:
Battery The system battery maintains the system clock while there
is no external power to the system. Old batteries were
long thin rectangles. Newer models use a large round
battery.
BIOS See CMOS below. Basic Input/Output System: The BIOS
designates your boot sequence (the order in which the
computer checks the drives for the system files to start the
computer) and other primary settings of your computer. It
may be modified by booting the computer and pressing the
 [Delete] button on your keyboard when prompted to do so
(about the same time the computer is checking its
memory). In later Pentiums you can boot off of the CD-
ROM, which is useful for Windows 98 and Linux
installations. Note: some BIOS features include a virus
protection feature that will halt the system if anything
attempts to write to the boot sector or partition table of the
hard disk during the boot sequence.
BUS Slots into which expansion boards may be inserted, to
include AGP for video cards, ISA and PCI for most
expansion boards, and DIMM for RAM (e.g. EDO and
SDRAM (includes PC100)). BUS speed, measured in
megahertz (MHz) affects the rate at which information is
transferred from one board to another. The current
standard is 100 MHz, though some are slower and current
technology makes 200 MHz possible.
CMOS Set of instructions providing the basic interface between
hardware devices and the operating system stored on an
EPROM (erasable/programmable read-only memory)
chip. Sets the current date and time, the type of hard and
floppy disk drives installed, and the display type. The
BIOS typically auto-detects the memory size. From the
CMOS you can access the BIOS features setup where you
can enable and disable components, set the boot sequence,
set a system password, etc.
Co- Other processor chips apart from but contributory toward
Processors the function of the CPU, such as a math co-processor.
CPU See next lesson.
Jumpers and Jumpers and switches are physical components that must
Switches be manually set before the motherboard is used. Jumpers,
unless otherwise specified here, are used to: identify the
processor, set the processor voltage (switches), use a
number 2 key on the keyboard to turn the system power
on, select the DIMM clock, temporarily clear the CMOS,
set the Network Interface Card (NIC) to wake the system
 (Wake On LAN or WOL), and to set a Sound Blaster (SB)
LINK.
Ports Many motherboards have connectors built into them for
the mouse, keyboard and monitor. Any socket a peripheral
device may be plugged into is called a port. Ports come in
two types: LPT (for printers, scanners and other stand
alone (e.g. also plug into the wall) devices ), COM (for
communications devices, mice, keyboards and other
dependent peripherals) and USB (optional in later
Pentiums) for high speed connections to components that
would otherwise plug into either LPT or COM (MACs
alone support USB mice).
Processor A powerful fan mounted directly on top of the processor.
Fan This fan forces air very rapidly over the processor, keeping
the processor the coldest part of the computer.
Slots (IDE & These slots specifically connect to the drives using a wide
ESDI) ribbon to reduce cross-talk (information jumping from one
line to another) and increase communications speed (up to
10 million bits per second or Mbps).
 Lesson 2—HARDWARE
Objectives
1. CPU (Central Processing 4. Input and Output
Unit) 5. Expansion and Peripheral
2. Other Major Computer System Components
Chips
3. Secondary Storage

CPU (Central Processing Unit)

Processors in General
The CPU is the central processing unit, which performs arithmetic
operations and controls the flow of information among the hardware
components. The CPU is composed of an arithmetic/logic unit (ALU),
control unit (which directs the flow of electronic traffic), registers (storage
area for processing ALU and control unit operations), and buses (the parts
connecting the CPU to the motherboard and its components). CPU is also
often used as a general term for the main computer unit (the box with
motherboard, memory, etc.). The CPU speed is measured in megahertz
(MHz), which indicates the chip's rate of performing calculations in
processing commands.
The processor contains one or more control units depending on the type of
processor. Here we will use the Intel names generically to apply to all
equivalent chips. As we progress from lesser to greater processors we
should note that later processors contain the control units of the lesser
processors. Typically these are improved upon as more is added to the
chip. The original PC processors (8086 through 80386) contained only a
logic unit. Each had a different footprint (the layout of pins attaching the
chip to the motherboard) and different speeds. The 8086 and 8088
(processor on laptops) contained the logic unit to process commands and
the BIOS supported 5¼ floppies. The 80286 BIOS supported low density
3½ and high density 5¼ floppies. The 80386 BIOS was capable of
supporting the high density 3½ floppies and an arithmetic expansion card.
The 486 added internal modems to the list of capabilities and put the
arithmetic unit onto the processor. The cache was an innovation of Pentium
II chips. The advantage of the cache is that the processor is not waiting on
BUS speeds (60MHz on Celeron and under, 100MHz on PII and higher,
200MHz on AMD K7) to retrieve commands to process. Cache is memory
directly connected to the processor itself and not the motherboard (most
Celerons 128k, PII and some Celerons 256k, PIII 512k, AMD K7 Athelon
8,192k). The illustration shows the basic makeup of processors in the range
of Celeron through AMD K7 (simply remove components from the diagram
for the lesser processors as indicated above).
Pentium Processors
All computers with Pentium or equivalent processors are multimedia
machines. This is a product of the system board and not the processor chips
themselves. These system boards automatically support CD ROM's,
speakers and microphones. You can configure the BIOS to place the CD
ROM in the boot sequence (Linux and Windows 98 provide bootable CD
ROM's and you can make bootable CD ROM's with a CD ROM burner).
The only significant differences between the 486 and original 586
processors is the footprint, speed, and multimedia capabilities of the system
(mother) board. Celeron and greater computers also provide USB high-
speed connections (for some cameras, printers and scanners) and MIDI
ports (for joysticks, music keyboards, and some cameras).

Cache
Later Pentium quality chips contain potentially two levels of cache. Level 1
cache is integrated circuit in the CPU. Level 2 cache is on a printed circuit
board attached directly onto the CPU. Information travels fastest within an
integrated circuit (IC), then second fastest over a printed circuit (PC board),
third by ribbon cable to the IDE on the motherboard, fourth by BUS (which
connects two printed circuit boards), and slowest by cable. The advantage
of cache is a reduction of processing time by reducing the necessity to go
through the motherboard, memory BUS, and memory board to the memory
(RAM) chip to get the next command. The less frequently this has to occur,
the faster the processor can work. A misleading point of processors is their
clock speed. While they may clock at a very high speed they may actually
run slow because they are waiting to retrieve the next commands. Hence
the cache and BUS speeds are extremely important in accelerating
operations. The AMD K3 and Athelon chips both have Level 1 cache
(128k and 512k respectively). Naturally their processors are the fastest on
the current market. Both however are slowed to the lesser components, and
at the time of this writing, nothing is actually built to support the 200 MHz
BUS speed capabilities of the Athelon, which is disappointing.

Other Major Computer Chips

Internal memory comes in two forms: RAM (Random Access Memory) and
ROM (Read Only Memory). RAM is used for the temporary storage of
information, such as commands and data, and may be considered the
working memory. RAM is written to and read from throughout the
processes of the computer, starting as empty when the computer is started.
ROM is used for permanent storage of information that cannot be written to
by the user. Typically hardware components contain one form of ROM or
another that contains information that allows the hardware to be operated by
the rest of the system (makes it compatible). These forms may include a
ROM chip, hardwiring, switches, or other parts that a physically
manipulable. In General Use Microcomputers the ROM often stores the
programming necessary to perform the functions. In old computers, such as
Commodore computers, the ROM contains an interpreter to convert
program instructions telling the computer what to do into useful commands
telling the computer how to perform the action.
RAM Random Access Memory. This is the working memory of
your computer, where your work and the programs you are
running are stored while you are using them.
ROM Read Only Memory means what it sounds. Though
information be retrieved and used, it cannot be altered. Old
computers used ROM as a place to store the operating
system. You would write a program in the OS language
(BASIC for example), and the ROM would be used to
convert your program into something recognizable and
usable by the bios.
Virtual This is a section of your hard disk set aside by Windows to
RAM be used as RAM. Virtual RAM is regulated by the operating
 system (a.k.a. Paging File in Windows 2000).
Video RAM set aside specifically for the purpose of speeding up
RAM your video interface. There is also audio RAM on some
accelerators specifically for speeding up sounds.

Secondary Storage
This refers to components that provide permanent or semi-permanent
storage of information, such as the full variety of drives (tape, CD, floppy,
hard or fixed, zip, etc.). A drive is a piece of equipment classified as a
storage device that reads from and usually writes to a storage unit.
Storage units are classifiable in many ways, many of which overlap.
Storage units may come in the form of tapes or disks; fixed or removable;
read-only, writable, or rewritable; magnetic, optical (CD) or paper (e.g.
teletype tape).
Magnetic disks are rewritable and may be either removable or fixed. Most
require formatting before use, which defines the way information is stored
onto the disk in what are called clusters (large bundles of bytes). Clusters
are bundled into a larger group called a sector. The information is actually
stored on tracks in binary form, just as a phonograph record stores sound.
A "hard disk" or "fixed disk" is a high-density physical disk or group of
disks within a hard disk drive. These are typically the largest of the class of
magnetic disks, and typically central to the operations of the computer. The
computer uses this disk to store the operating system, program files, and
user-generated files. The only way to remove this disk is to remove the
drive itself. Floppy disks come in a variety of sizes and two fundamental
shapes. They are removable by the user with the simple push of a button or
the turning of a knob on the front of the computer. Both floppy and fixed
disks require formatting, and may be formatted with a boot sector in which
an operating system is placed. The boot sector always occupies the same
portion of a disk. This portion of the disk also provides the formatting
information about the disk and is a common place for viruses to be stored.
Drives Fixed/Hard Other 5¼” Floppy Drive
Always Floppy (3½") Drives SuperDisk (3½" 120 MB)
Present CD ROM Available Readable/Writable CD ROM
(read-only in (common) (CD-R)
all multimedia Readable/Rewritable CD ROM
computers)
 (CD-RW)
Zip Drive
Tape Drive

Input and Output

Input is the information provided by the user, provided electronically
through the input devices, or taken from previous input or output in
secondary storage. All data on the computer was, at one time, either
manually inputted or generated by computer processes of manually inputted
data. Both qualify as input.
Output is the useful information generated by the computer in one of the
data forms. To receive output, the user must perform an action, which is
perceived by the computer and then processed. This action may be as
subtle as turning on the computer (e.g. the boot sequence) or as obvious as
keying information into a file that is processed by a program.

Expansion and Peripheral Components

Communications Input Devices Pointing Devices
Devices
Modem (Analog) Keyboard Joy Stick
ISDN Modem (Digital) Mouse Light Pen
Satellite Receiver Trackball Mouse
Networking Card Touch Pad Track Balls
Laser/Light Other Reverse Reverse
Communications Pointers Mice/Pointers:
Light Pen Thumbelina
Output Devices Scanners Touchpad
Monitor (CRT) Digital Camera Thumb knob/pointer
Printer Microphone
Other Monitors
Speaker
 Lesson 3—SOFTWARE
Objectives
Students will understand:
1. Operating Systems 2. Major Software Types

Operating Systems
Each hardware component uses different machine language instructions to
operate. Drivers are used to tell the operating system how to communicate
with the components. The operating system balances the communications
between the user and the software (the user interface) and between the
software and available hardware components. The operating system
defines how information is stored, where it is stored and how it is
processed. The operating system also provides common routines that are
used by all programs (e.g. the Open and Save As dialog boxes, all title bar
and most dialog box components, etc.)
Windows 95 is the first Windows version to be an operating system for
IBM's. Before Windows 95, PCs used DOS (Disk Operating System)
which is a textual user interface. Windows was run as an application on top
of DOS, which significantly slowed the system. The first popular Windows
version was 3.1. By the time Windows 95 arrived as a combined graphical
user interface (GUI pronounced goo-ee) and operating system, the MAC
OS (also a GUI) had been used nearly a decade. As a consequence, MAC
cornered the market in publishing and graphics design in the mid-80s,
where it is now losing ground to less expensive, and significantly more
popular PCs. By integrating windows and the operating system, programs
can run faster. Versions A and B of Windows 95 used a 16 bit system to
accommodate their use of graphics. Version C of Windows 95 introduced
the 32-bit system to accommodate more colors. With 32 bits, a larger
amount of data can be compressed more meaningfully in a smaller space.
Windows 98 introduced a 32-bit File Allocation Table (FAT 32). Previously
information was stored in 32 bit clusters (two bytes per cluster). The FAT
32 uses 4 bit clusters so files can be compressed much smaller (black and
white line art only needs four bits). FAT 32 also reduces the need for
partitioning larger drives. Equipment is already available to handle 64 bit
processing, which will significantly improve 3-D graphics.
Major Software Types
Word Processing  These are programs that you may enter text and
graphics into, lay out pages and generally create most documents.
Desktop Publishing  Specialized programming that produces
professional documents, such as card layouts, labels, etc. Desktop
Publishing is generally surpassed by the superior quality of the
program more commonly viewed as a word processor known as
Microsoft Word.
Spreadsheets  Create documents divided into rows and columns,
in which formulas may be used to link data, calculate, analyze and
graph within the same worksheet.
Databases  Create electronic filing cabinets of information, which
can be cross-referenced, searched, analyzed, reported from, etc.
Presentation  Provide a means for integrating a computer-based
presentation using slides of text and graphics.
Communications and Browsers  This would include dialup
networking (Windows 3.11 and better). These programs allow
computers to communicate with each other remotely. Browsers
recognize only certain program types allowing unlike machines to
communicate over a wide area. We will discuss browsers in greater
detail in our next unit.
LAN vs. WAN  Local Area Networks connect computers within
immediate proximity, such as within an office. A network between
computers in separate buildings may be a LAN if they are
connected by an internal means (e.g. not by telephone but by cable,
microwave, etc.). Wide Area Networks are broader and may
include LANs. These are remote networks where computers
communicate with each other by telephone, such as the Internet.
Some LANs are considered WANs by their administrators simply
because the computers are not directly hard-wired to each other
(such as using Satellite or Microwave communications equipment).
Often WANs are set up to limit the impact of individual users on the
server. Users may request information but may not be able to add
or change information. LANs come in multiple forms, but the
primary distinction lay in dumb-terminal and peer networks. Peer
networks are composed of separate computers that do not require
the server to function, but will share information with the server and
other peer workstations. Dumb terminals run programs, retrieve
and store information directly with a server.
E-mail Software  Manages incoming and outgoing electronic
mail. Typically these allow you to read, write, respond to, and
archive messages, and to save attached files to a specified drive.
Personal Information Management Software  Similar to project
management except that typically this will include address books,
personal scheduling, etc. without in-depth analysis. Many of these
allow multiple users.
Personal Finance Software  helps track income, expenses, pay
bills, conduct transactions and evaluate personal financial plans.
This would not be a program you could run payroll through as it
would not provide the programming for deductions, calculating
earnings from hours and pay rate, etc. as an accounting program
would. It also lacks in the reporting capabilities of a complete
accounting program.
Project Management  Provides scheduling, tracking and analysis
of resources, events, costs, etc. associated with a project. Typically
this means you can maintain multiple projects under different
names, and retain a record of them, which is helpful if you are
forced to make detailed reports of your projects and/or must work or
supervise multiple projects simultaneously.
Accounting  Goes beyond personal finance to include accounts
receivable and payable, invoicing, inventory, etc. One of the
benefits of these programs is they update to match current tax
requirements, including creating essential tax reports. Of course
these updates must either be purchased or subscribed to, and
typically a subscription comes with the program so the user is
current. A good example of this is PeachTree.
Groupware  A collaborative program that allows multiple users to
access and alter information in a network environment, or as
multiple users of the same computer. MS Office has this feature as
well, allowing documents to be secured by password and user name,
and thereby to allow embedding of the author name, date and time
of modification, etc.
CAD  Computer Aided Design typically enables three-
dimensional design in-scale, including the ability to rotate, zoom,
templates, etc. Some only work in two dimensions, which can also
be accomplished with many graphics programs like PhotoPaint.
Multimedia Authoring Software  allows you to create
presentations that include text, graphics, sound, animation and
video.
Integrated and Software Suites  Common examples include
packages containing a word processor, database and spreadsheet
(MS Office, Works, Claris Works). Corel also provides one that
comes with Object Character Recognition (OCR), PhotoPaint,
Ventura Publishing.
Object Linking and Embedding  Linking relates data between
documents or compounded between documents of separate
programs, requiring both to be open simultaneously, so changes
affect both together. Embedding allows you to make changes in
destination documents without altering the source document.
 Lesson 4—PURCHASING A
COMPUTER
Objectives
Students will understand the basic principles involved with making a
purchase decision to include:
1. System Source 3. Peripherals
2. Expandability 4. Software

System Source
The source of your system is extremely important. It is wise to stick to
major name brands and to talk to a technician about which brands are most
reliable. Prices of personal computers make building your own not cost
effective unless you are building a high-end server and really know what
you are doing. Be skeptical of purchasing from any manufacturer who uses
substandard components.
MAC or PC?
Although Macintosh provided the first graphic user interface, their systems
are waning in flexibility, expandability and costs. As a rule of thumb, be
sure whatever you buy (software and hardware) is compatible with your
work and school needs (what they have). Macintosh is a likely candidate
when working with the publishing, graphics design or music industries.
Some schools still use Macintosh. In any of these cases, verify the need
before making your purchase. Otherwise, PCs are a fraction the cost and
provide all the flexibility and expandability at low costs. Never purchase a
computer for its looks. Always base your decision on its capabilities and
expandability. Likewise, never get involved with uncommon drives (Zip,
Jazz, Superdisk, etc.) unless you have other computers with the same
drives. Backup drives are virtually pointless now considering how
inexpensive CD ROM RWs are (not to mention the disks have a capacity of
720 MB, are also very inexpensive, and if written properly can be read by
any computer with a CD ROM which means all Pentium class or better
computers).
Advantages/Disadvantages of Manufactured
 Advantages Disadvantages
1. All components and software 1. Limitations of
engineered together expandability
2. Usually good components (reduces 2. Proprietary
warranty repair costs) components
3. Restore disk returns computer to 3. Proprietary driver
factory settings difficulties
4. Warranty (one year) covers defects in 4. Most restore disks
components and workmanship format the hard
5. Technical support (limited) drive
6. Retail Technical Support 5. Technicians must
7. Major Software titles may be provided do all expansions
to not void
warranty
Note: many servers do not require major equipment and merely act as share
devices or firewalls (for modem sharing with a proxy server, printer or
database sharing). Often a lesser manufactured machine is ideal for this
use, so long as it has the capacity to hold the necessary components (e.g.
Ethernet, specialized modem, the data and the system). It is also wise in an
environment with many computers to retain cohesion among the computers
(all made by the same manufacturer). It is particularly important in
networks to be consistent with all the components.
Advantages/Disadvantages of Custom Built
Advantages Disadvantages
1. You decide what 1. Lack of support
goes in the box 2. Lack of warranty
2. Great for building 3. Driver and IRQ
high-end servers difficulties
3. Great for building a 4. No factory software
throw-away system 5. Costs more to build
(e.g. dumb terminal) (never use cheap parts as
cheaply they will break)
On the note of cheap parts: this is particularly a problem with
motherboards, CPU fans and power supplies (AMD requires a better fan
and power supply). Never go cheap on any of these three things. They will
all result in unexplainable and not reproducible errors, and even total
system failure.

Expandability
The case the components are in and the motherboard will determine the
expandability of your machine. Beware of half bays (where drives are
docked) and multi-purpose cards. Many newer machines now provide the
speaker, modem and microphone components on the motherboard. These
are easy to disable independently. Multi-purpose cards often require
complete disabling, which causes the card to be virtually useless. This
would not be such a problem except that most of these cards must be left in
the machine for the motherboard to continue functioning even after they are
disabled. Most component expansions you probably want to keep internal.
At present, DVD is perhaps better to leave external so you can plug the
drive into your television or any computer.

