EAC3017 FUNDAMENTALS OF SENSORS AND IoT

MODULE 2
Sensing and Actuation

Dr J P Shritharanyaa
[email protected]
Assistant Professor Grade I
School of Electrical and Electronics Enigineering – Embedded Systems
VIT Bhopal University, Kothri Kalan, Madhya Pradesh

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 Syllabus
▪ Module 2 Sensing and Actuation : Sensors: Temperature, Pressure, Humidity, Strain
gauge, LVDT, Piezo-electric or, load cell, Photoelectric sensors, LDR, Position, Proximity,
Motion Detection Sensors and Smart sensors.

Actuators: Classifications, working principles

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Module 2 - Sensing and Actuation

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Temperature Sensor

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 Temperature Sensor

▪ Temperature sensors are devices designed for measuring the degree of coolness and
hotness in an object.

▪ Example: Thermistor, Thermocouple, RTD

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 Thermocouple
▪ It converts thermal energy into electrical energy and is
constructed by joining wires made from dissimilar metals to
form a junction.

▪ Voltage is produced when the temperature at the junction

changes.

▪ Concept: Seebeck Effect, which states that if dissimilar metals

are joined at a point they will generate a small measurable
voltage when the temperature of the point of connection
changes.

▪ The amount of voltage depends on the amount of

temperature change and the characteristics of the metals.

▪ Application: Food Industry, Chemical plants 6

 Thermistor
▪ A thermistor is a semiconductor that contains greater resistance
material than conducting material and a resistor that reacts to
temperature.

▪ The resistance of a thermistor is dependent on the material from

which it is made.

▪ The term “thermistor” refers to thermally sensitive resistors that are

very accurate and effective sensors for measuring temperature.

▪ The two forms of thermistors are Positive Temperature Coefficient

and Negative Temperature Coefficient, where a NTC thermistor’s
resistance decreases as the temperature rises and a PTC thermistor’s
resistance increases as the temperature increases.

▪ Application: Rechargeable Batteries, Automotive industry 7

 Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)
▪ An RTD, resistance temperature detector, is a
passive temperature sensing device that operates
on the principle that the resistance of a metal
changes as the temperature changes.

▪ The electrical current that passes through the

element or resistor of the sensor creates a
resistance value that is measured by an attached
instrument that correlates it to the temperature
based on the resistance characteristics of the RTD
sensor.

▪ Application: Aerospace, Consumer electronics,

medical electronics
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HUMIDITY SENSOR

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 Humidity
▪ Humidity is the measure of the amount of water vapor present in the air.

▪ It is the major factor for operating sensitive equipment like electronics, industrial equipment, electrostatic
sensitive devices and high voltage devices etc.

▪ Humidity is calculated as Relative humidity and Absolute humidity.

▪ Absolute Humidity(AH): It is the ratio of mass of the water vapour to the volume of the air. If m is the mass
of the water vapour and V is the total volume i.e. volume of air and water vapour mixture.

AH = m/V

▪ Relative Humidity(RH): It is the ratio of the actual water vapour pressure present in the air at a
temperature to the maximum water vapour pressure present in the air at the same temperature.

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 Humidity Sensor
▪ Humidity Sensors/ Hygrometers are the low cost-sensitive electronic devices used to
measure the humidity of the air.

▪ Humidity Sensors can also be classified based on the parameter used for measuring
Humidity:

▪ Capacitive Humidity Sensors,

▪ Resistive Humidity Sensors

▪ Thermal Conductivity Humidity Sensors.

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 Capacitive Humidity Sensor
▪ Working Principle: the electrical permittivity of the dielectric
material changes with change in humidity.

▪ The space between the capacitor plates is usually filled with an

appropriate dielectric material (isolator), whose dielectric
constant varies when it is subjected to change in humidity.

▪ Another way to use the capacitive RH sensors is to observe the

changes in the frequency of the oscillator constructed using a
capacitor. This setup is often employed in pharmaceutical
products.

▪ The test samples like medical tablets are placed between two
plates to form a capacitor in the LC Oscillator circuit.

▪ The frequency of the oscillator changes with humidity

surrounding the test sample.
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 Capacitive Humidity Sensor
Advantages Disadvantage Applications

▪1 Output voltage-linear 1▪ distance from the sensor ▪1 Printers and Fax Machines
▪2 provide stable results and signalling circuit is ▪2 Weather Stations
over long usage very limited ▪3 Automobiles
▪3 Can detect wide range of ▪4 Food Processing
RH ▪5 Refrigerators, Ovens and
Dryers.

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 Resistive Humidity Sensor
▪ Working Principle: the conductivity in non – metallic conductors is
dependent on their water content.

▪ These sensors are made up of materials with relatively low resistivity

and this resistivity changes significantly with changes in humidity.

▪ The relationship between resistance and humidity is inverse

exponential.

▪ The low resistivity material is deposited on top of two electrodes.

▪ The electrodes are placed in interdigitized pattern to increase the

contact area.

