EAC3017 FUNDAMENTALS OF SENSORS AND IoT
MODULE 1
Fundamentals of Sensors & Measurements
Dr J P Shritharanyaa
[email protected]
Assistant Professor Grade I
School of Electrical and Electronics Enigineering – Embedded Systems
VIT Bhopal University, Kothri Kalan, Madhya Pradesh
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Introduction
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Sensors
▪ A device that receives a stimulus and
responds with an electrical signal.
▪ A sensor differs from a transducer in that a
sensor converts the received signal into
electrical form only.
▪ A sensor collects information from the real
world. A transducer only converts energy
from one form to another.
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Internet of Things
▪ It describes the network of physical
objects—“things”—that are embedded
with sensors, software, and other
technologies for the purpose of connecting
and exchanging data with other devices
and systems over the internet.
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Syllabus
▪ Module 1 Fundamentals of sensors Measurement: Block diagram of measurement system,
Sensor fundamentals and characteristics: Error, Accuracy, Precision, Resolution, Linearity,
Repeatability, Threshold, Sensitivity, Drift, Dead Zone, Span and Range.
Classifications of Sensors: Active and Passive sensors, primary secondary sensors,
Principles of Sensing: Resistance, Capacitance, and Electromagnetic inductance
▪ Module 2 Sensing and Actuation: : Sensors: Temperature, Pressure, Humidity, Strain
gauge, LVDT, Piezo-electric or, load cell, Photoelectric sensors, LDR, Position, Proximity,
Motion Detection Sensors and Smart sensors.
Actuators: Classifications, working principles
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Syllabus
▪ Module 3 Fundamentals of IoT: Introduction, Definitions & Characteristics of IoT, Evolution
IoT, IoT Architectures, Physical & Logical Design of IoT, IoT frameworks.
Design Principles for Connected Devices: Machine-to-Machine(M2M) Communications,
Architectural components of M2M, IoT versus M2M, M2M systems layers, and design
standardization
▪ Module 4 IoT Connectivity Technologies: Introduction Wi-Fi, Bluetooth (LE), ZigBee,
Wireless HART, DASH7, Lo-Ra, NB-IoT, IEEE 802.11, IEEE 802.15.4, and Cellular
networks (4G, 3G).
IoT Gateway Protocols: Introduction, MQTT, MQTT brokers, publish-subscribe modes,
HTTP, COAP, and gateway protocols, Privacy and Security Issues in IoT 7
Syllabus
▪ Module 5 Embedded Platforms for IoT: Overview of Embedded computing,
Implementation of IoT in supported hardware and software (open source) platforms -
Arduino, Raspberry pi, Beagle Bone, ARM cortex, Node-Red, Contiki-NG, M2MLabs
Mainspring, etc.
IoT Enabled Technologies: Case studies in IoT application: Agriculture, Healthcare, Retail,
Wearables, - Evolution of New IoT Paradigms (IIoT), Challenges Associated with IoT,
Emerging Pillars of IoT
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Text Books & References
▪ Soloman, Sabrie. Sensors Handbook. McGraw-Hill Education, 2010.
▪ Jacob Fraden, “Hand Book of Modern Sensors: Physics, Designs and Applications”, 2015, 3rd edition,
Springer, New York.
▪ Hakima Chaouchi, ― “The Internet of Things Connecting Objects to the Web” ISBN : 978-1- 84821-140-
7, Wiley Publications.
▪ Pfister, Cuno. Getting Started with the Internet of Things: Connecting Sensors and Microcontrollers to the
Cloud. United States, O'Reilly Media, 2011
▪ Jon. S. Wilson, “Sensor Technology Hand Book”, 2011, 1st edition, Elsevier, Netherland.