Peripherals
Be cautious about cheap peripherals. As a general rule, mid-priced
monitors, printers and scanners often have great quality and reliability.
Never aim low because you will be dissatisfied. The price difference is
minute, so spend the extra money. The most expensive is not always best
either. Nor are the best numbers. Numbers are quite misleading. When
purchasing a monitor, compare its visible quality to others. Do not concern
yourself with refresh rates (only Sony seems kind enough to state theirs) or
dot-pitch (often large dot-pitch looks much better). Of printers, inkjets are
great, but be sure they are dual cartridge with Photo Ret (do not focus on
dpi), that the print heads are built into the cartridge, and compare cartridge
costs. Also examine how tolerant the printer is of a variety of paper types
and weights. If you plan to print greeting cards and envelopes you may
want a more expensive machine with a better carriage.
Printers
Printers come in a variety of forms with a variety of features. The table
below outlines printer types and printer features to look for when making a
purchase decision. Always be sure to check the printer specifications and to
purchase the correct cable for the printer. Most printers do not come with a
cable to connect to the computer. If the printer does come with a cable the
box will be clearly marked.
Bubble Jet Bubble jets are small, top-feeding printers, the most
common of which are manufactured by Cannon. These
are typically fast with good quality, and convenient when
paired with a laptop because you can fit both the laptop
and a small bubble jet in a brief case with your paper.
Bursting For printers that feed a continuous perforated sheet,
pages must be separated at the perforations and edges
with holes used to feed the paper must be torn off (burst)
at their perforations.
Character Character printers are like most typewriters, physically
Printers striking a ribbon to imprint on the page. Both character
and dot matrix printers are impact printers.
Dot Matrix An impact printer that uses pins to form the shapes,
which are then physically impacted against the ribbon
onto the page.
dpi A generalized term used with scanners, printers and
monitors to describe the resolution in number of dots per
inch. As with a monitor, dpi refers to the number of dots
used to present the output. With the exception of laser
and character printers, all printers rely on applying tiny
dots on the page to draw what is being printed. With the
 exception of Photo RET, the higher the dpi the better. Be
aware also that other factors affect print quality.
IEEE Cable Also called twisted pair, but not to be confused with
computer connectivity whose cables have both parallel
and serial plugs on both ends. This cable plugs in
through the parallel port on your system unit then to your
printer. It is used for high speed printers like Laser
printers. On the surface it is thicker than normal parallel
cable. The reason is that each wire in the cable is
wrapped in aluminum foil on top of the usual insulation.
The foil prevents cross talk, which is when wires in close
proximity to each other share information they shouldn’t,
causing information loss and garbled communications.
Ink Cartridges Ink cartridges come in a wide variety to include solids,
powders, liquids, solids with liquid reservoirs, wax-
based, water-based, etc. Some come with built-in print
heads, while others attach directly to a permanent print
head and yet others attach to a print head changed with
alternating cartridges. If at all possible, show preference
for cartridges with built-in print heads. This typically
prevents most print head problems. When these
cartridges are installed, they often require aligning, which
is an utility provided with your printer’s software.
Ink Jet Ink Jets, through one means or another, squirt ink onto
the page. Some ink jets are splotchy, no matter how
eloquent their claims about their dots. If necessary you
might take a magnifying glass with you to examine print
qualities closely. Hewlett Packard manufactures the most
consistent and highest quality ink jets. Many graphics
artists also use Epson ink jets for their wide carriage
prints because they are cost efficient for that kind of
work. A major difference between the manufacturers is
how they feed paper. If you plan to do a lot of heavy
bond paper, wide carriage paper, or envelopes you are
better off with a top feeding Epson or a high-end (800
series or above) Hewlett Packard. The lesser Hewlett
 Packard’s can do the job but have weaker carriages
making them prone to breakage with heavy use.
Laser or For high-speed letter quality printing, laser printers are
Thermal ideal. While they are more costly up-front than an ink
Printers jet, and their cartridges seem to cost more, the toner
cartridges last longer and you can easily use copy paper.
Laser printers are good for heavy bond papers and
envelopes. Color laser printers are rare and extremely
expensive, as are laser printers with multiple trays
(typically used for different paper sizes. As a rule, laser
printers are limited for printing on large paper sizes
(above 8.5 X 14). Both Hewlett Packard and Brother
currently provide excellent laser printers.
Line Printers Line printers are typically dot matrix, feeding through a
continuous sheet of paper which requires bursting. These
are popular in industry, especially for billing and receipts
because the are inexpensive to operate and maintain, and
are fairly fast. These printers do not, however, produce
letter quality printing so lack application elsewhere.
Epson is notable for its line printers.
Multi- A number of ink jet printers can also scan documents, fax
Function and make copies. Look closely at the design of the
Printers machine to make sure it fits your needs. Look to see if
the scanner is flat, especially if you might scan items that
are not normal paper sizes or may rough from age or
storage. The sheet-feeding scanners are nice (and more
expensive), but it is easy to forget you are using a printer
for making copies and run your cartridge bill up. If these
are not concerns, you may go cheaper with a top-feeding
scanner. Some printer-fax machines also have a keypad
for manually dialing. This is nice because then you do
not need to turn on the computer to send and receive
faxes.
Paper We think we know about paper until we interface with
the printing industry. The most forgiving printers are
Hewlett Packards, which will put out amazing quality on
the worst paper (e.g. copy paper). For high-quality print
 jobs with any printer be mindful of your paper choices.
If you are printing on a glossy surface with an ink jet it is
also wise to adjust the printer properties before
conducting the print, and identify the type of paper you
are using. Some print jobs may require extra time for
drying to prevent them from smearing as the page
continues to be fed through the printer.
Paper Trays As we noted earlier, ink jets either feed through the back
on top or through the front on the bottom. In either case
the finished product appears face up in the tray in front.
Be sure to examine how wide the tray is, how adjustable
it is, and whether it is removable. The more adjustable
and wider the better, especially if you do print jobs larger
than 8.5 X 11. Most Hewlett Packards provide 8.5”
wide, adjustable for envelopes and for long banners. To
get a wider carriage you can either divide the print job
across several pages (HP provides software for this), get
a more expensive HP, or save money and buy an Epson.
Photo-RET A color printer with Photo-RET should always be
preferred over a printer that brags only dpi. Printers
without Photo-RET place dots next to each to give the
illusion of colors. Photo-RET layers transparent colors
on top of each other sixteen deep to get true color per dot.
Printer Cable Printer cables are almost never provided with the printer.
Most printers use either Parallel or USB cables. Some
take both, and some only take IEEE. Be sure when
purchasing a printer to check the box to see what kind of
cable to purchase, and also on the off-chance that a cable
is provided (which only seems to occur with very
expensive printers.
Resolution Resolution has many factors. For color graphics the
greatest concern is the quality of the color per dot (e.g.
Photo-RET), while non-color graphics (line art) are
dependent on dpi. Publishers want “letter quality” which
is dark and looks solid (as opposed to the grainy look of a
dot matrix) and is easily achieved by setting ink jet or
 laser printer qualities to high (as opposed to economy,
draft, or medium).
Scanners
Scanners come in a wider variety of forms than might be expected. Prices
of flat bed scanners have plummeted making them as accessible as
keyboards, though certainly more space consuming. The table below
outlines the types of scanners available and scanner features to look for.
dpi For flat bed scanners, 1200 dpi is ideal. The file size is
manageable and the quality is ideal. In reality, most scan
jobs will not be able to use more than 1200 dpi because
the image being scanned doesn’t have a better
resolution. If you scan at a resolution higher than the
original, then the scanner programming is adding dots
that were not there. If you are scanning slides or film,
then 9600 dpi is more appropriate for that particular job.
Film This is a rare but useful item. Do not be misled,
however, as the film must first be processed. These
scanners are small and specialized (not to mention
expensive), capable of taking a processed roll of 35 mm
film and scanning in the pictures.
Flat Bed Most scanners are flat bed, capable of scanning text,
Scanners graphics and pictures. Flat bed scanners are the easiest
to work with because they allow the user to manage
what is being scanned. A limited number of flat bed
scanners are available with sheet-feeders. Many now
come with buttons to initiate a scan job and send that job
to a particular function of your computer, like to e-mail.
OCR Object Character Recognition is now popular software
provided with most scanners. OCR distinguishes
between characters and graphics on a scanned image and
will send that information to another program (like
Word) for editing. This is extremely convenient, keeps
file sizes much smaller and gives the user control over
the scanned images. The technology has improved, but
it is still difficult to get accurate readings on copies of
copies.
 Resolution See dpi this section.
Single Pass Some scanners still make three passes, one for each
primary color. If at all possible avoid this attribute and
get a single pass scanner. Not only does the quality
seem better, you save an enormous amount of scanning
time.
Slides (35mm) Some flat bed scanners are or can be adapted to take 35
mm slides. The slide scanner produced by HP also scans
negatives and small pictures. Again, this is a specialized
and expensive commodity.
Monitors
Although monitors are fairly simple, there are still many things to watch out
for when making your purchase decision. Monitor size is not always
indicative of display size. It appears the present market has two types of
good monitors: extremely expensive like the Mitsubishi or almost cheap
like the Acer. The Mitsubishi has stunning (write letters to everyone you
know) quality while the Acer (notably the 17”( has excellent quality at a
fraction the price.
Active Matrix For flat screens, the active matrix is unbeatable because it
refreshes only the parts of the screen that have changed.
This makes tracking motion (like movement of the
mouse) easy. These are also better in a wider range of
lighting situations than other flat screens.
CRT Cathode Ray Tube: the standard monitor we are all used
to seeing attached to a PC. These consist of a tube just
like a television, but do not have the same resolution and
refresh rates as a television. You can use a television as a
monitor, but you will be disappointed and even more so
about the cost of the adapter. CRTs may also be plugged
into laptops as an auxiliary display device.
Flat Color On laptops these are adequate, though they are a little
limited in bright light situations and are harder to see at
angles. For regular PCs these are extremely costly and
disappointing if you expect high resolution. If all you
need is to save desk space and can afford to pay four
 times as much then a flat screen may work for you and
your PC.
LCD The old liquid crystal displays worked well in medium
lighting and a text-driven environment with little power
consumption. Today they are limited to palm-tops and
calculators.
Refresh The speed at which the information on the screen is
replaced. For all but active matrix this means the entire
screen. The only manufacturer I have seen who openly
reveals their refresh rates is Sony. The refresh rate is not
everything though.
Restore This is typically not a monitor term but deserves
particular attention here. When you change the
resolutions settings of windows you will see the picture
flash and show the new resolution. Most monitors will
make a popping sound, as if a relay is switching
physically within the monitor. Very few do not make the
popping sound. Having observed this on a number of
occasions, it appears a wise test of any monitor to change
its resolution a few times and see how it reacts. The ones
that make the popping sound are prone to failure. Some
will even fail after just a few resolution changes. It
appears these monitors use old-fashioned relays, while
the survivors (those that do not pop) use an integrated
circuit, which is more durable and less drastic.
Resolution Resolution is measured in the distance between the dots
on your screen, called dot-pitch. As with so many of the
factors regarding monitors, the numbers can be
misleading.

Software
If you have all your own software in full version, then software is not an
issue. Otherwise it is important to see what software titles are available on
the computer you purchase. Even if the software is not major, it may be up-
gradable into something that is. For example, basic Works is expandable to
Works 99 with Word 97. You can then use an Office upgrade rather than a
full-version and save hundreds of dollars. Other than the productivity
software, encyclopedias, games, etc. are fairly cheap, so do not place too
much emphasis on them in making your purchase decision. If you plan to
play fancy 3-D games, expect to spend money putting a 3-D Accelerator
Card in your computer. Nothing less will do.
Worksheet 2—Hardware & Software
 Unit 3—System Architectures
Objectives:
Students will understand:
1. Tier Systems Architecture 4. Operating System Functions
Model (MCSD) (MCSE & A+)
2. Networking (A+, MCSD & 5. Client/Server Architecture
old MCSE) (MCSD)
3. Distributing Solutions 6. Use Case Solutions (MCSD)
(MCSD)

Tier Systems Architecture Model (MCSD)

The Tier Model is used to describe the functional architecture of an information
system. It is the classic question of: "Who does what?" The confusion about
the Tier model is differentiating between which tier describes an architecture
and which tier describes a component of that architecture. Most references
only identify single, two and n-tiered architectures. Here I will identify four
and let you fill in the blank for n-tiered system architectures.
Architecture Tiers Description & Examples
Single Tiered 1. Desktop Applications open entire files directly
computer (whether locally or from a network
computer) without any data management
conducted by a server. This is not a
scalable system as the entire application,
its interface and data file are transferred
(over the network if one is involved).
Examples would include "dumb"
terminals attached to a mainframe, or a
database query run on a local machine
drawing the data directly from the server
or other computer to function. This
requires strong user knowledge and is
not scalable.
Two Tiered 1. Server Client-side applications access files
2. Client indirectly through a server program
(even if on the same machine) that
directly accesses the file and regulates
 the data provided to the client
application. This is more scalable as the
server can allow multiple applications to
access the same data source
simultaneously and the processor on the
server does not also have to manage the
client-end application or interface.
Examples would include a template or
other document stored on a server
accessed by an application on the client
(even if both are on the same computer).
Three Tiered 1. Data Handling of data, applications and
Services presentation are handled separately. This
2. Business is extremely scalable. For example, a
Services system where a SQL server storing the
3. Presentation data and regulating through COM
(Client) objects what is being transmitted, sends
Services information to another server that
reformats the information to be
transmitted through another medium,
which is then presented on the client
machine. This example shows a data
server level, where the raw data is
directly accessed and manipulated; the
raw data requested is transferred to
another application like a COM object
creating active server pages, which
formats the information to be recognized
by the user's interface application
(browser)
Four Tiered 1. Data Like the three-tiered architecture, this
Services divides functions across multiple
2. Business devices. Consider a high-end system
Services where the client inputs data (interface)
3. Presentation and another application performs
Services manipulation on the data (3) to present it
(e.g. Web to a business server, which then applies
Server) necessary manipulations to send the data
to the appropriate data server. For
 4. Presentation example, a search utility allowing users
(Client) access over the Internet to query multiple
Services sources simultaneously. The user's
browser presents the interface (4). The
search utility must be able to transmit the
formatted input and results pages (3).
The input is received by a script (2) that
reformats the query appropriate to the
available search engines, submits to
those engines and reformats the results
into an uniform manner recognizable by
the Business server. Finally, each search
engine provides its own querying
application managing its data warehouse
to access, filter out and return the
requested information.
Note the order in which these tiers always appear: Data Services (e.g. data
warehousing), Business Services (e.g. handlers, filters, web servers, etc.), and
User Services (client-side applications used to present interface for input and
output). At the lowest architectural tier all are on the same machine with no
server involved, with a single application managing all three. At the next tier
Business Services may be divided mindfully between the server and client
devices (even if they are on the same machine). At Three Tiered they become
more distinctly separated. At the fourth and beyond (e.g. n-Tiered) the subsets
of services begin to be divided.

Networking (A+, MCSD & old MCSE)

OSI (Operating System Interconnection) Model Layers
The OSI (Open Systems Interconnect) Model describes the processes and
architectures of networks. While we are not due to discuss networking until
Lesson 8, the model is also useful in understanding software and operating
systems on individual computers. From a development management
perspective this helps divide large projects into meaningful parts (modules),
which can be addressed separately and mapped together (e.g. data flow
diagramming). From a troubleshooting and problem solving perspective this
can help isolate problems.
Layer Description
Application Software providing general access to network resources, flow
 control and error recovery for user application processes.
Handles data formatting and conversion into generic format for
sharing. This translates the requests from the Application
Presentation layer into a transmittable format, then translates information
received from the Session layer to be used by the Application
layer.
Allows applications to exchange information between
computers by synchronizing the software. This layer handles
Session name recognition, security, and transmission traffic, separating
and marking distinct tasks to insure each task is received in
order.
Packets information to reduce errors, error correction, flow
control, etc. Tasks marked at the Session layer are divided or
combined as necessary into packets to limit the amount of data
transferred before it is checked for errors at this level on the
Transport
receiving end. The packets are formed at this layer and passed
to the Network layer, and when received this layer unpacks the
information and checks for errors before passing complete
tasks to the Session layer.
Addresses messages for delivery and determines the
transmission route based on delivery priorities. Handles
packet switching/congestion control (hardware multitasking).
Network
This layer may divide packets further to compensate for
physical limitations of the hardware. This layer is not
responsible for any error handling.
 Data Link
This layer frames information by providing the identifications of
the destination and source, control (the frame type, routing and
segmentation information), the actual data, and finally the
Cyclical Redundancy Check (CRC to insure the frame is
received properly). When the information is passed into the
Physical layer, this layer waits for acknowledgment from the
other computer's Data Link layer. IEEE 802 divides Data Link
into Logical Link Control (LLC to direct information to the
appropriate OSI layer) and Media Access Control (MAC to
directly address hardware)
This is the layer in which transmission actually occurs,
Physical involving all the physical components and how bits are
translated to and from electrical or optical impulses.
Each layer acts like it is communicating directly with the same layer on the
other computer. Both the OSI and Systems Architecture models provide a
means to dissect and study any system and may be used to help project
development.
Hardware & Terms
Device acting at the Data Link layer of the OSI model, used
to filter information traffic according to the packet’s hardware
Bridge
destination address. Filters traffic between network
segments. Uses MAC (hardware) addressing.
Device capable of supporting both bridge and router devices
Brouter
and protocols.
Reserved portion of memory for storing information waiting
Buffer
to be transmitted or received.
Bus System where one cable connects multiple nodes. This
Topology requires a terminating resistor to prevent the signal from
bouncing back and forth and preventing other transmissions.
A bus allows several independent lines to carry information
simultaneously one bit at a time.
Electomagnetic interference between adjacent
Crosstalk communications cables resulting in mixed messages on the
involved lines.
Duplex Transmitting and receiving simultaneously.
Ethernet A bus network topology technology.
Firmware Device control software stored on the device in ROM.
Refers to where an application is being run. Front end refers
to the client computer where back end refers to the server.
Front/Back Back end applications tend to run faster for locating and
End directing data, while front end applications should be focused
on the interface and output of the data. Violating either of
these may lead to bottlenecking the network.
Gateway Device used to connect networks who use different protocols.
Information exchanged between sending and receiving
Handshake devices to ensure the communication is open. Most typically
used with modems.
A device where nodes are connected directly for a "Star"
topology. An active hub regenerates the signals and must be
Hub
powered separately. Passive hubs are less common, and acts
only as a central connecting point.
A device connected to the network that is also capable of
Node communicating with other network devices (e.g. a server,
client, or repeater).
Device operating at the Network layer of the OSI model,
allowing connection of different physical media, translating
Router
between different network architectures, such as token ring
and Ethernet.
Coaxial ethernets can have a maximum of 5 cable segments, 4
Rule, 5-4-3
repeaters, and 3 populated segments.
Spanning Method of determining the shortest route between two
Tree network computers, eliminating redundant routes which are
Algorithm reactivated if the primary route becomes unavailable.
Synchronous Method of transmitting information using time as a factor
Transmission rather than start and stop bits. It is faster, more efficient and
more expensive than asynchronous transmission (which sends
one character at a time over variable time frames and with
fixed frame sizes and start and stop bits).
TCP/IP in Extreme Brief

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In Windows 2000, with Active Directory’s NAT (Network Address
Translation) system, local (unregistered) IP addresses can be arranged as
follows: 10.{0-255}.{0-255}.{1-255} or 172.16.{0-255}.{1-255} or 192.168.
{0-255}.{1-255}. Note NAT runs as either a DHCP or DNS server (for name
resolution) or both, but cannot be used for Internet addressing. A registered IP
address is necessary for the NAT Windows server to have shared connection
with the Internet.

Distributing Solutions (MCSD)

Distribution Alternatives
Method Description
Floppy There is seldom much use for floppy disks anymore,
Disk particularly in application distribution for multiple reasons.
The main reasons are: high-speed network connections (even
through the Internet), application size and technical know-
how. Even simple data files are often too large to distribute
using floppy disks. Floppy disks should be limited to small-
size distribution where network connections are unreliable or
bandwidth is already overwhelmed. Users need some degree
of technical know-how, or an installation program with printed
instructions to insure proper use.
CD-ROM A more likely distribution, where network connections are
unreliable or bandwidth use is high is by CD-ROM. This can
be done with even less technical know-how because an
installation program can be executed using an autorun.inf.
CDs can store up to 650 megabytes. Typically this really
means 599 megabytes because the table of contents for the CD
consumes the rest of the available disk. I would discourage the
use of rewritable CDs for multiple reasons. First, you must be
certain any CD-ROM drive that will use a CD-RW is a
multiread (and this is uncommon). Second, CD-RWs lose
space with every rewrite and can only be reused 99 times. As
such it would be more advisable to use JAZZ or Zip disks
(which of course requires the recipients have the drives too.
Web A pull method requiring the user to access an Active Server
Page (ASP) where the page can do some analysis and the user
can identify their system configuration to insure the application
is installed correctly. Failure to use an ASP may result in users
installing the wrong application.
Pull The client requests installation of an application or file stored
on a server computer. Typically you would only use this
 method if you do not expect the clients to use the file or
application.
Push The server forces installation of an application or file on a
client computer. Use this when you expect the clients to have
the file or application.
Systems Management Server (SMS)
Features Select which clients receive an application and when
(forced)
Spread the workload across the network to other
files servers
Schedule and push installations on
Track installation progress
Monitor what applications are installed on clients
listed in the SMS Inventory database
Requirements SMS Package Command Manager installed on
clients
SMS installed on a primary domain controller on an
NTFS partition with at least 500 megabytes of
available space (1 gigabyte recommended)
Windows NT or 2000 server
SQL Server 6.0 or later (with login and permission
to create and maintain a SQL database) to store the
SMS Inventory
Additional space on file servers for three copies of
the software to be distributed
Recommended SMS Installer (get separately from
www.microsoft.com) to package, automate and
modify installation tasks (even proposed registry
entries).
Run SMSIMAIN.exe to install the installer files then
run SMSINSTL.exe to install
How it You check the SMS Inventory to verify software and
Deploys operating systems on clients.
You determine what they need and create a package
definition specifying what is executed to begin
installation, set installation options and store the
 package on one or more (preferably 3) distribution
servers.
You create a Job specifying which package to send
and to which clients, the options to select and the
locations of the distribution servers where the
application is stored.
The job is sent to the client and appears in the
Package Manager, where it is executed and the status
of the installation is reported back to the SMS server.
When the job is executed the client computer
retrieves the package from the distribution server,
and upon arrival initiates the installation.
Finally the status is reported back to the SMS server

Operating Systems (MCSE & A+)

Function
On the architecture model the operating system always resides at the
application services layer, even if that layer is integrated with other services.
All operating systems have the given qualities:
A File Allocation Table (FAT) to define how data is stored and
retrieved from storage media
Chipset (memory and CPU) management
User Interface (textual or graphical)
File management utilities (e.g. deleting, moving, renaming files and
folders/directories, and creating folders/directories)
Software to interface with hardware
A software platform (kernel) in which other software can be run
Computer communications/networking capabilities
On IBM compatible systems, Windows 95 introduced pre-emptive
multitasking. With DOS the operating system had no control over the CPU, so
a frozen application meant rebooting the system. Since Windows 95 the CPU
has retained control so a misbehaving program can be disconnected from the
CPU without a complete shutdown. Another feature of pre-emptive
multitasking was the ability of the operating system to offer the same services
to multiple applications even if those services did not come with the operating
system. These are commonly seen in the form of DLLs (Dynamic Link
Libraries), COM (not .com) and DCOM objects. In previous operating systems
this meant that library functions were embedded and compiled in the program.
With this system the operating system calls the function into memory when it is
needed and can then release it when it is no longer in use. Besides providing
portability in RAM, secondary storage space is also conserved. Each service
contains a unique identification (UUID or GUID), which is stored in the system
registry. When a program needs the service it makes the request for the ID
through the operating system.
Other intimate and useful features of modern operating systems are also stored
in the system registry. For example, association of file extensions with the
application required to view and/or edit the file. The personalized layout of the
Graphical User Interface is also stored in the registry, as is the hardware profile
both past and present. Note: updates to the registry occur when Windows shuts
down and recognize when the system reboots.
While modern operating systems provide at least some degree of networking
capability, earlier systems often required more software. Since the introduction
of multimedia processors (Pentium class CPUs) operating systems have
provided at minimum dial-up-networking capabilities with TCP/IP, IPX/SPX,
and NetBEUI protocols to enable network communications, file and hardware
sharing. The more current the system, the more refined this networking
capability (TCP/IP had to be installed through the Network Neighborhood in
98, while it is installed by default in ME and 2000). Modern computers are
assumed to become members of a network, the least of which is the Internet.
Operating systems since Windows 95 have included "plug-and-play" hardware
recognition. This has proven problematic as three conditions are required for
plug-and-play to work: plug-and-play BIOS, plug-and-play operating system,
and plug-and-play device. In spite of this, plug-and-play devices can still
experience conflicts with other devices. Fortunately one of the wonderful
features of plug-and-play includes the ability to modify the resource
requirements (IRQ and I/O Addressing) of a device without having to pull the
device out and change physical jumpers or dipswitches. Only PCMCIA are
guaranteed to have 100% plug-and-play capabilities, so much that you can
"hot-dock" them (plug them in while the system is on) and they will recognize.
The system BIOS has also advanced to automatically recognize and use more
devices (e.g. the CD ROM). This does not, however, remove the need for the
operating system to regulate these devices and provide separate drivers for
them. Drivers give the devices greater versatility so the user can customize
how applications communicate and use the devices.
OSI Approach to Architecture
Application Win32 Native application for Windows 95-2000.
 Win16 Native to Windows 3.x. All run in same Virtual
DOS Machine (VDM) and share same memory
allocation in 95 and later. As such, if one fails
all fail.
8-bit applications run in separate VDMs. VDMs
are awckward because applications originally in
DOS DOS were designed to directly address
hardware. Windows 95 and above forbid this
(see preemptive multitasking above)
Version 1.x, 16 bit character based, real-mode
OS/2 applications only. These run in their own space
or can be run in the VDM by using Forcedos.exe.
Portable Operating System Interface for
Computer Environments (specifically UNIX)
POSIX
standard Version 1.x compliant applications only;
run in own space.
Integral element of Windows security, and as
Logon
such runs in its own space.
OS/2, Win32, POSIX, and Security. Responsible
for establishing memory allocation, running their
Presentation Subsystems respective applications and establishing the
Session. Note: Security/Integral is specific to
Active Directory Services.
Provides user interface and screen functions for
all applications. OS/2, POSIX, and Security
subsystems otherwise address the Kernel. For
Session Win32
VDM and Win32, Win32 Session spans the
Presentation layer to provide Subsystem services
including interfacing with the Kernel.
▲User Mode▲ ▼Kernel Mode▼
Executive Services―manages information and instruction
Transport transfers between user mode and kernel and between kernel
components (see diagram below).
Network Procedural managers regulating operating system functions.
Data Link I/O and Window managers span from the Network. I/O
manages the memory, file system and device drivers. Window
manager handles graphics and the video adapter. All other
 Network layer managers rely on the Microkernel to manage
IRQs, multi-task management and threading (running only the
necessary parts of a program). The Hardware Abstraction
Layer (HAL) allows the Microkernel to see all hardware
platforms as the same. The diagram below associates the
Microkernel to the Logical Link Control and the HAL to the
Media Access Layer (MAC).
Physical All hardware in the system.
Windows 2000 Architecture

User mode is the area where most end-user applications reside. This helps
maintain system stability as the kernel protects the main body of the
operating system and insures the operating system retains control of the
hardware. This is why application failure is not normally terminal in
Windows, but when a hardware device driver fails the system becomes
unstable and should be rebooted (cold is always best to insure complete
reallocation of resources). The easiest source of these failures is through the
I/O and Window managers because they span the Network and Data Link
layers and have a lot to do for user mode applications. Kernel mode is
considered "highly privileged" and you must be mindful of its weaknesses.
Worksheet 3—System Architectures
 Unit 4—Logic
Objectives:
Students will understand:
1. Logic Basics 3. Flowcharting
2. Logic of Reality 4. Logical Syllogism

Logic Basics
Set Theory

Aggregate Symbols
Symbols are used to contain, always indicating the contents should be treated as a unit.
Parentheses  Most common symbol for algebraic grouping. For example 2*3+4=10
while 2*(3+4)=14. In mapping/graphing parentheses commonly indicate open (not on
()
minima or maxima) coordinates like (x, y). Parentheses are also commonly used in the
declaration of a class in programming, like SortClass().
Brackets  typically used in mathematics to better show a coordinate as closed (on
[]
maxima or minima).
 {} Braces  often used to illustrate a set. In programming these often surround groups of
code, like the body of an IF statement, or the code within a class.

More Necessary Symbols

Programming Symbols
== Logical argument testing for equality between two values or calculations.
!= Logical argument testing for inequality (  ) between two values or calculations.
Ternary Operator  a linear function that tests an instance then provides true and false
?: results. The function must be contained in a line of code and nesting is not possible. e.g.
[logical test]?[true result]:[false result]
Logical argument testing two values to determine if the value on the left is less than or
<=
equal to the value on the right.
Logical argument testing two values to determine if the value on the left is greater than or
>=
equal to the value on the right.

Graphing
Edge A line connecting two vertices (a vertex pair); denoted with an E. On a
polyhedron the number of edges enclosing a single face is denoted with an S.
Face An area outlined by edges; denoted with an F. Graphs illustrating the shortest
route traveled among points without intersecting the same point twice do not
have enclosed faces unless the traveler returns to the point of origin or a “hub”
is used.
Graph An illustration of a group of related vertices or “points.”
Line An infinite series of adjoined points defining a length or arc.
Point A location in space typically defined by coordinates, e.g. (x, y), (x, y, z), or
(  ,  ). When applied to a polygon or polyhedron, points are typically given
for vertices. In mathematics a point has no dimension in itself.
Polygon The geometric, two-dimensional shape resulting from connecting vertices.
Polyhedron The topological, three-dimensional shape resulting from connecting vertices.
Vertice A point in space that may be connected to other points by two or more lines;
denoted with a V.

Validity and Reliability

Domain The minimum and maximum X values of a function.
Range The minimum and maximum Y values of a function.
 Reliable State of providing the correct results. Although a function may be valid
(performing the correct action), the results may not always be correct. Most
mathematical operations on computers follow valid algorithms for their solutions.
However, computers have limited data capacities, causing larger numeric
operations to fail. e.g. finding the exact value for pi (  ).
Valid State of performing the expected task correctly.

Logic of Reality
An axiom is a self-evident truth, such as: all sets belong to an universal set of sets, and the
universal set of sets belongs to itself. Axioms cannot be proved nor disproved. A paradox (a.k.a.
tautology) is an axiom that appears in contradiction, such as Axiom 11 below. Axioms fall into
three categories: holistic (applies to everything always), particular (applies conditionally to only
specific things at specific times, such as: Do unto others as they would have you do unto them),
and definitive (applies to concepts and descriptive terms). Axioms rely strongly on the logic of
predicates (the object of a claim) and propositions (the subject/claim asserted about the object).
Statements with one predicate are monadic (Axioms 1 & 2), two or more are polyadic (note after
Axiom 1). The combination of these must be carefully considered in the creation of axioms to
prevent semantic skewing of meaning. Axioms are inductive, meaning they assert a generalized
formula about many things based on a single thing. The following selected axioms are taken from
the Unified Field Theory:
Axiom 1. An axiom is a self-evident truth. (note: the underlined is the predicate,
the rest is the proposition)
Axiom 2. All objects of mind and physical reality are processes.
Axiom 3. All objects have an antithesis of what they are not.
Axiom 4. All objects are related to each other.
Axiom 5. All processes have the measurable (paralogical) component processes of
affective, effective and effectual Axis (axiological).
Axiom 8. Though the parts constitute the whole, only the whole completely
represents itself (note previous verbiage: The whole is greater than its parts.)
Axiom 9. The whole is a function of its parts. (note previous verbiage: The whole is
the sum of its parts.)
Axiom 10. Each part or group of parts may be studied as a whole in themselves.
Axiom 11. An infinite quantity of finite values exists, while a finite quantity of
infinite values exists.
Axiom 12. Though a definable set contains infinite dimension, the set remains
singular and necessarily finite.
Axiom 13. All values are inferred through projection relative to paralog measures of
axiologs.
Axiom 16. The conservation of values within dimensions is a function of the
processes relating them. (note previous law of conservation: The sum quantity of all
energy (mass) remains constant while values are converted between forms of the same
(e.g. energy or mass).)
Axiom 18. All processes exist in a state of entropic change.
Axiom 19. The antithesis of zero is one; the antithesis of one is infinity; the
antithesis of infinite is zero. (Thus the Holistic is its own antithesis. A non-
mathematical version would be: The antithesis of nothing is something; the antithesis
 of something is everything; the antithesis of everything is nothing; thus the absolute
totality is its own antithesis.)
Axiom 20. A complete Paradigm contains parallel properties that unfold and enfold.
Axioms are not typically seen as debatable, provable, or capable of being disproved. The
semantic may wish to argue with some verbiage (e.g. Axiom 4--not being related is also a
relationship). Many of the axioms stated here are not easily apprehended on a concrete level, but
nowhere does it say that self-evident requires any particular level of knowledge or abstract
capabilities. These are self-evident from my observations, studies and experiences. These
axioms, though often not easily apprehended, contain an expressed or implied “all” and “always,”
meaning independent of situation and time. When a statement has a particular application alone,
then I classify it as a proposition (e.g. specific mathematical operations), which is an arguable and
particular axiom. The reader will note these axioms clearly define a transcendent metaphysics.
Notice also that occasionally I identify previous axioms which these supplant. The verbiage
differences may be slight, but are quite significant.
Advocates of infinite may wish to object to these axioms, but may have some difficulty
pinpointing where to aim their objection. These axioms neither condemn nor advocate the theory
of infinite. Axiom 11 is double barreled, shooting both extremities with equal prejudice. The
processes advocated here are continuous (infinite) and “closed” (finite) in atomistic quanta, which
are indefinitely divisible into other objects of different quanta. While point has advantages in
mathematics, quantum members are finite, manageable and relative to identifiable definitions.
Atomistic quanta are wholes in themselves, whose constituent processes present other quanta and
are infinite in the cycles of their quantum processes.
Axiom 19 presents a tautology through a three-step system:  (0) =  ;  (  ) =
1;  (1) = 0. The Holistic takes on the form arguments  (  (0),  (  ),  (1)) =
(  (  ),  (1),  (0)) = (1, 0,  )  (0,  , 1)  (  , 1, 0), etc. because of relativity (Axiom
13) and conservation (Axiom 16). Hence, Axiom 20 does not contradict Axiom 3. We have three
values in this argument because of Axioms 5 and 13. The more pressing questions this raises is:
“How do we mathematically define the function  ?” and, “What would the value of  (x)
equal?” We note that the derivative  -  =  /  = 1, and 1-  = 1/   0. Would it then be
true that 0-  = 0/    ? If this so, then x -  = x/   0 (  x  0), but is not itself
reciprocal. The statement 0-  = 0/    has interesting side effects also. At zero the quanta
ceases to exist, and therein lay another holistic, hence the approach to infinite. This leads to
Axiom 20. Finally, the last statement on the Holistic (it is its own antithesis) is logical because
Transcendental Metaphysical Reality constitutes all three measurable conditions (Axiom 5).

Logical Syllogism (Presentation Approach)

Our main purpose here is to examine the systematic way in which people effectively exchange
information. This is critical because the process helps to solve problems. In this section we will
examine presentations in general (and the rules apply in writing also), the structure of
presentations (logical syllogism, a.k.a. the five paragraph theme), the elements of argument, and
provide an example presentation that covers almost exactly the same materials using a
syllogistic/thematic approach.
Presentation Issues
Scripts  While a script may be very helpful, never be a script drone. Use a script to formulate
and practice. Unless you are acting, do not memorize the script. Never read your script to the
audience.
 Naturalness  Effective speaking and acting are natural. The speaker must feel memorized
script so its presentation will contain those feelings as inflections of tone, gestures and other
body language. Without these, the representation sounds rehearsed.
Succinctness  Deliver the information necessary to make your point. Presentation aids must
be simple and not distract from the content. Busy charts and diagrams are difficult to follow.
Long bodies of text are also. Divide up the information and slowly break the audience in on
the big picture rather than inflict it all at once in one diagram or statement. Colors, pictures
and sounds should accentuate information and not distract.
Timeliness  Timing is more than just fitting into a speaking schedule. The length of a
presentation depends on many factors, including the content and the method of presentation.
You may be able to captivate an audience for hours on a subject you fill with energy and
enthusiasm. Likewise you may be forced to provide a few raw facts and cut the presentation to
a few boring minutes. Keep in mind the attention span of the audience, regardless of the time
limitations given to your presentation. Children have very short attention spans for speeches
(sometimes less than a few minutes) while adults may last for hours. In reverse, adults will
bore more quickly of repetitive physical interactions, while a child will repeat the same action
continuously and tirelessly for hours. A normal lecture, for example, has an ideal time of 50
minutes for an adult audience. Consider who the audience is, their interest in the topic, your
interest in the topic, your ability to enliven the topic with enthusiasm, then fit what you can
into the time given to deliver the presentation.
Structure  The structure of your speech may be more important than the content. The
structure will help define the content in a manner the audience can easily comprehend. The
less interaction/feedback you have from your audience, the more important the structure. In a
completely interactive environment you can literally get away with setting some objectives,
practice argument scenarios, set a beginning point and proceed without further structure. This
method is much more difficult and is appropriate for smaller audiences. It requires a firm
mastery of structured debate/presentation as the speaker must be able to think quickly,
formulate and structure arguments in response to any scenario that arises in the presentation.
To make matters worse, the unstructured presentation requires that to meet the objectives the
speaker must retain them clearly no matter what deviations arise.
Thematic Presentation Structure
Introduction
The following breakdown goes sentence by sentence through a simple five-paragraph theme. The
outline is intended for simplicity. In other words students just learning the five paragraph theme
should focus on simple sentences and ideas rather than long and ambiguous sentences. Long and
ambiguous sentences in thesis statements and the introduction require greater amounts of
information to support them. They also cause the writer to put details in where they do not
belong. Concision is highly recommended for beginners. As the student becomes more fluent in
the methodology, then this can be expanded to a larger format.
 We note that each of the following five
paragraphs has five sentences. These sentences may be broken down into the following three
categories:
1. Thesis (topic) statement—This is a position statement, a claim of being. Generally it
contains two major parts: the topic and an adjective (e.g. The sky is blue). The adjective
is the claim, which the rest of the paragraph (or paper if it is the general thesis statement)
develops and establishes as fact. It is wise to keep the thesis statement to a singular
adjective; otherwise each adjective must be proved. An easy question to answer to
establish a thesis statement is: “What word or phrase best describes your feelings about
the topic?”
2. Subtopic (descriptive) statement—Each paragraph contains a minimum of three
subtopical sentences, which briefly describe specific qualities of the paragraph’s thesis
statement. Here the question being answered is: “What are the major groups of
characteristics of the topic?” or "What specific evidence proves the claim?"
3. Transition statement—Each paragraph ends with a sentence that relates the qualities
described in the subtopic statements to the adjective of the thesis statement. Each
transition basically answers one question: “What is the relationship between the subtopics
(description) and the position (adjective) of the topic?”
First Paragraph—Introduction
The introductory paragraph establishes what will be argued (the topic and position) and the
qualities that will be used to establish the argument. The greater the simplicity the better for
beginners. Absolutely no specific details go into this paragraph. In other words don’t be
descriptive, merely identify the topic and it’s adjective in one sentence, the subtopics in separate
sentences, and the relationship between these subtopics and the claim (adjective).
Sentence 1—Thesis—This is the general thesis of the paper, stating the topic and an
adjective that summarizes a position or feeling about the topic.
Sentences 2-4—Subtopics—One sentence for each of three (minimum) qualities, which
comprise the general topic of the paper. Each sentence topic here (the active noun of the
sentence) becomes the subject of a paragraph in the body of the paper.
Sentence 5—Transition—One sentence relating the subtopics of sentences 2-4 with the
claim (adjective) of sentence 1.
Second through Fourth Paragraphs—Body
Each of these paragraphs is identical in structure and description, though each will contain
separate topics and details describing the topics. These are the only paragraphs in the paper where
specific details are provided.
Sentence 1—Topic Statement—Take the subtopics of sentences 2-4 of the first paragraphs
and write position statements about them in order. Each of these position statements will
contain a subtopic from the introductory paragraph and an adjective summarizing a position
or feeling about that subtopic. These three statements will be the thesis statements of
paragraph 2-4 respectively.
Sentences 2-4—Description—Break down the thesis statement of the paragraph into three
parts (minimum) and describe each separately in at least one sentence (beginners should
stick to a single sentence).
Sentence 5—Transition—One sentence relating the descriptive sentences 2-4 with the claim
(adjective) of sentence 1.
Fifth Paragraph—Conclusion
The purpose of this paragraph is to finalize and summarize the paper. Each of the first four
sentences is derived from the transitions of the first four paragraphs in order. This does not mean
repeating the transitions from those paragraphs. Instead we look at each transition and ask the
question: “What does this mean to the topic?” The answer to this will provide a meaningful
adjective. The adjective does not have to agree with the claims of the respective paragraphs, but
must agree with the evidence and transition provided.
Sentence 1—Final Claim—The adjective will be the final claim of the paper, and may in
fact be the same as the thesis statement. The adjective has now been thought through more
thoroughly because of the evidence and descriptions provided in paragraphs 2-4, and may
become more specific, even contradicting the thesis.
Sentences 2-4—The adjective will become a topic in the conclusive transition. Again, these
adjectives may be very similar to those in their respective paragraphs. They may also have
changed because of the evidence, and may be better refined.
Sentence 5—Conclusive Transition—Tie the adjective topics of sentences 2-4 with the
adjective of the first sentence to either support or condemn the thesis. If the thesis is
condemned, this may affect the verbiage of the first sentence of this paragraph (hence
altering the adjective of this paragraph’s thesis statement).
Common Errors
Do not begin a five-paragraph theme with a question. While this may work in an eclectic writing
style, it fails in the five-paragraph theme. Instead of writing a question for the thesis, answer the
question. The answer is your position and what you will find evidence to support or condemn.
Transitions are not mini-conclusions. Looking on transitions as mini-conclusions is misleading.
The associated mistake with this is having the transitions repeated verbatim in the conclusion.
While the transition does conclude the paragraph, it merely summarizes it so the audience has a
feeling of wholeness. It acts like the last line in a haiku poem by tying the first statement with the
distinctly separate statements that follow. As such the writer should be cautioned to avoid using
the adjective of the thesis (claim) in the body of the paragraph. The adjective is included with the
subtopics (and often the general topic) in the transition.
The Creating Process
Introduction―Formulating a presentation is exactly like writing a paper. The writing process
remains fundamentally the same, with the exception being that visuals (textual, graphical and
animated) audio materials, handouts, and props, not to mention interactive discussions,
question and answer periods, etc. may all be included in the product. The writing process
consists of the following elements:
Discovering/Impulse―Hodges' makes no reference to this most fundamental (and perhaps
obvious) stage. This is perhaps the most creative part of the entire process because here you
identify what it is you will present. Borrowing in part from John Dewey's philosophy of
creativity and art, we can say that this creative impulse arises from an experience in which one
becomes inspired to relate unlike things, and hence to create and express. In some instances
this may be very unglamorous (e.g. your boss gives you a project and tells you to present given
information at a meeting). No matter where it comes from, the initial idea of the presentation
must arise before anything else can occur. This is not to say, however, that you immediately
know your thesis. You at least know the major topic of which you wish to express.
Planning―In the creative process, this is where you decide on how you will present the
materials. At this point you must identify your audience, the setting, your available resources,
your purpose, the time available, etc. This information will outline specifically what
dimensions of your topic to address.
Drafting―Again an under-rated step in the process, because it also includes the gathering of
information resources, compiling raw data, making claims about the data, extracting evidence,
substantiating with warrants (sources of the evidence), summarizing the relationship between
the evidence and claims, and organizing everything in a meaningful and sequential manner.
Proofreading―Hodges' places this step last in the list, when it is an on-going process
beginning with the first draft. Proofreading may coincide with editing, but is fundamentally
different. Proofreading involves reading through the entire draft from beginning to end to
check for coherence, clarity, and that the materials follow a logical sequence that fills the
objectives of the expression. In other words the fundamental objective of proofreading is in
the questions "Does it make sense?" and "Does it say what was intended to be said?" It is
often wise to have a third party proofread your document who knows nothing about the
subject. The reason is that the third party will hold the author accountable for anything that is
less than perfectly clear, and force the author into the "beginner's mind." When creating an
expression it is easy to forget that our first purpose is to inform our audience about the
experience of our perspective, and that they have not shared the experience until now. Our
expression becomes an artificial experience. If the audience shared in the same experience
previously, then what is the point in boring them with doing it again? If not, then we must be
mindful that our terminology and references are such that every member in the audience can
relate. Otherwise the author becomes the sole audience to appreciate the expression and it
fails.
Editing―This is a professional stage of the writing process in which the document is reviewed
for its style, grammar, syntax, spelling, punctuation, form, etc. Any common person can easily
distinguish between a professional and amateur expression, even if they do not know what
exactly the distinctions are. The professional has a firm grasp of the distinction from research,
education, and personal experience. The professional editor easily identifies the tiniest details
that make the expression less than professional. As a consequence you must make yourself a
professional editor by experiencing the field, reading and referencing appropriate and current
resources, and practicing your methods of expressing. Ask yourself what methods have
worked best for what methods. Why? How can you use these same methods or modify them
to fit your needs?
Revising―This is an on-going process that occurs following every cycle of proofreading and
editing until the document has reached a final and effective form. Note that the easiest way to
enter editing and proofreading corrections is to begin at the end of the document and work your
 way to the beginning. This way you can easily find the location of corrections. If you begin at
the start, then the corrections will shift the rest of the materials and make it difficult to find
where future corrections go.
Hodges' Harbrace College Handbook (11th ed, 1990, p 576) incorrectly states there is no fixed
order to these. The above order is correct. The authors perhaps are confused between Writing
Process and Writing Order. Writing Order depends largely on the skills of the writer and the
knowledge of the subject. The five paragraph theme presented in the previous section negates the
need for skill and enables the writer to experience an unknown topic, explore its elements, and
derive a conclusion. If the author knows a lot about the subject, then writing the introductory
paragraph is fairly simple. If not, then the introductory paragraph is put last. An experienced
orator who is familiar with the topic being discussed can instantly use the above system to
formulate an impromptu argument. We see this very commonly in political debates.
Elements of Argument
Introduction