▪ Olivier Hersent,DavidBoswarthick, Omar Elloumi“The Internet of Things key applications and protocols”,
willey
▪ Ammar Rayes and Samer Salam, “Internet of Things – From Hype to Reality, Springer, 2017
▪ Sudip Mishra, Anandarup Mukherjee, Arijit Roy: Introduction to IoT, Cambridge University Press
▪ Boby George,Joyanta Kumar Roy,V.Jagadeesh Kumar,Subhas Chandra Mukhopadhyay, “Advanced
Interfacing Techniques for Sensors,Springer,2017
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Assessment Pattern
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Module 1 - Fundamentals of Sensors & Measurement
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Block Diagram of Measurement System
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Measurement System
Ref: http://ecoursesonline.iasri.res.in/mod/resource/view.php?id=3563 13
Measurement System
Primary Sensing Element:
▪ The quantity or the variable which is being measured makes its first contact with the
primary sensing element of a measurement system.
▪ Sensor or Transducer
▪ It converts the sensed physical quantity from one form to the other.
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Measurement System
Variable Conversion Element:
▪ The output signal of the variable sensing element may be any kind.
▪ Sometimes, the output from the sensor is not suited to the measurement system
▪ For the instrument to perform the desired function, it may be necessary to convert this
output signal from the sensor to some other suitable form while preserving the information
content of the original signal.
▪ Ex: Analog to Digital converter.
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Measurement System
Variable Manipulation Element:
▪ Its function is to manipulate the signal presented to this element while preserving the
original nature of the signal.
▪ It can be placed either after the variable conversion element or it may precede the
variable conversion element.
▪ Ex: Voltage Amplifier.
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Measurement System
Data Transmission Element:
▪ The elements of an instrument are actually physically separated at some situations.
▪ necessary to transmit data from one element to another.
▪ For example satellites or the air planes are physically separated from the control stations
at earth. For guiding the movements of satellites or the air planes control stations send the
radio by a complicated telemetry systems.
▪ The signal conditioning and transmission stage is commonly known as Intermediate Stage.
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Measurement System
Data Presentation Element:
▪ Display of data being measured.
▪ Ex: Voltmeter, ammeter, TV, printers.
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SENSOR CHARACTERISTICS
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Sensor Characteristics
1. Sensitivity
2. Accuracy
3. Precision
4. Repeatability
5. Resolution
6. Range
7. Span
8. Linearity
9. Threshold
10. Error
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Sensitivity
▪ Sensitivity is the change in input
required to generate a unit change in
output.
▪ If the sensor response is non-linear,
sensitivity will vary over the sensor
range and can be found by calculating
the derivative of y with respect to x
(dy/dx).
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Accuracy
▪ Accuracy refers to a sensor’s ability to provide an output close to the true value of the
measurand.
▪ The maximum difference that will exist between the actual value (which must be
measured by a primary or good secondary standard) and the indicated value at the
output of the sensor.
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Precision
▪ Precision is sometimes confused with accuracy.
▪ Precision describes the ability of an output to be constantly reproduced.
▪ A very accurate sensor that is imprecise (a thermometer that reports temperatures
between 62–64° F for an input of 63° F), or a very precise sensor that is inaccurate (a
thermometer that always reports a temperature of 70° F for an input of 63° F).
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Repeatability
▪ Repeatability is the ability of a sensor to produce the same output when the same input
is applied to it.
▪ Lack of repeatability generally occurs due to random fluctuations in environmental inputs
or operator error.
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Resolution
▪ Resolution, also called discrimination, is the smallest increment of the measurand that
causes a detectable change in output.
▪ If the sensor resolution is too low for the application, subtle changes in the measurand
may not be detected.
▪ However, a sensor whose resolution is too high for the application is needlessly
expensive.
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Resolution - Problem
▪ A coil voltmeter has a uniform scale with 100 divisions, the full scale reading is 200V
and 1/10 of a scale division can be estimated with a fair degree of certainty.
Determine the resolution of the instrument in volt.
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Range
▪ The range of the sensor is the maximum and minimum values of applied parameter that
can be measured.
▪ Full-scale range describes the maximum and minimum values of a measured property.
Full-scale input is often called span. Full-scale output (FSO) is the algebraic difference
between the output signals measured at maximum input stimulus and the minimum input
stimulus.