The structure of argument has evolved from

Aristotle's logos (logic or structure), pathos (feeling), ethos (value) to Hegel's thesis (claim),
antithesis (what is not the claim), synthesis (outcome or conclusion resulting from combining the
thesis and antithesis) to the current form of claim (position), support (evidence), warrant (source).
The thematic approach combines the elements of argument with the scientific methodology of Sir
Francis Bacon as applied to writing: Problem, Theoretical Framework, Methods, Observations,
Conclusion; or in short: Introduction, Body, Conclusion. Though the short definitions for quick
reference provided in this text are helpful for quick reference, in-depth definitions are more
expository and concrete.
Aristotle
Logos―A style of writing, in which the elements of a subject are put into a specific
viewpoint. The elements are then given order, purpose, and understanding. This is done to
explain fundamental relationships within a set of facts. Logos has distinct functions in all
documents. This is an inherent feature of logical syllogism, the five paragraph theme.
Information is gathered, given order, and presented to support a specific thesis. It is important
that you, as a writer, not neglect ethos and pathos, and adhere entirely to logos. Be mindful of
which is dominant in each writing case. Certainly logos is fundamental to holding any
argument together.
Pathos―A writing style in which the writer is trying to arouse a deep emotion. This emotion
is usually tender, such as passion, compassion, etc. It can also be a negative appeal, which is a
less effective style. Pathos is part of the persuasive element of every argument. The process of
arguing is going to be logos. Ethos is most likely what is addressed in the argument. The
voice you will use to address the ethos will be pathos.
Ethos―A style of writing in which values are identified. Ethos gives an argument value,
especially moral or ethical value. Because of the attachment with values, especially those that
can be defined as fitting a specific and definable population (which is definitive of moral and
ethical, where moral is a limited population, and ethical is an universal population), ethos is
perhaps strongest motivator as the second persuasive element of every argument.
Hegel
Thesis―Hegel's thesis is slightly different from the one we use here, but the concept is
important. Essentially his thesis is a statement of "is-ness" identifying an object and what
constitutes or defines that object. In research this thesis is often called hypothetical, which is
based upon the known components of an object.
Antithesis―The antithesis is the opposite of the thesis. Here you take the components
defining the thesis object and restate them as negatives (e.g. what we know a thing is not). In
research we typically use the term null hypothesis, which defines the testable components of
the research. You test the null hypothesis because it will validate the conditions outlined in the
hypothesis.
Synthesis―The combination of observations in the thesis and antithesis to illustrate an even
bigger (more holistic) picture. In other words, the process of showing how the object being
investigated/argued interacts with other objects of unlike definition. If our thesis is on bread,
then our antithesis would necessarily be non-bread items, such as meat, preserves, butter, etc.
Our resulting synthesis combines these unlike objects to illustrate that we can interact these
unlike things and consequently get sandwiches, toast, etc.
Contemporary
Claim―Represents what you are trying to prove or say. It is a small conclusion in a sense, but
it may be more like a leading hypothesis. It tells your audience what issue you are going to
address (it is sometimes referred to as a hook, because the audience identifies themselves as
interested or not interested by what it says, and how it is written). Every paper should start
with a general claim. This claim is commonly called a thesis statement. I will not limit the
scope of this to a thesis sentence because that is misleading. Depending on the scope of the
document, the thesis statement can be as small as a sentence, or as large as an introduction.
Whatever you assert in your thesis statement, you must substantiate in the body of your paper-
preferably in the order they are presented in the introduction.
Support―The evidence you provide. It should appeal to the needs, expectations and values of
your audience in order to substantiate your claim. A good format to follow is to make your
claim first, maintaining a logical hierarchy of order as illustrated above, and then follow with
supporting evidence. Evidence is facts, not opinions or what you think are facts (though some
expert opinions are considered factual enough for use in argument--these are either quoted or
paraphrased and cited). If you cannot find your evidence documented by a valid source, then
avoid using it. This is not to say that you have to find documentation on items of extreme
common knowledge. For example, you can say the sky is blue. Though some small sample of
the population may disagree, it is widely accepted and documented. However, you cannot say
tat Christopher Columbus discovered America in 1492 without being subject to scrutiny for
fallacy. Many historians will argue to the death on this. They will argue that the American
Indians (Amerands) came first, then the Norwegians, Dutch, and finally Columbus. Some
even claim that an Irishman came before Columbus, and that the Portuguese came close. As a
matter of fact, Columbus never reached the continent, and could not even navigate well enough
to return to the same island he discovered in the first place. So you have to be careful about
what is common knowledge and what is common myth.
Warrant―Gives authenticity to the support. There are two forms of warrants, the expressed
and unexpressed warrants. In the expressed warrant a particular authority or group of
authorities is mentioned as having made a conclusion. This conclusion is the evidence you
provide. An unexpressed warrant is better used with items of common knowledge. In these
you don't need to say who the authority is that made the conclusion. Most of us would be able
to say that most wheels are round. If we were to discuss triangular wheels, which do exist, we
 would have to cite an authority on that type of wheel. If you don't do this, the reader is put in a
situation where they can be doubtful of your assertions. If a conclusion or opinion seems to be
widely shared in your research, then unless you quote someone an expressed warrant (citation)
is not necessary. It may be helpful though, for researchers, if you made a footnote or
parenthetical remark listing some of the people you could have cited. When writing fiction,
and especially science fiction and fantasy, we tend not to express our warrants. It is unwise for
an author to be too outrageous in claims and supports, even in fiction. If they are, the audience
will have a hard time relating to the story.
Scientific
The scientific method has undergone many changes since Sir Francis Bacon, using syllogism to
report the exploration of a topic. The format described here is used for technical research
including theses and dissertations. Sections may migrate occasionally or even be forgotten, while
others may be added to further map the process. The key to the scientific model is to create a
report such that another researcher can follow the same process and achieve the same results. On
the whole the following outline is fairly consistent, and must be to insure findings are easily
validated, replicated and expressed.
Chapter Section Description
Introduction/ Statement of the Identifies the issue being researched.
Problem Problem
Purpose States the motive for conducting the research.
Significance States why the research is important.
Limitations Gives a scope to the research (e.g. what it can be
applied to externally).
Delimitations States internal factors that could influence the research.
Theoretical Literature Review Examines what other researchers have found, and their
Framework methods of achieving results.
Hypothesis An educated guess as to the outcome of the research; a
statement of what a thing may be.
Null-Hypothesis A statement of what is not present, and by the absence
of that quality the existence of the hypothesis is proven
(Cicero's "Exception proves the rule").
Methodology Nature Statement defining the type of research being
conducted: quantitative, qualitative, exploratory,
descriptive, primary, secondary, historical, triangulated,
etc.
Method What method is employed: experimental, quasi-
experimental, survey, obtrusive or non-obtrusive
observation, etc.? Define the method being employed.
If the subjects are obtrusively observed, what is done to
return normalcy (e.g. post-test counseling)?
Population What defines the whole population to whom your study
applies?
Sampling Method How will you determine who will be studied of the
population.
Statistical Methods What numeric methods (if any) will you use to insure
that your findings are meaningful and representative of
 the entire population?
Observations Appropriate Headings break down aspects of the observations to
Headings help guide the reader. This chapter is exclusively raw
data but may also contain "gut feelings" clearly
identified by the researcher while the observations
occurred.
Conclusion Meaning What do all the observations mean? How do they
apply to what?
New Issues What new questions are asked as a consequence? If
there was a problem with the design, how would you
do it better next time?
Conclusion Was the hypothesis supported or discarded? What is
left? What is now known that was not before? What is
next?
Thematic Presentation Example
The following is a PowerPoint presentation using syllogism to discuss syllogism.

1 2

3 4
5 6

7 8

9 10

11 12
13 14

15 16

17 18

19 20
21 22

23 24

25 26

27 28
29 30

31 32

33 34

35 36
Flowcharting
Symbols
Flowcharts are graphical representations of step-by-step processes describing how to perform a
specific function. This table illustrates the symbols and their meanings.
A brief note to
Another process
help the reader
that provides the
Alternate understand a
same results as Annotation
Process chart item or
the primary
series of
process.
symbols better.
Typically used
Keeping a series together in
to make one
multiple copies (e.g. printing
process wait
the entire document for each
Collate Delay while another
copy rather than printing all
occurs (e.g.
copies of each page at the
waiting for
same time).
water to boil).
Decisions typically provide true and false choices which can be
Decision chained together for more complex decisions, which are shown by
having more than two extruding arrows.
Indicates data
Direct Any data stored on a fixed
being shown on
Access media such as RAM, Display
the CRT
Storage ROM, and Hard Disk.
(monitor).
Indicates a file (or
Magnetic
less typically but Data stored on
Document Disk
equally useful with floppy disk.
Storage
databases, a record).
To take a
sample (less
Indicates the
than the
direction the process
Directional population) of
is flowing. Note that Extract
Arrow information or
a double arrow is
separate
almost never used.
information into
multiple items.
Input and More typically used Internal Typically
Output for input than Connector contains a letter
output (due to other and appears at
available output least twice. The
symbols). Typically internal
this symbol connector
contains an input connects to or
question. more points
within a chart
 (only one of
which will have
an arrow
pointing away
from it).
Data stored and used within the As the label
process. When used, always suggests, this is
indicates the process is an any
Internal Manual
object. Note: if the data is not operator/human
Storage Input
internal, then it should be executed event
identified as public with such as typing
indication as to the source. information.
As with the manual input, a To combine
manual operation is multiple
Manual
performed by the operator Merge sources of
Operation
and not by the program information into
itself. one item.
Off-chart
A group of related connections
files (or less contain a name,
Multiple Off-Chart
commonly a group typically the
Documents Connector
of related records in name of another
a data base). process
(object).
Used to
signify
Uses a stored (e.g. public)
parallel
process (such as from the
solutions
Main( ) object), perhaps
Or that may Predefined Process
indicating an off-chart
depend on
connection to a part of
the
another object.
information
provided.
Data stored on
Collecting input Sequential tape or in a
Preparation data in a useable Data definable
format. Storage sequence
(order).
Any
Puts data into a
operation
sequential order. Be
where input
sure to indicate if
is converted
Process Sort the sort is in reverse
to output,
order and, if
such as a
applicable, the
mathematical
criteria of the sort.
formula.
 Stored Raw data Summing The point at which
Data stored in the Junction the data from
specified multiple sources is
manner. brought together.
All charts begin with a terminator. Charts that do not
Terminator
end in a terminator form endless loops.

Flowchart Creation
This illustration provides a simple example of how a flowchart provides the step-by-step how-to
process. To create a flowchart, follow the one below. Note: this chart requires that you have
some knowledge of the input, output, or manipulation method. If you have information about the
input or output, you must determine the method.
Flowcharting Examples
Boiling Water
Putting a Cap on a Pen

Solving a Heuristic
A heuristic is slightly different from an algorithm. Algorithms are expected
to provide exacting results. Heuristics are only expected to give calculated
guesses. Fundamentally they are identical on the surface. Where they
differ is the exactitude. When might you need a heuristic? Consider the
famous traveling salesman problem. Basically the story goes this way: the
salesman has N points to visit. He wants to travel as little distance as
possible, and preferably not have to backtrack. What is his best route? If
the salesman is a machine, and the points don’t care either, you don’t have
to worry about how he feels about the points, or when they would like to
see him. In such a case you use an algorithm. Since the salesman and the
customers do care, you must devise a heuristic, which will not necessarily
work for other salesmen, nor will it work if someone new moves into the
neighborhood.
Polyhedron Problem
Polyhedrons are three-dimensional figures, such as cubes, pyramids,
spheres, etc. We will focus on polyhedrons constructed of straight lines,
particularly those known as the regular polyhedrons. Our purpose is to
learn a little more about both the regular polyhedrons and others that are
similar. Euler recognized that polyhedrons have relationships between their
faces, edges and vertices (E=F+V-2) and identified five shapes as regular.
There is only one problem with Euler's model: it alone cannot be used to
prove or disprove the existence of other regular polyhedrons because we
must have two variables to calculate the third.
Polyhedron Solution
The solution must allow for the calculation of the other variables based on
only one of these, namely the number of faces. We must add two variables:
the number of sides on one face (S) and the number of edges joining at each
vertice (J). After further observation we are able to expand our table as
follows:
Name Faces Edges Vertices Sides (S) Joints (J)
(F) (E) (V)
Tetrahedron 4 6 4 3 3
Hexahedron 6 12 8 4 3
Octahedron 8 12 6 3 4
Dodecahedron 12 30 20 5 3
Icosahedron 20 30 12 3 5
We observe that E = .5FS and J=FS/V, and. These are important because
we can consider a polyhedron problem a graph problem. As a graph
problem we need to know what relationships the significant points have.
The significant points for a graph problem are the number of vertices, not
the number of faces. We humans are most interested in the faces and
finding all instances where our attributes (F, E, V, S, J, etc.) are "legal." All
instances of these particular attributes must be positive, real integers.
Pseudocode to Find SIDES
Problem
Private Float variable = 360 / Faces
Our problem comes in two
Private Integer i=0
heuristic parts: a single
variable solution and a test Private Array a[3,2]
to be sure our primary IF variable ≠ integer and variable =
attributes remain positive, continuous decimal
real integers. The first NotPossible ( )
heuristic is to solve for S IF variable ≠ integer
given only F (see remove decimal from variable
FOR i = 1 TO 3
pseudocode on right). In
Public Integer a[i,1] = (i + 2)
short the algorithm divides
Public Integer a[i,2] = 0
360 by the number of
WHILE modulus of variable/(i +
faces, then finds all
2) ≠ 0
divisors of 3, 4, and 5 of
the result. Then the a[i,2]++
number of instances are variable /= (i+2)
arranged and the middle IF variable ≠ 1 or 2
value (or one on the right) NotPossible ( )
is the number of sides on Return RoundUp (Median ( ))
one face (S).
The second is to test all our variables to be sure they are valid. We will
expand the pseudocode for the Side problem to explain how you might test
for a continuous decimal and add a module to round values up (not down!).
We will develop a logical process ensuring our system is not bogged down
doing unnecessary calculations by testing the attributes most likely to break
first.
A Solution:
ComputeS (F)
*/ This counts the number of times 3, 4, & 5 may be divided
into N to generate a, b, & c./*

{
private double a=0;
private double b=0;
private double c=0;
private double d=360;

if d%F!=0
{
d=360000000;
if d%F!=0
{
return 0;
end;
}
}
else
{
N=d/F;
do
{
a=a++;
N=N/3;
}
while N%3==0;
do
{
b=b++;
N=N/4;
{
while N%4==0;
do
{
c=c++;
N=N/5;
{
while N%5==0;
}
if a+b+c==0 then return 0;
else if c>=a+b then S=5;
else a<=b+c?S=4:S=3;
endif;
return S;
}
}
Decimal (test)
{
private integer result2 = test;
return result2 == test ? 0 : 1;
}
DetermineE (F,S)
{
Private float E=.5FS
 Decimal(test=E)==1?E=0:E=E;
return E;
}
DetermineV (F,S,E)
{
Private float V=E-F+2
Decimal(test=V)==1?V=0:V=V;
return V;
}
DetermineJ (F,S,V)
{
Private float J=FS/V
Decimal(test=J)==1?J=0:J=J;
return J;
}
MainTest (F)
Private Integer S=ComputeS(F);
If S!=0 then
{
E=DetermineE (F,S);
If!=0 then
Private Integer V=DetermineE (F,S);
If V!=0 then
If DetermineJ (F,S,V)!=0 then cout << “This one works: F = ” << F

Refining the Heuristic

In our previous examination of the sides per face problem, we used basic
variable declarations. In this example I use a two-dimensional array—one
dimension for the number of sides, and the other to store the number of
occurrences. The advantage of using an array like this, is that we can easily
adjust the code to allow for more variables without having to rewrite the
entire program, as the previous example would require. This example also
gives us insight on how we can solve for a statistical median (the center
value of an ordered set).
Solving a Median
A median is a statistical measure of central tendency. In simple terms,
when you look at a list of values in order, the median is the value appearing
in the middle. Does this sound too easy? Look at the diagram on the right
and tell me. This is only the first half of the solution though. Allow me to
outline the details of the problem:
1. The user must identify how many items are in the set. This is
because the program must know how many variables it must
declare.
2. We cannot assume the user will enter the values in order, so we
must sort the values.
3. We must verify that replicated values are intentional and not
accidental.
4. We want to give the user as many options as possible.
MedMain ( )
// Declarations
{
Private int items = 0;
Private int j = 0;
Private int s = 0;
Private int sum = 0;
Private int ans1 = 0;
Private int ans2 = 0;
Private int exist = 0;
// Input Loop: Number of Sets
While items > = 0
{
cout << “Input number of sets > 0: “;
cin >> items;
cout << endl;
}
// Input Loop: Set Data
Private a [ items, 2 ];
While j < items
 {
j++;
cout << ”Value attributed to set/quality? ”;
cin >> a [ j, 1 ];
cout << “\nQuantity in set? “;
cin >> a [ j, 2 ];
cout << endl;
// Sum Quantities of Sets

s + = a [ j, 2 ];
// Sort Set Attributes Ascending

Private int k = j;
While (k-1) > 0 && a [ k, 1 ] < a [ (k-1), 1 ]
{
Private int t1 = a [ (k-1), 1 ];
Private int t2 = a [ (k-1), 2 ];
a [ (k-1), 1 ] = a [ k, 1 ];
a [ (k-1), 2 ] = a [ k, 2 ];
a [ k, 1 ] = t1;
a [ k, 2 ] = t2;
k--;
}
// Duplicate Set Handling

if (k-1) > 0 && a [ k, 1 ] = = a [ (k-1), 1 ]

{
j--;
cout << “This set already exists. Please choose from the
following:\n”
<< “ Add to original set and:\n”
<< “ 1. Reduce number of sets
computed.\n”
<< “ 2. Continue without changing
number of sets.\n”
<< “ Replace original set and:\n”
<< “ 3. Reduce number of sets
computed.\n”
 << “ 4. Continue without changing
number of sets.\n”
<< “ Forget this entry and:\n”
<< “ 5. Reduce number of sets
computed.\n”
<< “ 6. Continue without changing
number of sets.\n”;
cin >> exists;
cout << cls;
// Duplicate Exists Event Action
if exists%2 ! = 0
{
items--;
}
if exists < = 2
{
a [ (k-1), 2 ] + = a [ k, 2 ];
}
if exists = = 3 || exists = = 4
{
a [ (k-1), 2 ] = a [ k, 2 ];
}
}
}
// Median Handling and Results
if s%2 = = 0
{
sum = (s/2);
return median(sum);
}
else
{
sum = ((s+1)/2);
ans1 = median(sum);
sum = ((s-1)/2);
ans2 = median(sum);
return ((ans1+ans2)/2);
 }
break;
Median ( sum )
// Declarations
Private int i = 0;
Private int MedAns = 0;
// Computational Loop
{
Do
{
i++;
MedAns + = a [ i, 2 ];
}
While (MedAns – sum) > 0
return a [ i, 1 ];
}
Worksheet 4—Logic
 Unit 5—Programming & Coding
Objectives:
Students will understand:
1. Terminology 4. Programming Process
2. Systems Development Life 5. Data Structures
Cycle 6. Control Structures
3. Purpose of Systems Logic

Terminology
Term Definition
Applet Java scripts used in web documents that run in the
browser window.
Application Programs stored permanently on the computer and used
Software to tell the computer how to produce information.
ASCII American Standard Code for Information Interchange:
the most widely used data coding system primarily for
mini-computers and PCs.
Assembly The first symbolic programming language. Is hardware
Language specific but much easier to write than Machine
Language. Must be converted into machine language in
order to work though, using an Assembler.
The systematic way of exploring every possible route,
Backtracking configuration or ordering of an arrangement without
repeating a path that was already explored.
BASIC Beginner's All-Purpose Symbolic Instruction Code:
Developed in the 60s to be a simple, interactive,
problem-solving language that uses elementary English
words combined with some symbology. Requires an
interpreter to work (either built into the system ROM as
with old PCs or in a program).
C Programming language designed to create system
software, including applications and operating systems.
Most frequently used with UNIX.
C++ Object Oriented version of C used to develop
applications.
Class A large category of objects, wherein the category helps
define a characteristic shared by all the members
(objects) of the group (class).
COBOL Common Business Oriented Language: Widely used
programming language for business that uses English-
like commands.
Code Standards Set by the American National Standards Institute to
ensure programs are compatible with many different
computers.
Coding The process of translating and entering a process into a
programming language (code) on a computer.
Compiler The program that converts the code of a program into
Machine Language.
Context Top-level diagram of data flow that only shows major
Diagram components of a process.
Control The instructions that control the order in which program
Structure instructions are executed.
Cooperative Method of managing multiple processes to insure they
Multitasking receive the information they need when they need it,
and deliver their output when it is needed by other
processes by switching between processes until logical
stopping points are reach.
Data The raw facts, including numbers, words, images, and
sounds given as input to be processed. Data may be
entered manually, embedded in the program, or from
other sources.
Decoding Translates instructions into processable commands.
Process of breaking a large problem into smaller
Divide and problems, solving the smaller problems then
Conquer recombining the results to yield a solution to the large
problem.
Entity An object for which data is stored to define it.
Event The pressing of a key, clicking of the mouse button, or
 other input impulse that provides data prompting action
or providing data for action in an Object Oriented
Program.
Executing Control unit operation that processes commands.
Flowchart A graphic representation of the logical flow of
information through specific processes resulting in the
desired output.
Fourth- A non-procedural language using English-like
Generation statements, that does not require being told how to
Language perform an action, only what actions to perform. These
programs are run within other programs, such as
HTML, and Macros.
Graphic User (GUI) User interface using visual clues to aid in
Interface inputting data.
Greedy A method which attempts to capture the first possible
Heuristic greatest thing.
A trial and error approach to problem resolution that
Heuristic may give a kind of solution with no guarantee of
success or accuracy.
Hierarchy A logical ordering of information into classes and lesser
subclasses inheriting the qualities of the higher ranking
classes directly above the item.
Hierarchy A top-down design tool graphically representing
Chart program modules.
If-then-else Structure that evaluates conditions to determine if they
Control are or are not true, and to take action accordingly.
Structure
Infinite Loop Instructions that repeat themselves indefinitely.
Information Data processed into meaningful and useful form.
Information The operations of input, process, output, storage.
Processing
Cycle
Inheritance The condition in which objects, including subclasses,
keep the methods and attributes of objects and classes at
higher levels of the program's hierarchy.
Interpreter A process of converting command lines one at a time
into machine language and executing them.
Java Object-Oriented language very similar to C++, but more
compact and offering greater user security.
JavaScript Simpler form of Java that is not compiled and runs
directly in a web browser.
Language A program that converts programming instructions one
Translator at a time into binary code and immediately executes
them.
Machine The binary codes which a computer or device acts
Language upon. This is a hardware-specific language.
Module Section of a program dedicated to performing a single
function.
Object Any piece of information created with a Windows
program, which is linked or embedded in another
application. In OOP a unit in which both data and
procedure are packaged together. Objects are like
elevators: you get on as data, push a button and are fed
out as information on the desired floor. The elevator
contains the information necessary to regulate its own
processes initiated by you, the event.
Object Code The machine language result of compiling a third-
generation program.
Object- Approach in which data and process are packaged
Oriented together.
Object- The event-driven programming language used to
Oriented implement the object model design.
Programming
(OOP)
Language
Operand Specifies the data or location of the data to be used.
Output Data processed in a form useful to the user or the
computer (see also information).
Process The transformation and output of data into a meaningful
and useful form.
Program Detailed set of instructions telling the computer exactly
where to get data and how to process it.
Model used for estimating the processing time of an
algorithm. Each individual access of memory, and
RAM simple operation (e.g. +, -, *, =, if, call) takes one step.
Computation Loop structures must be computed by adding each
Model individual element, as stated above. This model is not
exact due to differences in machines, but does give a
rough estimate.
Rapid (RAD) A means of developing programs using
Application prototypes (e.g. templates) that are easily modified to
Development meet the program's needs.
Selection Tells the computer the action to take under the specified
Control (e.g. event) condition.
Structure
Sequence The order in which actions occur.
Sequence Shows one action or an action followed by another
Control sequential action.
Structure
Solution Graphic or written step-by-step description of
Algorithm procedures within a module.
Source Where information or an object originates from. Also
the uncompiled code of a program.
Structured Method of creating the program's logic using a
Design combination of the sequence, selection, and repetition
control structures.
Subclass A class within a class, e.g. a subset.
Superclass A class in which the current class belongs as a subset.
Symbolic Storage location noted by a symbolic name in Assembly
Address Language.
Symbolic (Mnemonics) Meaningful abbreviations for instructions
Instruction used in Assembly Language.
Codes
Symbolic Instructions are written using codes and symbols rather
Language than zeros and ones.
Syntax The set of grammatical rules of a programming
language applied to instructions in a program.
Syntax Error Any programming syntax mistake made in coding
which results in the inability to complete the command.
System Graphic representation illustrating a major process, its
Flowchart timing, the output, data sources required, and necessary
input devices.
Third- (Procedural Language) A high-level programming
Generation language using English-like words and mathematical
Language notations to create processes. These must be compiled
into Machine Language and often rely on environmental
(e.g. operating system) components to perform many
tasks.
Unstructured Problems with unclear methods leading toward their
Problems solutions, often requiring intuition and personal
judgment (e.g. guessing and educated guessing).
Variable An element of data in an object-oriented program.
Technically any data element subject to variation
depending on the source of the data (as opposed to
internal constants). Variables are subject to change, and
hence the root of the word: vary.
System Development Life Cycle
The flowchart to the right illustrates the Systems Development Life Cycle
(SDLC). This cycle is remarkably comprehensive. It easily fits into any
project development (business, education, law, any area of research), not to
mention its applications with computer hardware, software and
applications.
We observe that the cycle begins where it ends. This is not typical for
flowcharts, but in this case the flow is a perfect cycle. The SDLC is
continuous because needs are always changing as is the technology. Let us
quickly examine each of these stages.
Begin SDLC
Everything has a beginning. In the case of the SDLC the beginning of one
cycle coincides with the ending of another (or others combined).
Preliminary Investigation

What exists? At this stage you are

merely asking what you have to work with (hardware, software, human
resources, and any other necessary resource) and what it actually produces.
Analysis
What is needed? If something is lacking or can be improved upon, then it is
needed. The next part of this question is in what form must it be in? To
answer this you must also know how the results will be applied to other
things (e.g. in the preliminary investigation.
Design
Create a plan. How will you fill the need? Can you buy something already
developed cheaper, more easily and in the time it is needed, or must you
personally create it? If you must create it, then how? This is the stage
where flowcharting occurs to help visually define the plan, its sequence and
methods.
Development
Manually create/execute the plan. If it is a purchase, then execute the
necessary process to make the purchase, install, train and utilize it. If it is
something you must create from scratch, then do so. In programming this is
the point when the plan is coded (put into a programing language).
Implementation
Show/put to use the completed plan. All innovation and technology are on-
going tests. It seems we test them, debug them, and test them again at this
stage, but really we are going through the whole SDLC process.
Implementation includes testing in the lab and actual application by "end-
users."
Audit & Maintenance
The SDLC process itself is a process of auditing processes, updating and
maintaining them to meet current needs. In information technology the
process runs very quickly because there are so many demands and so many
individuals and copanies racing to meet those demands.

Purpose of Systems Logic

The fundamental logic of computer operations is systematic: step-by-step
procedures. A text may tell you what to do to manipulate a file a certain
way. A reference may break down each function of a program and even
give examples. Neither the text nor the reference tell you how to
manipulate every file. Each file poses an unique problem requiring the
computer operator to determine a procedure for filling the file
requirements. This text attempts to combine all three of these by providing
step-by-step procedures in a reference format, followed by activities that
utilize those procedures. To use this text effectively, you must be able to
understand the elementary logic of computing. The elementary logic of
computing is the System Development Life Cycle (SDLC) in which
components are described using flowcharts.

Programming Process
4. Identify Specific Processes
1. Identify Program Function
and Data
2. Identify the Platform
5. Create Flowcharts for
3. Identify Non-Programming
Objects
Alternatives
6. Create Objects and Test
 Identify
Program Function
What do you need the program to do?
 Common functions: graphics, word processing, file management,
calculating, etc. These are almost always removed (running in
something else).
 Technical functions: utilities, operating system, hardware
configuration, etc. If the program is not removed, then it directly
communicates with the computer system in machine language. That
means the binary code must be compatible with the hardware involved.
  Removed functions: must be run within another program (e.g.
within Windows or other operating system, a Browser, etc.). Most
programs are in some way removed (e.g. are running in another
program). The question here is really: “Removed to what?”
 Special functions: works within a unique environment (not a
typical computer environment, like automobiles, cellular phones,
calculators, robots). These are typically in machine language and
designed specifically to meet the needs of input and output components
as well as any computational and memory features (if any).
Identify the Platform
What will be running/executing the program? The program is removed by
what?
1. Nothing: directly addresses computer components in machine
language without requiring other programs. What are the code
requirements for the hardware?
2. Requires an Operating System: relies on features filled in by the
operating system to perform its functions. These are Third
Generation Programs. Note: BASIC was and remains Third
Generation. Old computers used to keep their operating systems in
ROM (Read-Only Memory) along with translating features to
convert the code into actions. Question is: In what operating
system/platform.
3. Requires a Program within an Operating System: relies on features
of a third generation program to Translate/Interpret its functions.
These are Fourth and Fifth (Natural) Generation Languages. These
include SQL and other query languages, macros, and Hypertext
Markup Language (HTML). Question is: In what Third Generation
program?
Identify Non-Programming Alternatives
1. Does a non-programming alternative exist that is more practical?
2. Is there a non-computer method that can provide the necessary
results?
3. Would the non-computer method be more practical (e.g. time wise,
financially, labor and other resources wise)?
4. Can one or more programs provide the necessary results?
5. Can they be integrated for a complete end product as needed?
 6. How can they be integrated?
Identify Specific Processes and Data
1. Divide the program into distinct functions that may be sequenced
separately.
2. Divide each function into data and actions necessary to perform the
function.
3. Simplify data into the least number of necessary variables. If a
variable may change from one action to another, create a separate
variable for each. If each of these unique variables has an identical
default, then create a simple default statement in the appropriate
class.
4. Associate actions with the data variables and determine which
variables are shared, universal, or "private" to that action.
5. Put universal values in a class within the hierarchy above the
actions that call on them and label them as shared.
6. Put shared variables with their specific actions (sequences) and
label them as shared.
7. Put the private variables with their specific actions (sequences) and
label them as private.
Create Objects and Test
1. Routine Flowcharts: The flowchart provides a logical sequence of
events including gathering, manipulating and outputting
information. Each function must have a logical sequence to provide
step-by-step exact actions needed to complete the function. Be sure
to think of every possible thing that could cause a process to fail
(e.g. bad or missing data) and to provide alternative means of
inputting the data manually before the process tries to use it.
2. Create Primary Object: The primary object is also called the
Source. It must contain means of contacting, either directly or
indirectly, all the function sequences. It is itself a sequence and the
primary interface between the computer, software, data and user.
3. Identify Appropriate Language: The language must fit the
environment the program will run in and the function needs of the
program. Not all environments support the same functions. As
such sometimes it is necessary to change the environment to meet
 the needs of the programming language needed to execute the
functions.
4. Translate into Appropriate Language: Convert the sequences you
have written into the codes necessary to do them.
5. Organize and Compile as Needed: Put all the objects of the program
in a logical sequence with distinct boundaries (e.g. separate files,
grouped by class distinction, line numbered, etc. as appropriate to
the language and application). Compiling translates the
programming language you used to write the program into Machine
Language.
6. Test and Debug: Every program, regardless of its simplicity or
language, has potential for failure. Failures may be syntax,
incorrect sequencing, mislabeled connections or data, etc. Errors
are remarkably easy to make and immeasurably difficult at times to
find in the code (certainly easy when executing the program to see
the error in the output though!). To debug you must find the error in
the program and correct it. Then test again to be sure the problem
has not persisted and that other problems did not surface.

Data Structures
Data Types
A value applied to a name within the code of a program. For
example you might define Pi=3.14159265358979 so you do
Constant
not need to retype the number repeatedly, and to conserve the
size of your program.
Textual data type. See also String under Data Storage &
String
Retrieval.
A name applied to a number whose source is either user input
or the result of a formula. These often have initial values.
Variable
They are called variables because the value is subject to
change.
Denotes a value (textual or quantitative) may be used by any
subclass within a class. A common use for this is with
Public
constants which may be used by any routine with a superclass,
or any variable which must be accessed by another class.
Private Denotes a value (textual or quantitative) may be used only
 within the class where it resides. Commonly use counting
functions, because the counter typically resides within the
local function only.
Variable Containers
Type Value Range Purpose Memory
Size
Char Plain text Plain text 8 bits
Small integers
Short int  255 8 bits
(whole numbers)
Integers (whole
Int -32,768 to 32,767 16 bits
numbers)
Long -2,147,483,648 to Large integers
32 bits
Integer 2,147,483,647 (whole numbers)
Real numbers
 3.402823E38
Float (with decimal 32 bits
to  1.401298E-45
values)
 1.79769313486232E308
to Extremely large
Double 64 bits
 4.94065645841247E- real numbers.
324
Data Storage
A collection of data items with a single name distinguished
by numbers. In BASIC you can define an array with five
elements by using DIM X(5), then later define the values
Array for those elements {X(1), X(2), X(3), X(4), X(5)}
separately. An array may be multidimensional such that
information is accessed as if in a table by row and column
numbers (e.g. DIM Y(5,5) allows 25 elements).
Geometric representation of the relationships between two
or more objects (illustrates coordinates, distance and
Graph
angle). Most likely of issue when dealing with a network,
circuit, web, or relationship.
List A set of data items to be accessed in order.
Permutation An arrangement or ordering of items, e.g. {1, 2, 3, 4} and
 {4, 3, 2, 1} are two permutations of the same set. Often
synonymous with arrangement, tour, ordering, and
sequence.
A sequence of characters or patterns. Strings are typically
String of issue when dealing with text, characters, patterns, or
labels.
A hierarchical representation of relationships between
items. An example would be the hierarchy of folders on
Tree your computer, or a family tree. Trees are typically of issue
when dealing with a hierarchy, dominance relationship,
ancestor/descendent relationship, or taxonomy.
Data Retrieval
A data retrieval structure independent of the actual data.
Container These are typically used with data sets and not with variables
with only a single value.
The retrieval of information according to First-In-First-Out
(FIFO) priority. Queues may be prioritized according to
significance, or placed in a specific sequence if the objects
Queue must be attained in a specific order. Print jobs are typically
set to queue in the order they are created in. Typically when
printing from a laser printer you want the pages to come out
first to last so they appear (queue) in order.
The retrieval of information according to Last-In-First-Out
priority. When retrieval order does not matter, (e.g. batch
processing) then a stack may be appropriate. When printing
Stack
to a DeskJet or other printer that feeds the output face-up, you
want the job stacked so the last page prints first, and the first
page prints last.
Retrieves information according to position. This is the
Table
method you use when retrieving information from an array.

Control Structures
Switch
A function that swaps one value or set for another. Microsoft Excel has a
set of functions called lookups (lookup, hlookup, and vlookup). As an
example of a switch examine the following method for the MOUS exam
and example of vlookup.
Method:
1. If the range name is given in the question, start at step 4.
2. Click the second sheet tab
3. Click the down arrow on the name box and select the named
range (remember the name!)
4. Click the first sheet tab
5. Select the cell where you will enter the function in column B
6. Type: =vlookup(
7. Type the name of the range you looked up in step 2 then type: ,
8. Select the range of cells being used for the lookup (both columns
and all rows) then type: ,2)
9. Click and drag the fill handle down through the desired cells.
Example:

Loops
Loops serve a variety of functions including counting, making decisions, and
any function that requires repetition of the same sequence (typically in
association with a counting function). Loops can easily become indefinite
with the result of system lock-up and program failure, so it is highly advised
to provide means of escaping your loops before system or data resources are
exhausted. The loops we will examine here include the post-test Do-While,
the pre-test While, the decisive If-Else, the swapping Switch, and counting
For statements. I associate the terms decisive, swapping and counting to the
latter functions because that is most descriptive of their common functions.
Swapping may also be done in a more cumbersome way with the If-Else,
decisions will to occur in all these types of loops, and counting commonly
occurs in all but the Switch.
Nested Function
A function within a like function. For example, ƒ(X)=ƒ(Y) + ƒ(Z). Word
2000 supports nested tables. This means you can insert a table into a table
cell. The most common function to nest is the If-Else (see table):
Lengthy: Short:
If X=1
{ If X=1
Y=A; {
} Y=A;
Else if X=2 }
{ if X=2
Y=B; {
} Y=B;
Else }
{ Y=C;
Y=C;
}
Recursion
Any process that references itself to perform its function. For example,
X=X+1 is recursive.
Worksheet 5—Programming & Coding
 Unit 6—Problem Solving
Objectives:
Students will understand:
1. RAM Model 3. Graph Problems
2. Problem Solving With
Reasoning

RAM Model
The Random Access Machine (RAM) Model is used to determine the
processing speed of an algorithm. To assist understanding how this model
works we will examine a RAM model applied to web pages then examine
the same concept applied to algorithms and programming.
Web Design RAM Model
Fundamental Principles:
All computations are 1 unit =
relative 1000 bytes of
Assume browser processing information
is >= connection Relative call for data
3 units = server script Invocation of styles or
execution or absolute scripts
reference Style execution,
module call, class
execution
ASP results processing
The following table outlines the relative time it takes to acquire and view
information for a web page in a browser. The reader could use the same
table layout to make design decisions for any site. Notice that all objects
are given integer values regardless of size due to the fact that each piece is
individually packaged during transmission. Below the table is a brief
description of each attribute.
Size  For HTML and other documents, this is determined by the file
size rounded up to the nearest kilobyte (1024 bits of information).
For scripts the number of classes, not the number of commands,
determines size. For particularly long classes, say over 20 command
lines, I would recommend adjusting this value following the standard
RAM model applied to programs, as the browser must interpret each
individual line of code.
Calls  Referencing an object on the server. If you are referencing a
CGI script, then add 3. This chart assumes relative references (valued
at 1 unit), where absolute references (citing the entire URL) should be
counted as 3 instead.
Function  Functions are only applied to Styles and Scripts because
these are not the primary native format of a browser, so the browser
needs to invoke other subroutines to interpret the code. Each time the
code is invoked requires the addition of 1 unit, no matter how many
lines of code are involved.
QTY  How many instances of the Web object occur. For Styles,
every individual style is counted as a unit because the browser must
interpret then apply the individual item throughout the document. For
Scripts, each class is treated separately as a unit.
Time  The sum of Size, Calls, Function multiplied by the quantity.
The sum total of these times gives you an idea of how long it takes to
load the page.
I seriously discourage the use of both styles and scripts. Styles are not
supported the same among browsers. If you use them, I recommend
keeping them very simple because Internet Explorer and Netscape produce
very different results. Personally I recommend using HTML instead. VB
script and ActiveX are only recognized by Internet Explorer. All browsers
encounter problems interpreting Java Script, resulting in browser failure
during page loading or other attempts to access the code.
A major error of web designers is the use of multiple graphic objects when
one will suffice, such as with buttons. I encourage integrating your images
and using image-mapping techniques with HTML. Always create the
image the size you want it to be on the page then you do not need to worry
about defining the size in the HTML, nor do you need to worry about the
resolution of the image nor file size. Although I recommend embedding
special fonts in graphics, I would also encourage you to refrain from too
large of graphics and encourage you to provide enough text to occupy the
viewer until graphics appear.
RAM in Algorithms
Fundamental principles of RAM cycles in algorithms:
All basic functions = 1 unit/ cycle (+, -, *, =, memory access)
Loops are composites of their parts

Division
is a function of the solving algorithm
RAM applied to algorithms provides nothing more than a concision meter.
In other words, by counting the number of cycles required to process
information at the algorithm stage you can compare algorithms for time
efficiency. The key, of course, is not to sacrifice quality but to conserve
processing time. The above figure illustrates a basic sort that is remarkably
efficient and fast. With two items to sort the best run time is 17 cycles, and
the worst is 30 (brute force sort in the median algorithm requires 3 cycles in
best case and 8 in worst). Some redundancy occurs in the 30 cycles, but it
is assumed you have more than two items to sort. A random selection of 9
digits was completely sorted in only 153 cycles (2 to start, and 16 (7/9)
cycles per item). A brute force sort (the median function) requires 569
cycles (2 to start and 63 cycles per item) for the same set! While this sort
looks much more complex, and certainly takes more coding, it is more
efficient for larger sort jobs. Less is not always more. 5 items using brute
force requires only 76 cycles, and in the quicker method requires 65. This
is insignificant, and if the sort is conducted during the input of a small set,
the sort time of the brute force method goes unnoticed. You must weigh
opportunity costs, and in the case of a median, this quicker sort is overkill
because you can handle the sequence during data entry, and in fact it helps
resolve input problems.
RAM in Programming
Back to Napoleon's: "The best plan never survived the first shot of battle."
When you code and compile your algorithm you become subject to the
qualities of the language. As a consequence, coding technique can also
save large amounts of time. As we did above, we can trial run the
algorithm manually then deduce from observation the speed function. The
Quicker sort with 5 items yields 65 cycles / 5 items = 13 < 4*5 log 5, and
with 9 items yields 153 cycles / 9 items = 16.77778 < 2*9 log 9! Clearly
the Quicker sort grows faster based on the number of items being sorted.
Depending on your coding techniques, this could run faster (n log n or even
faster) or slower. Note: The compiler will estimate the run-time for you.
The brute force sort can easily become n² with poor technique, e.g. variable
miss-management.

Problem Solving With Reasoning

There are two forms of reasoning: inductive (speculative) and deductive
(analytical). Inductive reasoning goes from the part to the whole, from the
abstract to the concrete, from a few observations to a formula defining the
whole. Deductive reasoning goes from the whole to the part, from the
concrete to the abstract, deriving the specific from a formula.
Elements of Inductive Reasoning
Define (Facilitative)
What does this topic mean (the definition)?
What are the parts of this definition?
F1. Composite initiate  What is the general, accepted definition?
F2. Constructive bonds  What fundamental concepts (components:
action, subject, object) are brought together by the definition?
F3. Correlate bond-action  What are the relationships between the
components of the definition?
F4. Relative action  How do these correlations affect the definition?
F5. Initiate action  What do these affects infer about similar systems?
Operate (Formulative)
What process does the topic represent?
O1. What is the real form of this stimulus?
O2. What concept do we perceive of this stimulus?
O3. How do we present or represent the concept?
O4. How do we relate the concept to other stimuli?
Method (Fundamental)
What can be measured in the defined system?
A1. Affective  What is the action?
A2. Effective  What is the subject?
A3. Effectual  What is the object (result)?
Philosophical Inference (Functional)
How do we measure the component parts of the definition?
P1. Thesis  What must exist for the process to occur?
P2. Antithesis  What must exist for the opposite of the process to
occur?
Holistic Axiom (Foundational)
This is the absolute, transcendental real, that which is perceived,
the impulse, but not to be mistaken for the perception thereof.
What general principle (axiom) always exists given these
values?
 H1. Synthesis  What exists?
Elements of Deductive Reasoning
Holistic Axiom (Foundational)
This is the absolute, transcendental real, that which is perceived,
the impulse, but not to be mistaken for the perception thereof.
What general principle (axiom) always exists given these
values?
H1. Synthesis  What exists?
Philosophical Inference (Functional)
How do we measure the component parts of the definition?
P1. Thesis  What must exist for the process to occur?
P2. Antithesis  What must exist for the opposite of the process to
occur?
Method (Fundamental)
What can be measured in the defined system?
A1. Affective  What is the action?
A2. Effective  What is the subject?
A3. Effectual  What is the object (result)?

Operate (Formulative)
What process does the topic represent?
 O1. What is the real form of this stimulus?
O2. What concept do we perceive of this stimulus?
O3. How do we present or represent the concept?
O4. How do we relate the concept to other stimuli?
Define (Facilitative)
What does this topic mean (the definition)?
What are the parts of this definition?
F1. Composite initiate  What is the general, accepted
definition?
F2. Constructive bonds  What fundamental concepts
(components: action, subject, object) are brought together by the
definition?
F3. Correlate bond-action  What are the relationships
between the components of the definition?
F4. Relative action  How do these correlations affect the
definition?
F5. Initiate action  What do these affects infer about
similar systems?