▪ Operating voltage range describes the minimum and maximum input voltages that can
be used to operate a sensor. Applying an input voltage outside of this range may
permanently damage the sensor
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Span
▪ Span (or dynamic range) describes the maximum and minimum input values that can be
applied to a sensor without causing an unacceptable level of inaccuracy.
▪ For a thermometer calibrated between 200oC to 500oC, the range is 200oC to 500oC
but the span is 500 − 200 = 300oC
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Threshold
▪ If the sensor input is increased very gradually from zero there will be some minimum
value below which no output change can be detected.
▪ This minimum value is called threshold.
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Linearity
▪ The linearity of the transducer is an expression of
the extent to which the actual measured curve of a
sensor departs from the ideal curve.
▪ Linearity is often specified in terms of percentage
of nonlinearity, which is defined as
Din(max) is the maximum input deviation
INf.x. is the maximum, full-scale input
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Linearity - Problem
▪ A 10,000 ohm variable resistance has a linearity of 0.1% and the movement of contact arm is
320o. (a) determine the maximum position deviation in degrees and the resistance deviation in ohm.
(b) if this instrument is to be used as a potentiometer with linear scale of 0 to 1.6V, determine the
maximum voltage error.
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Drift
▪ This is the low frequency change in a sensor with time.
▪ It is often associated with electronic aging of components or reference standards in the
sensor.
▪ Drift generally decreases with the age of a sensor as the component parts mature.
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Dead Zone
▪ The largest change of input quantity for which there is no output of the sensor.
▪ For example the input applied to the instrument may not be efficient to overcome the
friction and will, in that case, not the move at all .
▪ It will only move when the input is such that it produces a driving force which can
overcome friction forces.
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Dead Zone - Problem
▪ The dead zone is a certain pyrometer is 0.125% of span. The calibration is 400oC to
1000oC. What temperature change might occur before it is detected?
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Errors
▪ Absolute Error : The difference between the actual value and the measured value of a
quantity.
▪ Relative Error : The ratio of absolute error of the measurement and the actual value.
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Errors - Problem
▪ A voltage has a true value of 1.50V. An analog indicating instrument with a scale range
of 0-2.50V shows a voltage of 1.46V. What are the values of absolute error and
correction. Express the error as a fraction of the true value and the full scale deflection.
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LVDT - Problem
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Classification of Sensors
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Classification of Sensors
Active and Passive Sensors: Strain Gauge
▪ Active Sensor
▪ Do not require an external excitation signal or a power signal.
▪ directly generates an electric signal in response to the external.
▪ Example: Thermocouple, Photodiode, Piezoelectric sensor.
▪ Passive Sensor :
Piezoelectric Sensor
▪ require any external power signal and directly generates output response.
▪ Example: Strain Gauge, Resistive sensor, Capacitive sensor
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Classification of Sensors
Primary and Secondary Sensors:
▪ Some transducers consist of a mechanical device along
with an electrical device.
▪ In such types of transducers, the mechanical device acts as
a primary transducer and converts physical quantity into
the mechanical signal.
▪ The mechanical signal produced by the primary
transducer converts into an electrical signal by the
electrical device and it is called a secondary transducer.
▪ an electrical device acts as a secondary transducer.
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Principle of Sensing
Resistive Sensors
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Resistive Sensor
▪ Working Principle: Change in resistance due to environmental changes.
▪ Resistance: An electrical quantity that measures how the device or material reduces the
electric current flow in it.
▪ Used to measure physical quantities like displacement, force, temperature, pressure.
▪ The conductor length is directly proportional to the resistance whereas the cross sectional
area is indirectly proportional to the resistance.
▪ Function as both primary and secondary sensor.
▪ Example: Thermistor, Photoresistor, Potentiometer, strain gauge, LDR.
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Resistive Sensor
▪ Every sliding contact type of resistance transducer
consists of a long conductor whose length can be varied.
▪ One end of the conductor will be fixed while other end is
connected to a slider or a brush which moves along the
full length of the conductor.