Applying the Paradigm

The scientific method is a deductive (analytical) model. While it provides a
lot of raw data and either proves or disproves solutions, it does not create
solutions, e.g. algorithms. Algorithms are developed inductively, which is
contrary to the normal thought process of most people, who are raised to
follow formulas. As such, inductive thinking is a conscious act when most
people do it. When we become conscious of a process of thinking it is
equally easy to lose track of our normal thought process. To make matters
worse, since most people are not thinking inductively, most have also not
formalized their thinking. The few who have formalized deductive thinking
either learned the formality or are natural inductive thinkers.
Neither system is infallible. It is dreadfully easy to find proof of virtually
any theorem simply by picking the right set of values to test. Likewise it is
dreadfully easy to create a theorem without examining a representative set
of all possible values. As such, both must work together. To do this you
may do a split-half test. The split-half test takes all known values and
splits them into equal groups. For best results, make the selection
randomly. Use the first group to develop the algorithm and the second to
test the algorithm. Then, to further test your reliability, identify values that
should fail the algorithm (the antithetical values, which are known with
certainty to not belong to the set) and put them through also.
A common need in programming is program testers. Program testers
purposefully check the limitations of programs and try to make them break.
This is like turning your research paper over to an English professor for
credit: better to have as few errors as possible. So the moral of the story is
to be mindful of using both processes formally as they should be. When
you have a lot of information and no formula for solution, start inductively
to develop a formula. When you have, run test data to be sure it works in as
many instances as possible, and imagine and test any data that could cause
the process to fail. If the algorithm does not behave, then take that
knowledge back to the inductive process and start over.
Now we have dealt with the fundamentals of solving the unsolved in
general, let us examine how the Paradigm apples to information systems.
The Paradigm of Paradigm Development may be applied to literally any
field of knowledge. The Paradigm is a working model, meaning it may be
applied to real problems and provides real results. The accuracy of these
results is entirely dependent on the information fed into the Paradigm. To
understand this information we should look at the five category sets:
Metaphysical, Epistemological, Axiological, Paradological, Holistic.
The study of metaphysics is the study of that which is real, asking such
questions as "What is the nature of reality?" For our purposes metaphysics
asks questions regarding the interface and the nature of the data input and
output. The stages of metaphysical examination as applied deductively to
programming follow:
Foundational The primary concern at this stage is superficial, such as the
interface versus function of the program. Here we
examine the whole problem at once, Holistically.
What do you want the program to do?
What already exists that performs actions similar
or equal to the desired actions?
What qualities do similar products provide and
how (e.g. interface)?
How will yours be different, even better?
Functional Here our concern is measuring things, such as how to
measure accuracy, speed, and required resources. These
 measurements are always done as points along a spectrum
of extremes: best to worst-case scenario. These are
typically confused as belonging to Axiology, but actually
belong to Paradology.
What degree of accuracy is sought? How will we
determine the degree of accuracy?
How fast must the algorithm perform a task? How
will we make this determination?
How much system resources are available to
perform the task?
How soon must the solution be found? (Typically
the faster a solution is needed the less accurate and
fast it will be, and the more resources it will use)
Fundamental Here we identify the actual measurable parts. This is the
real objective of the field of Axiology in philosophy.
Affective Values are those dealing with
significance. For example, many algorithms may
adequately suffice to calculate 100 digits of pi, but
few can achieve 1000. Is it truly necessary?
According to significance, no. Some individuals,
however, do not know when enough is enough.
Effective Values are those dealing with resources,
such as how much is available and how.
Effectual Values are those dealing with validity and
reliability, establishing the degree of accuracy
within the significant range.
Formulative Here we identify the thinking parts, those parts requiring
knowledge and the development thereof. This is the
Epistemological realm of philosophy.
Concrete: To what does our problem apply? You
could even ask, "Who would be interested in using
our program?
Reflect: What is our program expected to do?
Abstract: What do we know about the solution of
our problem? e.g. What formulas exist?
Concept: How do we apply the concepts of the
existing formulas?
Facilitative Finally we apply what we have learned and reverse the
process to check ourselves. Of the metaphysical
components, this belongs most to Metaphysics. Based on
all other observations we can now consider our end
product. This includes our interface, what our interface
will do with input, what our program will do to
manipulate, the relationship of manipulations to each
other, and what our interface does with the output.
What will our interface look like, and in what
environment?
How is information put into our interface? Are
there menus, tools, buttons, a need for files and
more permanent data retrieval and storage? Aside
from telling the program what to do, how does the
user provide raw data?
How does this information appear? Is it formatted
in some particular way?
Does the interface perform manipulation before
executing deeper manipulation commands?
How does the program manipulate the
information?
What information does the interface receive from
the deeper functions? How is this information
displayed?
Is the information stored for later use? If so how?
Or is it sent to yet another application?
Graph Problems
Acyclic Having no directed cycles.
Adjacency An illustration showing the relationships between vertices.
Graph For example, a map or other graphical form which is most
useful and easy for humans to interpret.
Adjacency Array of pointers used to show connectivity between
List vertices. Recommended for most applications. In the
Adjacency Matrix above, A is connected to P and S so the
list for A would look like A―P―S.
Adjacency An n x n array of
A C M P S T
Matrix Boolean values showing
connectivity between
vertices. 0 indicates no A 1 0 0 1 1 0
connection while 1
indicates connection. C 0 1 1 1 1 1
Some authors prefer to
use a 0 where vertices M 0 1 1 1 1 0
intersect themselves (A,
A = 0). I am more P 1 1 1 1 1 0
optimistic and believe
vertices should be their S 1 1 1 1 1 0
own "friends" and use a
1 to indicate a vertice is
T 0 1 0 0 0 1
connected to itself.
Articulation A vertice that, if deleted, would disconnect the other
Vertex vertices from each other. For example, friends who are
exclusively your friends are indirectly connected to your
family. Without you your family members may well never
communicate with these friends unless they have edges
joining them as friends too.
Binary Tree Method of distributing ordered data that insures rapid
access. The entire group is divided into two parts, wherein
the right branch contains all values greater than the center
 value and the left branch contains all values lesser. Each
branch is then similarly divided.
Clique Group of vertices bound as a subset by joining edges.
Connected Vertices share an edge. A Connected Component is a
connected vertice in disconnected sets.
Degree Number of edges intersecting (joining) a vertice.
Dense Most vertices many joints.
Directed Quality of an edge or group of edges indicating a one-way
relationship (one-way road).
Edge A line connecting two vertices (a vertex pair); denoted with
an E. On a polyhedron the number of edges enclosing a
single face is denoted with an S.
Face An area outlined by edges; denoted with an F. Graphs
illustrating the shortest route traveled among points
without intersecting the same point twice do not have
enclosed faces unless the traveler returns to the point of
origin or a “hub” is used.
Forest Undirected paths not connected at an end.
Girth The shortest cycle of connected points.
Graph An illustration of a group of related vertices or “points.”
Hamiltonian Path of vertices where the ends are connected (e.g. 1-2-3-
Cycle 1).
Isolated An unconnected vertice.
Line An infinite series of adjoined points defining a length or
arc.
Multi-edges A vertice with multiple edges connecting to another
vertice.
Path Series of connected vertices.
Point A location in space typically defined by coordinates, e.g.
(x, y), (x, y, z), or (  ,  ). When applied to a polygon or
polyhedron, points are typically given for vertices. In
mathematics a point has no dimension in itself.
Polygon The geometric, two-dimensional shape resulting from
connecting vertices.
Polyhedron The topological, three-dimensional shape resulting from
 connecting vertices.
Regular All vertices have same number of joints.
Simple Graph with no loops nor multi-edges.
Simple Simple path passing through each vertice.
Cycle
Sparse Most vertices have few joints.
Strongly Paths are always directed.
Connected
Traveling Also called a TSP or Traveling Salesman Problem. Given
Salesman a series of points to travel among, what is the shortest route
to take without passing through each vertice more than
once? The problem only sounds easy but becomes
increasingly complex based on the dispersion of points.
Tree Undirected paths connected at the ends.
Undirected Quality of an edge or group of edges where the relationship
is equally bi-directional (they are each other's "friends")
Vertice A point in space that may be connected to other points by
two or more lines; denoted with a V.
Weighted Quality of a graph whereby the edges have distinctive
values (e.g. lengths).
Sorting
Bubble or A "brute force" method good for small lists and with
Sequential parallel computers that can divide the list. The technique
compares the first two values and puts them in order, then
compares the third and fourth, etc. After one pass over the
numbers, the last value in the list is the highest. The
routine then can be repeated without having to check the
last value and recurses on itself until all values have been
ordered.
Insertion Method best suited if list is already close to ordered. The
method examines all values in the list except the first.
Instead of simply swapping sequentially, it will take the
added step of comparing the lesser value with the next
value to the left also. For example: 2404, 8653, 1354, 5781
requires two cycles of the algorithm.
Quicksort Divides the search set into two groups then compares
values on opposite sides of the median to determine if they
are greater or lesser than the median. Those lesser or
switched to the left, those greater are switched to the right.
The two halves are then treated separately in the same
manner and so on until all values have been sorted.
Invented by C.A.R. Hoare and published in 1962. It is a
recursive function that is faster than any other algorithm,
best suited for large sorts.
Radix Sorts by bucketing the values rather than comparing them.
Buckets may then be further subdivided or have another
algorithm applied to them to complete the sort process.
Good for dividing up a list across multiple processors that
will then do bubble sorts or other methods.
Selection Searches for then identifies the lowest valued item and
inserts it in the first place, then repeats the process
confining the array to the remainder until all values are
sorted. This is a particularly tedious process
Shell Variation of the insertion sort invented by D.L. Shell. It is
a series of insertion sorts that compare values at fixed
distances rather than adjacent values. The skip count is
reduced with each pass until it reaches one. This saves a
lot of time lost with the conventional insertion sort.
Searching
Binary Divides ordered search items in half then determines
whether search value is greater or lesser, then repeats the
process until the item is found. This is the best method
when data can be diagrammed as a binary.
Insertion Arranges items so last item is the search item.
Sequential Starts at beginning and tests equality of items until search
item is found. Although this algorithm is the simplest to
construct, it is the most time consuming and should be
reserved for small unordered lists.
Sorted Arranges items until location is found then inserts search
item.
Worksheet 6—Problem Solving
RAM Activity:
1-5 identify the sequence of the common factorial
algorithm (g(n)):
Factorial ( )
private integer n =
Input;
if n = = 0 1. return n;
{ A } 2. return n *
if n < 0 || n != Input FactorialRecurseOld (n - 1);
{
3. return FormulaFailure
B }
("Cannot compute negative values
else {
nor fractions.");
C }
FactorialRecurseOld ( 4. return
) FactorialRecurseOld (n);
if n = = 1 5. n = 1;
{ D }
else {
E }

6-12 identify the sequence of the new factorial algorithm

( ƒ (n)):
A. if n = = 0 // Allows calculation of 0, retains 6.
imaginary part (1 - 4 cycles) 7.
{ 8.
n = 1; 9.
ZeroFactorial = (-1); 10.
}
11.
B. n = FactorialRecurse (n); // Assigns 12.
calculation results for n to n (1 cycle)
 C. FactorialRecurse ( ) // Calculates the
series in 4n-2 cycles (note n=1 when input=0)
if n 1
{
return n;
}
else
{
counter + +;
return n * FactorialRecurse (n - 1);
}
D. Factorial ( ) // Initiation
of variables (4 cycles)
Private integer neg = 1;
Private float n = FactorialInput;
Public integer ZeroFactorial = 1;
Private integer counter = 0; 13. Argument
E. return neg * n; // Provides final is:
1. = =
results in 1 cycle
2. > =
F. if counter % 2 = = 0 // Provides positive
3. ! =
results for even computations (3 - 5 cycles)
4. < =
{
14. -2.2! =
neg * = neg;
___
}
1. .528
G. if n < 0 // Remembers and 2. -.52
removes initial negative (1 - 5 cycles) 8
{ 3. 4.84
neg = (-1); 4. -4.8
n * = neg; 4
}

RAM Graphed:
15. Valid input for the common
factorial (top g(n)) takes
_______ cycles per unit of n to
compute.
16. Valid input for the new factorial
(ƒ(n)) > 0 takes an average of
_______ cycles per unit of n to
compute.
17. This is an example of ____
notation for (ƒ(n))?
A. o B. O C.  D. 
E. 
 Unit 7—Database Design
Objectives
This material was designed for a three contact-hour period in a junior-senior
level Algorithms course. It may prove very useful for students seriously
considering programming. In this supplemental chapter, students will learn:
1. Database Objects
4. Normalizing (MCSD)
2. Field Design
5. Relationships (MCSD)
3. Data Type, Field Size and
6. Computer Math Concepts
Input Masks
I recommend reading memorizing(!) this entire chapter before you create
any table. This information does not fit into a neat sequence, but it is all
necessary to understanding table design. Most of this is also critical to the
MCSD.

General Terms
Batch: Processing information in groups as opposed to transaction
processing (randomly and singularly). Reports and queries are
typically processed in batches, while the data entry for records and
expressions are processed by the transaction.
Consider a table with a field labeled "Age," with the data type being
number. By using a number you can create an "expression," which is
the same as building a formula. Enter birth dates in one field and use
an expression to calculate the current age so the age field never needs
to be manually updated. The expression will need to link to a field
containing the current date (available under the Insert menu as Date
and Time).
Data Access (ability to retrieve and use data) Database: A collection
of data related to a particular topic or purpose; a table comprised of
group of records containing fields of categorized information. A
collection of related files stored together that allow you to define
relationships between those files so multiple files may be
simultaneously accessed. Programs other than databases use a "flat
file" meaning each record is separate and self-contained (e.g. not
related to the other files directly).
Data Acquisition (inputting and importing) Data Accuracy (of input
or import) or data integrity refers to the reliability of the data and that
the data is reported and entered correctly. Timely data has not lost its
usefulness or legitimacy because of the passage of time.
Data Maintenance (updating, sorting) is the procedures used to keep
data current (see accuracy above), such as updating. Data
maintenance procedures may overlap data security procedures to also
include file management activities and backups.
Data Management: The procedures used to acquire, access and
maintain data. Ensures that data required for an application will be
available in the correct form and at the proper time for processing.
Data Security (accessibility of users to specific information) protects
data from being misused or lost. Part of data security is Backup,
where files are copied and stored in the event of extraneous
circumstances (e.g. disasters: manmade, natural, or with the system).
Data Type: As with a spreadsheet, the database allows you to define
data types such as text, number, date/time, etc. You may have one or
more fields that contain graphics, such as company logos. The
database also allows you to perform calculations using "expressions."
Expression: An expression uses the field names to perform
calculations within a record. In the table view of the records,
expressions in the database may be constructed similar to formulas in
a spreadsheet.
Query-by-example (QBE): helps you to construct a query by
displaying a list of fields that are available in the files, in which you
enter known information and prompt to provide all records containing
the values you entered in the query fields. Hoover's Master List uses
this query method. Note: typically this format is previously specified.
Querying: Creates views and report content and layout. Allows you to
retrieve information from the database based on specified criteria in a
format previously specified or one that you specify.
Realtime: The computer equivalent of Just-In-Time and FIFO (First
In First Out). The information is processed as it is presented to the
system. Form use is processed in real time (e.g. changing record
information).
Relational Querying: Allows you to query and manipulate data to
create a unique view or subset of the total data. Uses relational
 operators to specify search criteria and perform manipulations, such
as select, project and join. Select finds specific records, project
specifies the fields within the records that appear in the output, and
join combines files/tables for an integrated query which is typically
saved in a separate file for future use.
Report: A layout of information intended to be printed or viewed.
This layout will be standardized like a form, making it easy to find
desired information at a glance. Often, in industry, forms will already
be designed and standardized. This is convenient because then you do
not have to manually layout the form. If the form does not already
exist, then it may be necessary to examine the information going into
the form first, to be sure that the layout and the "shape" of the output
are not in conflict.
Structured Query Language (SQL pronounced see-qwell): Now a
common language used to write relational queries; typically available
in most database programs. Allows for more complicated querying
and reporting where decisions are necessary (e.g. where . . . = . . .
replaces BASIC operations like if . . . then, or for . . . and simplifies
these with "and" statements to allow for multiple conditions to be
necessary for an action to occur).

Advantages of Using a Database

Reduced redundancy: data does not need to be duplicated nor entered
more than once. The information is stored once, retrieved and used as
needed for various applications. The process of splitting tables or
merging tables to make better use of data space and reduce
redundancy is called normalization.
Improved accuracy: reduced redundancy means less chances of error.
If there is an error, it needs correcting only once to be reflected in all
applications of the data.
Easier reporting: retrieves only the information needed by using a
query, so information may be acquired from multiple files
simultaneously.
Improved security: allows for various levels of data accessibility, such
as not allowing access, allowing read-only access, and "full update"
privileges (e.g. edit or read and write access).
 Reduces production time: Not only is less time used for data entry,
developing programs that access the data is easier as is updating or
changing the database program being used. New files need not be
created, when new records may be added or fields added to existing
records.
Note: It is easy to overlook the fact that it is easier to deal with information
consistently entered. It is also easier to reduce the amount of information
than to add to the information. For example, a series of records storing
responses to surveys should contain all information provided on the surveys
even if they are not currently in use. This prevents having to later add new
fields to the data and try to accurately enter the data at a later time.

Database Qualities
Data Dictionary (definitions of fields such as field shape, name,
description, type of data, default value, validation rules, and the
relationship to other data elements)
Utility Program (creates files and dictionaries, monitors performance,
copies data, and deletes unwanted records)
Security (controls levels of access to data)
Replication (Distributes data to other computers to update remote
computer databases, typically for purposes of having a central
database from which information is updated, while distributing only
the necessary information to remote computers)
Recovery (restores information after equipment failure) Sophisticated
databases often keep a log of what the database had before and after a
change was made (before and after image). "Forward recovery" or
"rollforward" automatically reenters the changes made at the time of
the last backup. "Backward recovery" or "rollback" reverses the
changes that occurred over a specified period of time, which requires
all transactions during that time be reentered.
Query Language (creates views and report content and layout) Allows
you to retrieve information from the database based on specified
criteria in a format you specify.

Database Types
Hierarchical—Organizes data in a series like a tree. The highest-
ranking parent record is called a root record. From the root record is
 derived the parent records, which accesses the child records. Each
child record can have only one parent record (a record that accesses
the information within the record lower in hierarchy)
Hierarchy of Data—The various levels of the data (bit, byte, field,
record, file/table, relational database. The order (from lowest to
highest) is:
Bit—binary digit of 0 for off and 1 for one
Byte—a single character or unit of information stored in a quantity of
bits (8, 16, 32, etc.)
Field—Individual elements of descriptive data consisting of one or
more characters or units (e.g. bytes)
Record—A group of related fields combined to describe a single
person, place, thing, etc.
File/Table—A group of related records that share field attributes but
not necessarily the contents of the fields.
Relational Database—A set of related files/tables grouped to perform
functions interactively between the records of separate tables and
their respective fields.
Network—Allows multiple sources (parents) to access and modify
members (children) similar to a hierarchy.
Relational Database—A collection of one or more related tables that
can share information. The tables are related to each other and are
thus called "relations." The relations, like tables, are divided into rows
called "tuples," and fields called "attributes". The range of available
field/attribute values is called the "domain".
Object-Oriented—Contains both data and actions (expressions) for
managing the data, such as instructions on how to display or print the
data, calculation methods, etc.

Database Objects
Databases have a variety of object types, which are listed below. Each
object name should have no spaces, and the first letter of each word in a
name is capitalized, or an underline (_) is used to separate the words. The
naming conventions listed in the table below may be placed either in front
of the object name (TBLMyName) or after (MyNameTBL). I prefer to put
the naming convention after so I can see related objects together when
viewing them all. Note also that I use additional conventions to help create
categories of objects, which I identify as we discuss the objects.
Object
Convention Description
Type
A layout of raw information in columns and
rows where a row represents a record and a
column represents a field where information is
Table TBL stored to define a record. In Access the field
"shape" includes input masks, field sizes,
formatting, and data types, which will restrict
data input.
Queries either acquire and manipulate
information from one or more tables based on
criteria (select queries) or perform a function
(action queries), such as updating records,
Query QRY
deleting records, creating a table, or appending
records from one table to another. The
viewable results of a select query always look
like a table.
A graphical layout of fields whose source is
either a tale or a query. Forms limit the user's
access to data and provide a means for the
Form FRM
programmer to include meaningful
descriptions and create a path of travel for the
user to put data in correctly.
A printout of information derived from a table
Report RPT
or query.
A sequential set of instructions to perform
specific actions (like closing and opening
things) that can be applied to any object in a
Macro MCR
form. In Access these are remarkably easy to
do, and will be discussed in detail later. See
Trigger below.
Module MOD A Visual Basic for Applications (VBA)
program used to perform special functions. I
recommend using these sparingly if at all, and
 have not personally found a good use for them
if you are capable with query and macro
design. However, when analyzing your
database, the wizard may recommend
compiling forms and macros into modules. If
so, then I recommend following the directions
given after you are certain you will make no
further modifications. This way you can rest
assured that the coding is absolutely correct.
Anyone who has done manual coding in any
language understands the hardships of even the
slightest human error and can appreciate
letting the application program itself.
For the MCSD you must understand the
concept of a Trigger. A trigger is an event
(insertion, update, or deletion) executing a
stored procedure. The stored procedures in
Access can be either macros or modules.

Planning a Database
You will note that the list provided here contains different steps and a
slightly different order from lists in other books. It also appears to be in
reverse order of what one might think to do. This is a practical application
oriented approach, meaning you first determine the end product then design
the means of accomplishing that product. Furthermore, this list does not
neglect the fact that another database program or system may be more
appropriate than Access. For example, the size of the database may be such
that it is not practical for Access (take AltaVista's database of indexed web
pages as an example).
Design the structure of the reports you want to be able to generate
from the database, including the necessary fields of information and
their shapes, as well as any extraneous information (e.g. headers and
footers or other text or graphics that will appear on each form).
Design the structure of the records, defining the fields, their data
types, and any "expressions" in which a field will provide an
automatically calculated value.
Determine the purpose of the database (e.g. What will the database
represent (item b)? What will it be used to do (item a)? How large
will the database be?). Note that the size of the database may also
play a factor in hardware requirements, such as available disk space,
RAM, and processor speed.
Determine what type of database or what database program is most
appropriate to fit the desired purpose (e.g. for reporting and
querying). Find the simplest means of importing or entering the
desired information necessary to the database (e.g. importing from
various spreadsheets, word processor created lists, etc.). If you are
importing data, it is essential to be sure the data is in a manageable
format before attempting to import it to your database.
Gather together all the forms, which will be filled out/generated from
the data in the database. Identify the various fields of information
contained within the forms
Separate the various fields into appropriate groups that should be
stored in separate tables (files).
Using the fields of one group, design the File on paper first (or use an
existing form) containing all the fields necessary to that group.
Include a unique key field, like a record number or account number.
Use separate fields for logically distinct items. Typically it is wise to
have separate fields for first, middle and last names, title, company
name, phone number, fax, e-mail, URL, street address, post office
box, city, state/state code, zip code, and four digit zip code extension.
Note: State and state code are not the same. If you wish the state
name to be spelled out and to have the code, it may be wise to have
separate fields for each.
Do not create fields that can be derived from entries in other fields.
Allow enough space for the information (the shape of the field).
Foreign addresses, names and phone numbers may require extra
space. Shape: The dimensions of a field required to show the data. If
the data is to be printed on fixed shape forms, then the shape of each
field must clearly defined providing a limit to the quantity of
information (number of characters) that may be stored in that field. If
the data is to be viewed electronically, then the shape is governed
more by cosmetics (for most practical viewing) and the size
limitations of the database.
 Create default values for frequently entered data (e.g. the state when
most records will be in the same state). Note: It is unwise to require a
field have an entry especially if the entry is not appropriate. For
example, state code will not apply for foreign addresses, so allow for
blank spaces.
Implement your design and input the data.

Field Design
The following guidelines assume that you follow the other rules defined in
this chapter (and there are many!). As such, when I say something like
"Include a unique key..." I mean if that key is appropriate according to the
rules of normalization, lookups, indexing and key fields. Sound like a
handful? That is why database designers make a lot of money and hackers
pay developers a fortune to rebuild failing databases.
1. Gather together all the forms, which will be filled out/generated
from the data in the database.
2. Identify the various fields of information contained within the
forms
3. "Normalize" or "atomize" these fields so an information field is
only identified once (First Normal Form). It is typically seen as
easier to combine information (denormalize) than to separate it
(normalize). Always reduce first to the lowest denominator then
denormalize for functionality and to balance system resources. For
example, on a gradebook database, I first atomized assignment
entry into two fields, the first containing a lookup to different types
of assignments and the second to name the type selected. I related
these two to the student grades and everything looked all right
until I tried tracking a class. Then I could only see what the
assignment type was, not the title, so I denormalized (merged) the
fields and eliminated the lookup. Sometimes less is more. Limit
the user only when absolutely necessary to ensure proper
functionality.
4. Separate the various fields into appropriate groups that should be
stored in logically separate tables.
5. Using the fields of one group, design the table on paper first (or
use an existing form) containing all the fields necessary to that
group:
1. Include a unique key field, like a record number or
account number if the table will be a parent table.
2. Use separate fields for logically distinct items. Typically it
is wise to have separate fields for first, middle and last
names, title, company name, phone number, fax, e-mail,
URL, street address, post office box, city, state/state code,
zip code, and four digit zip code extension. Note: State
and state code are not the same. If you wish the state name
to be spelled out and to have the code, it may be wise to
have separate fields for each.
3. Do not create fields that can be derived from entries in
other fields (e.g. from expressions that can be created in
queries).
4. Allow enough space for the information (the shape of the
field). Foreign addresses, names and phone numbers may
require extra space. Shape: The dimensions of a field
required to show the data. If the data is to be printed on
fixed shape forms, then the shape of each field must
clearly defined providing a limit to the quantity of
information (number of characters) that may be stored in
that field. If the data is to be viewed electronically, then
the shape is governed more by cosmetics (for most
practical viewing) and the size limitations of the database.
5. Define data types, formatting, input masks and indexing
qualities
6. Create necessary lookups
7. Create default values for frequently entered data (e.g. the
state when most records will be in the same state). I
discourage the use of default data as it can result in data-
entry errors that are extremely difficult to track which
result from oversight and laziness. It is easier to find and
repair data errors if a field is accidentally left blank than if
it is automatically filled.
8. Create validation rules and other data entry rules. It is
unwise to require a field have an entry especially if the
entry is not appropriate. For example, state code will not
apply for foreign addresses, so allow for blank spaces.
 6. Repeat step 5 until all tables are developed necessary to
accomplish the desired results.
7. Create input and output mediums (these are potentially
interchangeable and may even be worked simultaneously at times):
1. Create queries to perform desired computations
(expressions) and present the data required for the forms
in step 1.
2. Create reports to print out the desired information.
3. Create a user interface (Form objects, macros and
modules) to insure proper data entry.
8. Develop security measures to limit user access to data and design.
9. Test all features of the design with sufficient data to potentially
break the system (e.g. normal operating conditions) on the least
capable users with no training (particularly those known to break
things without trying) and observe the consequences. I know it
sounds cruel to those users, but if they can use it and not break it,
then it will likely do well under real pressure. Often tests are run
using the most competent users. From a management perspective
this means lost production time with their most valued employees.
Personally, as a manager, I would rather risk losing production
time on already unproductive employees because I stand to gain
productivity from them if the system actually works. Note:
Microsoft justifiably recommends aiming development at company
regulation levels and not the lowest known denominator. I would
argue you should fill both objectives, because failure to do so
means your project is not justified because the existing system
clearly did not work. If the system had worked, your project
would never be considered.
Primary Field Attributes
Field Names
Access will allow you to create long field names with spaces in them. Do
not abuse length, and definitely do not put spaces into your field names.
While these practices are alright with dysfunctional database designs, they
are dysfunctional because eventually the developer hacks their way into a
feature that does not forgive the spaces (like real programming). It is wise
to have a naming convention that is brief, intuitive and logical. It is also
wise to try avoiding using the same field names in other tables as this could
become confusing for you, and more disastrously, could confuse the
programming code of a SQL statement or module. Field names must be
unique within a table, and should be unique among the field names of the
other tables in the database. If you want the user to see a name other than
the field name, change the Caption attribute on the General tab at the
bottom of the Table design view.
Constraints and Validation (MCSD)
Constraints limit what kind of data can be entered into an field or table
(often called an entity on the MCSD), how the data is entered, and the order
in which the data is entered. One way to control the order data is entered in
is to follow the Navigation Model, which defines how the user navigates
through the interface (for Access this often means switchboards, action
buttons and forms).
Note: this paragraph is crucial for the MCSD. Types of validation include
Point-of-Entry (forces the user to make input), Field Level (tests validity
when field is updated, but before stored data is updated), Transaction Level
(when the record is going to be updated). Validation occurs at one of the
following points: when a field is updated or modified (the user types or
edits field contents), when a record is deleted, and when a record is
updated. Access automatically validates information based on data types
(when field goes to update), input masks (as you type), key field (these are
automatically required and must be different from each other, occurs
typically when the record is updated), and relationships (when you try to
delete or modify something that is related to something else). You can go
beyond the defaults of Access and otherwise require a field and/or provide a
default value. I do not encourage the use of default values as they can lead
to quality assurance nightmares. It is much easier to get information than to
wade through misinformation that is default and verify it all.
You can set more validation rules by using the ValidationRule property. If
you set the ValidationRule property but not the ValidationText property,
Microsoft Access displays a standard error message when the validation
rule is violated. If you set the ValidationText property, the text you enter is
displayed as the error message in a message box. All rules created in the
Table design (including error message boxes, masks, etc.) are also applied
in forms even if the form is indirectly derived through a query. If your
tables are from external sources (e.g. dBASE, Paradox, or a SQL server)
you cannot modify table properties, so you can only apply rules to controls
on your forms (independent of the table).
Control, field, and record validation rules are applied as follows:
Validation rules you set for fields and controls are applied when you
edit the data and the focus leaves the field or control.
Validation rules for records are applied when you move to another
record.
If you create validation rules for both a field and a control bound to
the field, both validation rules are applied when you edit data and
the focus leaves the control.
The following table contains expression examples for the ValidationRule
and ValidationText properties.
ValidationRule property ValidationText property
<> 0 Entry must be a nonzero value.
Entry must be blank or greater
> 1000 Or Is Null
than 1000.
Entry must be 5 characters and
Like "A????"
begin with the letter "A".
>= #1/1/96# And <#1/1/97# Entry must be a date in 1996.
DLookup("CustomerID", Entry must be a unique
"Customers", "CustomerID = CustomerID (domain aggregate
Forms!Customers!CustomerID") Is functions are allowed only for
Null form-level validation).
To allow a Null value, add "Is Null" to the validation rule, as in "<> 8 Or Is
Null" and make sure the Required property is set to No.
Formatting and Descriptions
Formatting is only a visual constraint and does not directly affect the data.
As a consequence forcing upper case characters with a > in the Format field
on the General card succeeds in generating programmer headaches because
case sensitive searches will fail. As such, I discourage considering
formatting as a constraint, but rather consider it a visual bonus to help the
user correctly recognize information. Note: to show the date as 01/01/1901
use the format mm/dd/yyyy, which will prevent numeric conflicts between
dates early in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries. Another useful
formatting mask is HH:MM:SS AM for times.
Likewise, descriptions and tooltips are only useful if the user notices them.
Descriptions appear in the status bar, giving users and programmers
additional information to help understand the field. Most likely the person
who reads descriptions is already an advanced user and will not need the
extra information. I recommend using forms with descriptive labels and
help files that are easily found and used. Likewise, new users are likely to
move the mouse too quickly to get tooltips, but when they finally slow
down these act as comments in other documents which can be immensely
helpful as context-sensitive help. You might put a "Quick Help" button on
your form that produces a message box that reads "For quick help on a
specific item, point your mouse pointer at the field and leave it there until a
tooltip appears." Then provide descriptive tooltip information for each field
shown on the form.

Data Type, Field Size and Input Masks

Data type greatly inhibits user mistakes, as data entry is halted by system
errors when the user enters data not supported by the data type. After
choosing the data type (see the table below), be sure the field size is
appropriate. For example, although personal names can get long, I doubt
you will have any problem identifying a first or last name, or a city name in
20 characters. Likewise you should never need more than fifty characters
to identify the name of a company or the street address. Finally, field size
can be affected by the input mask., which may or may not specify storing
constant characters with the data (e.g. with phone numbers, social security
numbers and business tax ID numbers, all you really need are the numbers,
the rest is just for looks; however...if you are storing individuals in the same
table as companies you may not want to use an input mask at all because
their numbers are presented differently!). The following tables will help put
all this together more meaningfully.
Data Type
Data Type Description
Supports up to 255 characters. The default when
designing a table from scratch is 50. The default when
you import a table from another application (e.g. text or
Text Excel) is 255. I personally find no good reason to exceed
50 as this is a large amount of space to risk leaving
vacant. If you exceed 50 you are likely to need more than
255, meaning you should use the Memo type or hyperlink.
This field should be used in reservation as it is difficult to
apply in reports and can take up a lot of space. Use this
type for fields where you expect more than 255
characters. When information gets this verbose, it should
Memo probably be broken into paragraphs and have formatting
features applied meaningfully. As such I recommend
using the hyperlink type to create hyperlinks to other
documents (e.g. Word, Excel, PowerPoint, etc.). Memo
supports up to 64,000 characters.
For all real numbers (see field size table below). If you
need decimal values be sure to select the appropriate data
Number type (single, double, and decimal) and specify the number
of decimal places you want (otherwise all numbers are
treated as integers, which are whole numbers).
For all dates and times, which is really a numeric value
applied to a formatting style showing the date or time.
Date/Time You must use this data type if you wish to use the field for
calculations. See Formatting above for more information
on customizing your date beyond the selections available.
As the name suggests, this type stores numbers (up to 15
digits to the left of the decimal and 4 to the right of the
Currency decimal). It consumes 8 bytes, so you might consider a
different data type with formatting applied instead (see
Number)
AutoNumber Produces an automatically generated, sequential number.
Commonly used for a key field when there is no other
 useful number available. Always defaults to a Long
Integer field size, and should be left that way. A problem
with autonumbers is that once a number is used it is never
reused in the same table. As a consequence when you put
in sample data you will reduce the number of available
records in the table by the number of sample records you
test. For this reason it is preferable to use a meaningful
number like social security number, part number, etc. as
they can be deleted and later reused. Do not worry too
much about running out of Long Integer values though
because Long Integers go as high as two billion.
This is the smallest data type but should still be used
conservatively as the user may get confused. It appears as
Yes/No a checkbox. When selected (stores a 1) it indicates the
value is true, and when deselected it indicates the value is
false (stores a 0).
This allows you to to link or embed another document (up
to 1 gigabyte!) created by another application. Linked
files may be updated by double clicking them then making
the modifications in the original application (assuming
both are installed properly for both the Windows registry
OLE Object and the location of the file within the system). Embedded
objects must be re-embedded if they are modified and will
inflate your file size enormously. Personally I would
reserve this data type for pictures when you have few
pictures to include (e.g. employee photographs).
Otherwise I would use the hyperlink type.
Like the memo type, this stores up to 64,000 characters
(which I assume includes both the title and link
information). This does not mean I would encourage you
Hyperlink
to use all those characters. Keep it short and sweet, and be
careful where you hyperlink to, especially if you expect to
move the database or use it across a network.
This type of field provides a combination box for the user
to select from a predefined list or from another table
Lookup...
(always the same size as the Primary Key field referenced
from another table (a.k.a. the Foreign Key).
Field Size
Decimal Storage
Field Size Description
precision size
Number
<number Defines the number of
None Shown in
showing> characters a field can store.
bytes
Stores numbers from 0 to 255
Byte None 1 byte
(no fractions).
Stores numbers from –32,768
Integer None 2 bytes
to 32,767 (no fractions).
(Default) Stores numbers from
Long Integer –2,147,483,648 to None 4 bytes
2,147,483,647 (no fractions).
Stores numbers from –
3.402823E38 to –1.401298E–
45 for negative values and
Single 7 4 bytes
from 1.401298E–45 to
3.402823E38 for positive
values.
Stores numbers from –
1.79769313486231E308 to –
4.94065645841247E–324 for
Double negative values and from 15 8 bytes
1.79769313486231E308 to
4.94065645841247E–324 for
positive values.
Replication Globally unique identifier
N/A 16 bytes
ID (GUID) (See COM Objects)
Stores numbers from -10^38 -1
through 10^38 -1 (.adp) Stores
Decimal 28 12 bytes
numbers from-10^28 -1
through 10^28 -1 (.mdb)
Input Masks
Input masks have a very specific layout. The following table defines the
qualities of each layout section.
Mask Storage Placeholder
Specifies the input To stores the literal display Specifies the character
mask itself; for characters use 0 for this displayed for spaces
example, (999) section. If you leave this where typing occurs
999-9999. For a blank or use a 1, only typed during data entry. For
list of characters characters are stored, but this section, you can
you can use to not display characters. For use any character. To
define the input example: (999) 999- display an empty
mask, see the 9999;;_ stores only ten string, use a space
following table. characters (not the enclosed in quotation
parentheses, space nor marks (" ").
hyphen). Access will
convert this same mask as:
\(999\)\ 999\-9999;;_
To do the same thing in Visual Basic use a string expression to set this
property. For example, the following specifies an input mask for a text box
control used for entering a phone number:
Forms!Customers!Telephone.InputMask = "(###) ###-####"
This next table provides the characters used in the mask.
Character Description
Digit (0 to 9, entry required, plus [+] and minus [–] signs not
0
allowed).
Digit (0 to 9) or space (entry not required, plus and minus
9
signs not allowed).
Digit (0 to 9) or space (entry not required; spaces are
# displayed as blanks while in Edit mode, but blanks are
removed when data is saved; plus and minus signs allowed).
L Letter (A to Z, entry required).
? Letter (A to Z, entry optional).
A Letter or digit (entry required).
a Letter or digit (entry optional).
 & Any character or a space (entry required).
C Any character or a space (entry optional).
Decimal placeholder and thousand, date, and time
separators. (The actual character used depends on the
.,:;-/
settings in the Regional Settings Properties dialog box in
Windows Control Panel).
Causes all characters to be converted to lowercase. Use here
<
and not in Format!
Causes all characters to be converted to uppercase. Use here
>
and not in Format!
Causes the input mask to display from right to left, rather
than from left to right. Characters typed into the mask
always fill it from left to right. You can include the
!
exclamation point anywhere in the input mask. This is good
if you use a mask with a number where the last digits will
always be in the same decimal areas (e.g. currency)
Causes the character that follows to be displayed as the
\
literal character (for example, \A is displayed as just A).
Note Setting the InputMask property to the word "Password" creates a
password-entry control. Any character typed in the control is stored as the
character but is displayed as an asterisk (*). You use the Password input
mask to prevent displaying the typed characters on the screen.
Lookup Fields
General Lookups (MCSD)
Lookup fields reduce data entry errors. There are two types of lookup:
embedded and linked. An embedded lookup stores the data source in the
table design. Use an embedded lookup for a limited list of choices to insure
data entry is consistent, such as state names or abbreviations (Note: the
Format property > to force upper case is not always reliable when the data
is queried). A linked lookup pulls information from another table by way
of a Foreign Key field. Whenever linking a lookup be sure to have a key
field in the source table (this will be the Foreign Key) and to include the
key field in the lookup, even if you do not wish to show it. Note: If you are
using a linked lookup and want a default value from the source table, use a
key field value and not the name that would appear. During data entry you
can type the name, but run the risk that other records will have the same
name. For this reason it is typically wise to include more than one non-key
field in your lookup.
Lookups to Queries
You can create a linked lookup whose data source is a query. I like to use
this Navigation tables. Here we will only address the benefits and
limitations, reserving the How-To for much later (because this requires
good Form, Query and Macro development skills).
Benefits (and though there are so few, from the end-user's perspective they mean everything):

1. The choices in the lookup field are limited and potentially more
meaningful as they are based on other data you already entered.
2. The choices are sorted how you want them rather than strictly by
the key field.
Limitations:

1. There are a lot of points where failure is possible in the design.

2. Data entry must be done on a form to prevent errors, macros must
be assigned to the appropriate fields, and over all the form design
needs careful handling.
3. When looking at the source table, only names current in the query
are active, otherwise only the key fields show.
4. If the query is done without a navigation table or without a logical
limitation on the results (like active records only), the query will
fail.
5. The lookup relationship is with the query and not the source table,
and as a consequence forms and subforms derived there from must
be based on queries. This itself can also be a benefit if you are good
at developing queries.
6. Failure to enforce referential integrity with cascade options selected
will be extremely tragic (lost data).
7. The user cannot select something from this field not available in the
query. For example, if I have a parent CourseTBL and a child
SectionTBL I could create a NavigationTBL with a lookup to the
CourseID and another to a query for SectionIDs matching the
CourseID. I set my NavigationFRM to reload itself when the
CourseID is changed so my query is updated for the SectionIDs. I
have no choice but to select a CourseID first, as all other SectionIDs
are currently hidden. To help my user I provide a message box
activated by a help button that explains, "If the section you are
 looking for is not listed, be sure the correct Course is selected. If
the correct Course is selected go to the General Information form
and verify the section exists and add it if necessary."
Indexing and Key Fields (MCSD)
Indexing
Indexing provides a means for Access to quickly find information. This is
particularly important for large databases and databases on networks.
Without an index, Access is forced to look for information sequentially,
which is extremely time consuming. An index provides ordered numeric
values of where information is. Consider a telephone book, where
individuals may have multiple phone numbers. If you want to find all the
telephone numbers of an individual it is much faster to look them up by
name rather than by the phone numbers.
An indexed field is either sorted or unsorted. Access automatically sorts the
data when the table or form is closed after data entry by the first field with
the index property: Yes (No Duplicates). An unsorted index has the index
property: Yes (Duplicates OK). Access retains a list that cannot be seen of
the values appearing in a field with this index property along with an
unduplicated reference (e.g. record number, key field, or other sorted index)
so it can rapidly locate the records.
Key Fields
Key fields are always indexed. When there is only one key field then the
Index property will be: Yes (No Duplicates). When there are multiple keys
then the index property for each will be: Yes (Duplicates OK).
When to have a key field:
To prevent records from being confused with each other
When the table has a field referenced by a lookup in
another table (always include the key field in the lookup!)
Never have a key field on a Terminal table (see the schedule.mdb on
the Internet) where:
There are no relationships to other table or
One or more fields are lookups to other tables and
The table has no children of its own