▪ The slider is connected to the object whose displacement
has to be measured.
▪ When a force is applied to the object, the slider also
travels all along the length of the conductor.
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Resistive Sensor
▪ Due to this the length of conductor changes, which
reflects on change in resistance of the conductor.
▪ Potentiometer is a type of transducer which works on the
principle of sliding contact type.
▪ Potentiometers are used to measure linear and angular
displacement.
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Resistive Sensor
Advantages Disadvantage Applications
▪1 Give quick & accurate results 1▪ A lot of power is wasted ▪1 Temperature: temperature
in moving the sliding coefficient of the resistive
▪2 Affordable contacts transducer changes which
▪2 The sliding contacts can can be used to determine
▪3 Use both AC/DC to calculate produce a lot of noise the change in temperature
the change in resistance ▪2 Potentiometer
▪3 Displacement : apply
strain on the resistor, the
resistance changes.
Measure displacement,
force, and pressure 45
Inductive Sensors
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Inductive Sensor
▪ Working Principle: Change in inductance.
▪ Inductance: the tendency of an electrical conductor to
oppose a change in the electric current flowing through it.
▪ The current induced by magnetic fields used to detect
nearby metal objects.
▪ The inductive sensor uses a coil to generate a high
frequency magnetic field.
▪ If there is a metal object near the changing magnetic
field, current will flow in the object.
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Inductive Sensor
▪ This resulting current flow sets up a new magnetic field
that opposes the original magnetic field.
▪ The net effect is that it changes the inductance of the coil
in the inductive sensor.
▪ The magnetic field of the unshielded sensor covers a
larger volume around the head of the coil.
▪ By adding a shield the magnetic field becomes smaller,
but also more directed that improves their directionality
and accuracy
▪ Example: LVDT – Linear Variable Differential
Transformer 48
Inductive Sensor
Advantages Disadvantage Applications
▪1 Contactless detection 1▪ Lack in detection range ▪1 Machine tolls, assembly
▪2 No moving parts, ensuring line, automotive industry
a longer service life 2▪ Can only detect metal
objects ▪2 Detection of metal parts in
harsh environments
changes.
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Automated Parking System Inductive Sensor
Position Detection System
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Capacitive Sensors
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Capacitive Sensor
▪ Working Principle: Change in capacitance.
▪ Capacitance: The ability of a component or circuit to collect
and store energy in the form of an electrical charge.
▪ Used to detect the targets like liquids or solids without any
physical contact.
▪ The capacitance is given by
Where ε0 is the permittivity of free space (8.85 x 10-12 F/m)
εr is the dielectric constant of the insulation medium (εr=1 for air)
A is the area of the plate (m2 )
d is the distance between two plates (m) 52
Capacitive Sensor
▪ Generate electrostatic field.
▪ The sensor has two parallel plates with a
dielectric medium (air, gas or liquid) between
the plates.
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Capacitive Sensor
▪ A metal plate within the sensing face is electrically
connected to an oscillator circuit and the target which
is detected can act as the next plate of the capacitor.
▪ When an object comes near the sensing surface, it
enters the electrostatic field of the electrodes and
changes the capacitance of the oscillator.
▪ As a result, the oscillator circuit starts oscillating and
changes the output state of the sensor when it
reaches certain amplitude.
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Capacitive Sensor
▪ As the object moves away from the sensor, the
oscillator’s amplitude decreases, switching the sensor
back to its initial state.
▪ This makes possible the detection of materials inside
nonmetallic containers because the liquid has a much
higher dielectric constant than the container, which
gives the sensor ability to see through the container
and detect the liquid.
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Capacitive Sensor
Advantages Disadvantage Applications
▪1 Contactless detection 1▪ Low range detection ▪1 Replace mechanical
▪2 No moving parts, ensuring buttons
a longer service life 2▪ Higher price as compared
▪3 wide array of materials to inductive sensors ▪2 Touch screens in mobile,
can detect tablets and digital
devices.
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Thank You
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