Normalizing (MCSD)
Note: the three entities (Associative, Characteristic, and Kernel) are the
terms used in the MCSD Analyzing Requirements and Defining Solutions
Architectures.
Associative A table that derives all of its data from two or more
Table tables, creating a relationship between those tables that
(Associative could not otherwise exist. Recommended naming
Entity) conventions: TableNameDetailsTBL,
TableNameDTBL, TableNameATBL .
Characteristic A child table providing information about a parent table
Table that has a variable length. Were this data stored in the
(Characteristic parent table, it would result in blank fields for many
Entity) records. For example, in an order entry system you
would have an OrderTBL with a child
OrderDetailsTBL. The OrderTBL contains general
information pertaining to the order, such as who made
the order, the date of the order, who is receiving the
order, who is getting billed, and where the order is
being shipped. The OrderDetailsTBL links to the key
fields of the OrderTBL and the ProductsTBL, and lists
the quantity ordered. See the Fourth Normal Form.
Child Table A table that derives data from another table. If a child
 table does not have any children itself, it should not
have a key field.
Decomposable Quality of a table indicating that certain fields contain
repetitive data better managed if separated into another
table and related by key field. Typically decomposable
tables have multiple fields that can be distinguished
from each other. Names can be repetitive, but do not
themselves justify decomposing the table.
Flat Table A table with no key field and no relationships to other
tables.
Hierarchical Quality of a system where the parts are organized such
that lower ranking parts inherit the qualities of higher
ranking parts. Do not confuse the application of this
term in this section with a hierarchical database. In a
relational database, child tables inherit the qualities of
the parent tables, and child tables provide either
variable length characteristic or historical details about
the parent table.
History Table A child table whose purpose is to store time-specific
data, such as a PriceHTBL or CostHTBL. The data is
only applied if the date of the history table corresponds
with the related records. See the Tenth NormalForm.
Recommended naming
conventions: TableNameHistoryTBL,
TableNameHTBL
Navigation A special function table for which only one record will
Table ever exist. This type of table will be discussed in great
detail later. Recommended naming
conventions: NavTBL or TableNameNTBL . This is
often an associative table, so those naming conventions
may also be applied.
Normalize Process of dividing a table into non-decomposable
tables. See the Fifth Normal Form.
Parent Table A parent table always contains a key field which is
referenced by its children. A parent table could also be
 a child table if and only if it derives data from another
table.
Primary Table A parent table with a key field and with no data derived
(Kernel Entity) from other tables. A record here provides data
describing a singular real-world subject that is not a
subset of but rather a superset of other entities.
Naming convention: TableNameTBL.
Terminal Table A child table that will not have any children.
Terms
Child Table A table that derives data from another table. If a child
table does not have any children itself, it should not
have a key field.
Decomposable Quality of a table indicating that certain fields contain
repetitive data better managed if separated into another
table and related by key field. Typically decomposable
tables have multiple fields that can be distinguished
from each other. Names can be repetitive, but do not
justify decomposing the table.
Details Table A child table providing information about a parent table
that has a variable length. Were this data stored in the
parent table, it would result in blank fields for many
records. For example, in an order entry system you
would have an OrderTBL with a child
OrderDetailsTBL. The OrderTBL contains general
information pertaining to the order, such as who made
the order, the date of the order, who is receiving the
order, who is getting billed, and where the order is
being shipped. The OrderDetailsTBL links to the key
fields of the OrderTBL and the ProductsTBL, and lists
the quantity ordered. See the Fourth Normal Form.
Flat Table A table with no key field and no relationships to other
tables.
Hierarchical Quality of a system where the parts are organized such
that lower ranking parts inherit the qualities of higher
ranking parts. Do not confuse the application of this
 term in this section with a hierarchical database. In a
relational database, child tables inherit the qualities of
the parent tables, and child tables provide either
variable length details or historical details about the
parent table.
History Table A child table whose purpose is to store time-specific
data, such as a PriceTBL or CostTBL. The data is only
applied if the date of the history table corresponds with
the related records. See the Sixth Normal Form.
Intersection A table that derives all of its data from two or more
Table tables, creating a relationship between those tables that
could not otherwise exist. Recommended naming
conventions: TableNameITBL .
Navigation A special function table for which only one record will
Table ever exist. This type of table will be discussed in great
detail later. Recommended naming
conventions: NavTBL or TableNameNTBL .
Normalize Process of dividing a table into non-decomposable
tables. See the Fifth Normal Form.
Parent Table A parent table always contains a key field which is
referenced by its children. A parent table could also be
a child table if and only if it derives data from another
table.
Primary Table A parent table with a key field and with no data derived
from other tables.
Normal Forms
Microsoft provides five "Normal Forms" (see Analyzing Requirements and
Defining Solution Architectures for the MCSD) which are rules governing
normalizing of relational database design. I faithfully identify these forms
first then add my own to the end.
Form Definition
There cannot be decomposable repetitive data among the
records of a table. A table violates this rule if one or more
fields contain repetitive data that could be stored more
concisely in another table using a lookup to the key field of the
new table's key field. When designing your tables you should
be able to identify repetitive information easily. When this
happens, create a new table to store the data in with a key field
First
(typically as an autonumber) and any descriptive fields. Save
this table and close it. Return to the original table and create a
lookup in a blank available field to the key field. It is also
wise to include the name of the record and hide the key field
so the user is not confused when they use the lookup during
data entry. This can (and should) be done without any data in
the tables.
According to Microsoft, every field in a table must relate to a
primary key field in its entirety (which includes multiple key
fields). This rule is typically viewed as a function of multiple
key fields (composite key), for which I have added the Eighth
Second Normal Form. The reality of this form, however, is its
application to putting the fields in the tables where they
belong. For example, a price field belongs in a PriceHTBL
(see Tenth Normal Form) not an InvoiceTBL because the price
is a function of time and product, not the order.
Third A child table must be related to a parent table through the
primary key field. If a composite key is used, this can be a
serious problem, because you can only relate to one key field
at a time. For this reason I add the Eighth Normal Form.
Here, Microsoft is arguing that relating non-key fields in two
tables will result in potential data conflicts from many-to-
 many relationships. Many-to-many relationships occur when a
relationship is made between non-key fields (e.g. often without
a properly formed lookup). See also the Twelfth through
Fourteenth Normal Forms.
Never create a related field that could be left blank. My
recommendation here is to make the lookup field in the child
table required. Microsoft's point, however, is that many
instances where this might occur are the result of a field that
Fourth
may not always be necessary and should thus be relegated to a
characteristic table. If the field is not related to another
table, then may be a necessary evil. If it is related to another
table the practice is forbidden.
Divide a table into multiple indivisible tables to reduce
repetitive data and prevent blank fields.
Other
Table Key Lookups
Fields
StudentTBL StudentID Name,
Phone,
etc.
CourseTBL CourseID
TextbookTBL TextbookID Author,
Fifth Publisher
SectionHTBL SectionID CourseID, semester
TextbookID,
InstructorID
RosterATBL RosterID SectionID,
StudentID
AssignmentCTBL AssignmentID SectionID, title,
RosterID value
GradesATBL RosterID, Value
AssignmentID
Sixth 1. The fields in a parent table define a key field and do
not require a history
2. The fields of a child table (which either defines a
history, characteristic, or creates an associate), with no
key, are definitive of the key fields of the parent tables
 3. If a child table has a key field (meaning it is also used
as a parent), then the fields must fill both 1 and 2 of
this form.
Any table with children must have a single key field. Most
Seventh typically this is an autonumber if there is no other logical
alternative (like a social security number).
Never use a composite key. Access allows you to make two
more fields share the function of key field. The combination
of these fields cannot be repeated. I have found that most
instances where composite keys have been established, there
should have been no key field at all. Although Microsoft gives
Eighth
you this option, the typical result is a violation of the Second
Normal Form. The most likely instigator to inspire multiple
key fields is an Associative table, which is a child table. If
such a child must have children of its own, then follow the
Seventh Normal Form.
Never include a key field in a child table that has no children
Ninth
of its own.
Typically a terminal table maintaining dated information is a
History table, which is used to attribute values appropriately
to records based on the date of transaction. For example,
because prices and costs change over time, history tables
Tenth
should be maintained so reports can be run on old transactions
rather than forcing the maintenance of hard copies which
become difficult to analyze. This is useful for accounting
purposes.
Eleventh Typically a terminal table listing variable amounts of
information attributed to a parent table is a Characteristic
table. In an order entry system, each order can have any
number of items associated with the specific order. To account
for this variation create an OrderDetailsTBL containing a
lookup to the OrderID in the OrderTBL, a lookup to the
ProductID (showing the product name) in the ProductTBL and
a field indicating the quantity ordered. This example is also an
associative table as described in the Twelfth Normal Form.
An example that fits only this might be a CertificationTBL for
 instructors, who would have multiple certificates which can be
immensely different from each other, and have specific dates
of validity. For such a design you would create a lookup from
the CertificationTBL to the InstructorID in the InstructorTBL,
then provide fields for the granting institution, date awarded,
title of the certificate, and the date (if applicable) the
certificate expires.
Typically a terminal table with lookups to two or more table
keys to allow otherwise unrelated tables to be related are
Twelfth associative tables. As noted in the Eleventh Normal Form's
order entry example, an associative table can also contain
detail information unique to the association.
Never use a key field derived through relationship from
Thirteen
another table as a key field in the child table.
The combination of lookup fields in an associative table must
never be repeated. This is an extremely difficult rule because
between the Eighth and Thirteenth Normal Forms, it appears
impossible to enforce on the user. A solution could be to force
the user to enter the fields in a specific order (see Navigation
Fourteen Tables below), and after the first lookup field have each
subsequent lookup use a query as its source. Another would
be to add a hidden date field with default data of =Now(),
create the necessary Delete Query and macros to drive the
function to automatically delete the old data when the user
replicates.
A terminal table that is an association where only one record
Fifteenth can exist in a table and the source data for all fields are
lookups to other tables is a Navigation table.
As you can see, my additions provide even greater detail on table design,
which often include solutions from other database objects.
Hierarchy of Normalized Tables
To help put this all in perspective, table types are listed in order of
relationship priority with brief explanations as to why. I put parents at the
top because they provide the most constant, stable data. This is also the
order in which you should create your tables.
 1. Flat Tables―not involved in any relationship least affected can be
added any time
2. Parent Tables
1. Kernel (Primary Parent) Tables―share data with other
tables
2. Child tables who are also Parents―both borrow and share
data with other tables
3. Child Tables
1. Associative Tables―borrow most or all of their data to
regulate complex relationships
2. Other Children―require at least one parent for their data
to be meaningful
Characteristic Tables
History Tables
3. Terminal Tables―potentially descriptive of any child table
4. Navigation Tables―exclusively borrow data as a
dominant function for forms and queries

Relationships (MCSD)
Access is not just a basic database design tool. The database designer
should know that Access is limited to 2 million records, but can be attached
to a much larger database (e.g. hosted by a SQL server). This is actually
common because with the VBA capabilities of Access modules you can
create a simple interface with all the simplicities of Access including
reports, queries, forms and security without having to reinvent the
application and retain the power of a "real" database.
The Access 2000 example has no relationships established in the
Relationships Window. I recommend relationships in the Relationships
Window be built only with the Lookup Wizard, then develop other
relationships in the queries. For an example of relationships created with
lookups alone see the circular.mdb in the same location on the Internet. All
relationships in the example are shown in the queries. Note: if relationships
are done in the Relationships Window they will appear in the query when
the tables are inserted. You can, however, modify the relationship or even
delete it if created in the query alone without affecting the entire database.
I also recommend doing as many expressions as possible in the queries
to simplify forms and reports (not to mention reduce headaches as
expressions may work in a report but not in a form and vice-versa).
For fun, redefine the AZcompaniesQRY to prompt for a different state (in
the criteria cell type [Please enter the desired state]), then run the other
queries choosing other states. The other queries use this as their data
source.
Relationship Types (MCSD)
One-to-One: Both tables have one key field and those key fields are
related to each other. This means that a record in one table will only
have one matching record in the other table. If such a relationship
exists then I recommend merging the tables to simplify the design and
reduce the redundancy of listing the same key field twice.
One-to-Many: Both tables have at least on key field and a key field is
either related to a non-key field or to a table with multiple keys. For
each record in the table with a single key field related to a non-key or
multiple key, there are potentially many records in the other table that
are related.
Many-to-Many: Both tables are related either with multiple keys or
by non-key fields when key fields exist in both. This means a record
in either table may have multiple related records in the other.
Although Microsoft's Third Normal Form seems to do away with this,
associative tables defined in the Twelfth through Fourteenth Normal
Forms make this possible in a controlled manner.
Undetermined: Neither table contains a key field.
Join Types (MCSD)
Option 1 (Inner Join)--Shows only matching records of both tables.
This is shown by a line with no arrows connecting the related fields.
Option 2 (Right Outer Join)--Shows all records of the "One" table (or
if undetermined or many-to-many, the table where you started
clicking and dragging) and only matching of the "Many" table (or if
undetermined or many-to-many, the table where you release the
mouse button). In other words, all the records of the "One" table will
show even if there are no matching records in the "Many" table.
When there are no matching records in the "Many" table then the
requested fields are blank. This is shown by a line connecting the
related fields with an arrow pointing to the field in the "Many" table.
 Option 3 (Left Outer Join)--Shows all records of the "Many" table (or
if undetermined or many-to-many, the table where you release the
mouse button) and only matching of the "One" table (or if
undetermined or many-to-many, the table where you started clicking
and dragging). In other words, all the records of the "Many" table
will show even if there are no matching records in the "One" table.
When there are no matching records in the "One" table then the
requested fields are blank. This is shown by a line connecting the
related fields with an arrow pointing to the field in the "One" table.
This join type potentially breaks the Third Normal Form unless it is
made to a query of the parent table.
Note: Right and Left Outer Joins are visually semantic terms that may be
confusing because the direction the arrow is pointing may be reversed
simply by moving related tables to the opposite sides of each other. The
assumption in data-flow diagramming is that parents (one) will be on the
left and children (many) will be on the right. As such, a left outer join
would point from the child to the parent. That is why I provide the option
number with description as well as the name. To change a left outer join to
a right outer join you must double click the joining line and choose the
other option. You cannot simply change the location of a table so the arrow
physically points left or right to establish the required results.
Referential Integrity (MCSD)
The rules of referential integrity (when enforcement is selected) are:
You cannot change a key field referenced from or by another table.
Note: you can never change a key field referenced from another
table because this would damage the records in the child table being
edited.
You cannot change data in a field referenced from another table.
You cannot delete records referenced by another table.
To violate these use the options: Cascade Update Related Fields or Cascade
Delete Related Records with extreme caution!
When referential integrity is established it can be seen in the Relationship
design area of a query or in the Relationships Window by the ones (1) and
infinites (  ) indicating which table is "One" (1) versus "Many" (  ). You
must edit the relationship to see if the cascade delete or update options are
selected.
Cascading Changes and Deletes
Access provides the ability to "Cascade Update Related Fields" and
"Cascade Deleted Records". If your relationships are created properly,
updating will amount to updating the key field references only in related
records of child tables. The cascade delete will cause all related records in
child tables to also be deleted. Note: Parent-child relationships are always
one-to-many (Parent = 1, Child =  ). While referential integrity can be
seen in the relationships window, cascade features are only visible when
viewing the properties of a relationship.

Data Flow Diagrams (MCSD)

Data flow diagrams may appear in a variety of simple ways. For example,
a data flow diagram may be a simple procedure by which information is
handled in an office: Secretary 1 receives a fax, determines who should see
it first, then delivers. Let us say it is an order, so it goes to the next
available salesperson. The salesperson verifies availability with the
warehouse, who in turn updates their order. After verification, management
approves the sale and it becomes an order. The order clerk gathers the
materials and delivers them to shipping, etc.
This is a simple example of a common workplace. Data flow diagramming
is fundamentally the same in computers, in terms of data workflow. We can
draw it up just like a flowchart, or we can be less glamorous and use plain
text with arrows, or plain boxes containing text with arrows.
In terms of data connectivity, data flow diagrams become high-level
diagrams illustrating how various sources of data are connected. The
easiest way to think of this is in terms of a relational database (see
normalizing and denormalizing). Let us say, for example, we are trying to
create a high-level diagram illustrating the data flow of a school’s database.
The following may be a logical arrangement for our data flow:
This layout allows for one teacher to have many classes, for many teachers
to teach the same class, for many students to have the same parents, and
many students to take the same class, etc. This diagram is a massive
simplification though. As a rule, I put all people into one table with a field
distinguishing who belongs to which category. As a consequence, if this
were a working diagram, Teacher, Student, and Guardian would be queries
and not tables. This diagram gives us a good idea of the concepts though,
and can be extremely useful in development (e.g. making the
denormalization observation I just made). Diagrams like this can also help
solve problems in design. For example, I went to a friend’s house for
dinner one night to help him with a database problem. We struggled for
hours examining the innermost design of the programming. Finally, as
dinner was about to be served, I printed out the relationships. As I waited
to be served, I looked at the diagram and sipped my soda. Suddenly the
problem leaped out at me: he was trying to use a relational database like a
flat table. He had put calculations into the tables rather than into the
queries. I leaped from my seat, and before my dinner had a chance to cool,
the database was working.
Integrity and Validation (MCSD)
The largest problems with integrity and validation are the users and the
available information. By more fields required in a record, the less user-
friendly it will be. It will result in a shortage of information in many
instances. For example, in a database designed for a private college, I was
tempted to make contact information and social security numbers required
fields. Unfortunately, in the working environment, much of this
information filters into the database months after the student has already
begun. Rather than have no information, only the First and Last name
fields are required. This, of course, deeply affects the integrity of the
database.
Validation can be worked to extremes. Some databases are set so the user’s
input is compared with known information, requiring accuracy and validity
in input. This can make a database enormously cumbersome, and risks a
user being unable to make input of unknown information impossible.
Validation with numeric data is more practical (see Input Masks, Lookup
Fields, Constraints and Validation in this unit).

Integrating Business Rules (MCSD)

Business rules may require additional fields in tables. For example, you
can create a lookup for grades that applies numeric values to the letters, and
numeric values for credit hours or contact hours applied to the course. The
problem with these values comes when you calculate GPAs. For example:
4 = A, 3 = B, 2 = C, 1 = D, 0 = F, 5 = Z (not passing), 6 = P (pass), 7 = I
(incomplete), 8 = AU (audit). The values 0 thru 4 are useful for computing
GPA, but 5 thru 8 are not counted. These business rules can be either
inserted directly into the programming, or a table must be created using
these key values and two binary (Yes/No) fields: Count Credit Hours, and
Count Toward GPA. 0 thru 4 and 6 would be true for Count Credit Hours.
Only 0 thru 4 would be true for Count Toward GPA.
Notes:
When the business rules are programmed in, then the user has no power.
When the business rules are accessible because they are not programmed in,
then security measures must exist to protect the rules from users who do not
have authority over them.
By not programming business rules in, the program is more user friendly
and adaptable, making the client less dependant on the programmer.

Math on The Computer

This lesson assumes minimal knowledge of mathematics and maximum
aversion to mathematics. Mathematics, like technology, is commonly
shrouded by anxieties and fears. Mathematicians are guaranteed solitude
simply by mentioning their field. As we realized in our Windows unit,
these enchanting chalk circles are nothing more than boundaries we create.
Mathematics is remarkably easy if approached positively and concretely.
It is not the objective here to replace traditional math classes. Nor is it our
objective to delve into manipulations nor calculations. The idea of this
lesson is to show the non-mathematician how to get the computer to do the
math for them. As with reading, writing and computer literacy,
mathematics is a necessity. Fortunately computer literacy can easily
substitute for mathematical literacy when applied to common and most
advanced math needs.
The computer can easily and instantly track many related mathematical
operations consisting of many values each which would baffle even the
math connoisseur. The way software is designed, you basically need to
know:
1. The values you want calculated
2. The manner of calculation (often this does not mean the formula)
3. How you want the results to appear
Mathematics on the computer also includes operations we forget are math-
related. For example, counting occurrences, or making decisions. In the
process of our daily lives we perform enormously complex mathematical
operations constantly. For example, as we drive down the road we
unconsciously calculate distances, speed and velocities, then make
decisions based on values we did not consciously apply numbers to. What
is even more remarkable: we make these calculations in a fraction of a
second. If we don’t, then paramedics may get involved. On a less drastic
level, we shop. Shopping alone is an enormous math problem. Do I have
this? Will I need more? How many? Can I afford it? In comparison, the
math we do on the computer is insignificant and simple. The difference is
that we are trying to formally calculate actual values. The irony is we can
easily describe actual values because we can physically show and measure
them. Most of the values we risk our lives on are so abstract we cannot
give a real value to them. For example: food likes and dislikes. We might
absolutely love some foods and absolutely hate others. Most get valued in a
gray area between where we couldn’t possibly give a constant value. One
day you might crave vegetables, the next cheese. When given other choices
our craving could instantly change. Try putting numbers to values like
these and you will get a headache. Try counting the apples in a bowl and,
assuming none are added nor removed, the number is the same later.
Formal math is easy.
Numbers
We humans have a few nasty habits. Among these includes applying
abstract numbers to things that have nothing to do with real value. The
computer assumes all numbers are values unless told otherwise. Even
worse, computers assign numeric value to non-numbers (like the alphabet),
which do not always agree with human logic. In our Windows project we
organized folders labeled u007, u01, u02, u03, etc. You probably wondered
why the extra zero. We ignore zeros to the left of the number we are
treating as a value. When it comes to alphabetizing, the computer considers
the value of each character in order. Punctuation has less value than
numbers (0-9 mind you!). Numbers have less value than letters. We
organize numbers by their value rather than one character at a time, such as:
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 20. The computer, with the same series of
numbers will show: 1, 10, 11, 2, 20, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9. To get the computer
to sort properly (treating numbers as text), add a zero on the left of the
single digits: 01, 02, 03, 04, 05, 06, 07, 08, 09, 10, 11, 20. Conceptions and
applications of numbers as text and values is a problem.
To further complicate numbers, we have numbers that we never calculate
like: area codes, zip codes, bar codes, customer numbers, vendor and
employee numbers. We treat these as text while the computer easily
conceives them as calculable values. Then we throw characters into
numbers that are for human use only but, to the computer, serve
mathematical purposes such as: dashes (-), commas and slashes (/). While
data entry methods resolve this last issue, when facing a spreadsheet or
database you must tell the computer the type of information it is storing in
that place to prevent confusing values with text. In research, to insure
consistency of data entry, numbers are often assigned to non-calculable
characteristics, like sex, religion and ethnicity. Clearly these values cannot
be used to calculate sums, averages, etc. The values are descriptive so we
can count them and compare the counts. Likewise a file could be active or
inactive, present or not present. These yes/no scenarios are easily counted
and compared, though the numbers assigned to them are nothing more than
qualitative identifiers (numeric labels).
Variables
There are a number of ways too look at variables which all fall into one of
two categories: qualitative or quantitative. Take an eight ounce (half pint)
cup out of your cupboard and consider what you can fill it with. The size of
the cup is actually a factor of its volume, which happens to be sized to fit
eight ounces of water at room temperature. What you put into the cup must
naturally fit, such as grains, powders and liquids, and the weights of your
choices differ per unit of volume. This describes a qualitative variable
because the nature of the filling material can vary. Just because it is an
eight ounce cup does not mean you have to fill the entire volume, hence the
quantity put into the cup also can vary (to the size limitation of the cup of
course). What confuses people the most is when mathematicians convert
this concept into letters or symbols. For simplicity sake we will use the
letter V to denote the volume of the cup, W for the weight of the filling, Y
the volume quantity of the filling and X the quality of the filling (the type of
filling (T) and its weight (W) per unit of volume (a constant 1) or
X=WT/1). If we fill the cup with X then necessarily Y=V. We note that V
is a constant so long as we use the same container, and that XY gives us the
weight of the filling so long as Y is less than or equal to V. If Y exceeds V,
we need a bigger container (V). This is fundamentally how mathematicians
use symbols to represent reality and all the variations of reality.
Fortunately for the non-mathematician, the layout of a spreadsheet makes
variables a little easier to comprehend. Each cell represents a variable.
Until filled, the cell has a null (or empty) value. A null value is different
from a zero value. Zero is a measure of a thing (namely the absence of that
thing). A null value is the absence of anything. You note the primary
difference is that zero is used for a particular quality, while null lacks even
quality and hence cannot be measured. When the cell is filled, the nature of
the variable within the cell is obvious. It is either a number or text, then
formatted to best represent the quality of the variable (percent, currency,
etc.). The reference to the cell is the location of the cell, so the user is not
just considering loosely defined letters, but places that they can look at and
see actual data. Cell references (locations) are defined first by the column
letter than by the row number. This is no accident of ordering nor of choice
to make columns letters and rows numbers. Columns represent the X axis
of mathematics which is graduated (numbered) from left to right
horizontally. Rows represent the Y axis of mathematics which is graduated
(numbered) from bottom to top vertically. Because we read and write from
the top of the page down, spreadsheets reverse the row numbering system.
As for using letters and numbers, not only does this help the user better
understand the reference, it simplifies the naming system. In mathematics
coordinates are given as (X,Y) while coordinates of a cell in a spreadsheet
are provide CR (column letter then row number) which is considerably
fewer characters yet equally descriptive for the application. If there could
be fractions of cells, this reference system would not work. Fortunately this
is not the case.
Both numbers and text can be variable or constant. If we select a cell and
input a number or text, then we have put a constant in the variable space of
the cell. If we use a formula using references to other cells, then what is
displayed becomes variable and dependent on the contents of other cells.
Although you can refer to cells containing formulas, eventually all higher
order formulas must refer to constants that dictate their solutions. If
formulas only refer to each other and no constants are referred to, than a
circular relationship (argument) exists and there can be no solution.
Conditional Operators
States equality between the two sides. Note: all Excel and
Access formulas and logical expressions begin with this symbol!
=
It tells the program to display the solution in the cell rather than
the formula.
<> States that the two sides are not equal.
< States the value on the left is less than the value on the right.
States the value on the left is less than or equal to the value on
<=
the right.
> States the value on the left is greater than the value on the right.
States the value on the left is greater than or equal to the value on
>=
the right.
Worksheet 7—Database Design
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