▪ The resistivity between the electrodes changes when the top layer
absorbs water and this change can be measured with the help of a
simple electric circuit.
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 Resisitive Humidity Sensor
Advantages Disadvantage Applications

▪1 Low cost 1▪ sensitive to chemical ▪1 industrial, domestic or

▪2 Small Size vapors and other residential and commercial
▪3 distance between the contaminants applications
sensor and signal circuit is 2▪ output readings may shift
large if used with water soluble
products

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 Thermal Humidity Sensor
▪ measure the thermal conductivity of both dry air as well as air with
water vapor.

▪ Known as Absolute Humidity Sensor.

▪ two tiny thermistors with negative temperature coefficient are used to

for a bridge circuit.

▪ one thermistor - hermetically sealed in a chamber filled with dry

Nitrogen

▪ Other thermistor - exposed to open environment through small

venting holes.

▪ When the circuit is powered on, the resistance of the two thermistors
are calculated and the difference between those two values is
directly proportional to Absolute Humidity (AH).
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 Thermal Humidity Sensor
Advantages Disadvantage Applications

▪1 Suitable for high 1▪ Exposure to any gas with ▪1 Drying kilns

temperature and high thermal properties ▪2 Pharmaceutical plants
corrosion environment. different than Nitrogen ▪3 Ovens
▪2 Very durable might affect reading ▪4 Clothes dryer and drying
▪3 Higher resolution measurement machines
▪5 Food dehydration

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STRAIN GAUGE

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 Strain Gauge
▪ A strain gauge is a resistor used to measure strain on an object.

▪ When an external force is applied on an object, due to which there is

a deformation occurs in the shape of the object.

▪ This deformation in the shape is both compressive or tensile is called

strain, and it is measured by the strain gauge.

▪ The strain gauge is sensitive to that small changes occur in the

geometry of an object.

▪ By measuring the change in resistance of an object, the amount of

induced stress can be calculated.

▪ The change in resistance normally has very small value, and to sense
that small change, strain gauge has a long thin metallic strip arrange
in a zigzag pattern on a non-conducting material.
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 Strain Gauge
▪ In this circuit, R1 and R3 are the ratio arms equal to each other, and
R2 is the rheostat arm has a value equal to the strain gage
resistance.

▪ When the gauge is unstrained, the bridge is balanced, and voltmeter

shows zero value.

▪ As there is a change in resistance of strain gauge, the bridge gets

unbalanced and producing an indication at the voltmeter.

▪ The output voltage from the bridge can be amplified further by a

differential amplifier.
▪ Change is resistance , ΔR/R = G𝜀
ΔR→Change in Resistance
𝜀→Strain
G→Gauge factor of strain gauge
The Gauge factor of a strain gauge is the ratio of change in electrical
resistance to mechanical strain.
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 Strain Gauge
Advantages Disadvantage Applications

▪1 Small in size. 1▪ Non linear- only function ▪1 mechanical engineering

▪2 Highly precise within the elastic limit development
▪3 No moving parts ▪2 sensitive to temperature. ▪2 measure the stress
generated by machinery
▪3 component testing of
aircraft like; linkages,
structural damage etc
▪4 Rail Monitoring

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Linear Variable Differential Transformer

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 LVDT
▪ Working Principle: transformer.

▪ Inductive sensor.

▪ to measure the linear displacement from the polarity and

magnitude of the net induced electromotive force (emf).

▪ One primary winding – connected to AC supply ranges from 50Hz

to 20kHz.

▪ Two secondary windings – each side of the former – have equal

turns – connected in series but wounded in opposite direction. (bcz
of this induced emf oppose each other)

▪ A Coil inside the former - free to move - the object whose

displacement is to be measured is attached to the core through a
non-magnetic rod. 23
 LVDT
▪ Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction - “the net induced
emf in the circuit is directly proportional to the rate of change of
magnetic flux across the circuit, and the magnetic flux of the coil
wounded with wires can be changed by moving a bar magnet
through the coil.”

▪ primary winding - connected with AC power supply, the

alternating magnetic field is produced, which results in the
induced emf in the secondary windings.

▪ Now, according to Faraday’s Law, dØ/dt ∝ E1 and E2.

▪ Hence, the induced emf in the secondary windings will be more if

the value of ‘dt’ will be low, and the low value of ‘dt’ implies that
the soft iron core present inside the LVDT is moving faster.
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 LVDT
Case 1: Core at the Null Position

▪ the secondary windings have an equal number of

turns, and they are placed at an equal distance from
the primary winding.

▪ hence at the normal position when the core is placed

at the centre, the rate of change of magnetic flux will
be the same in both the secondary windings.

▪ E1=E2 , E1-E2=0

▪ the net induced emf (Eo) in the circuit at the normal

position of the core is zero.
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 LVDT
Case 2: Core at the Left of Null Position

▪ When the LVDT core moves towards the S1

secondary winding, the flux linkage with S1 is
greater than that of S2.

▪ As a result, the EMF induced in S1 is larger and E1

> E2.

▪ Hence, the net differential output voltage (E0 = E1

– E2) is positive and will be in phase with the
primary voltage.

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 LVDT
Case 3: Core at the Right of Null Position

▪ When the LVDT core moves towards the S2

secondary winding, the flux linkage with S2 is
greater than that of S1.

▪ As a result, the EMF induced in S2 is larger and E2

> E1.

▪ Hence, the net differential output voltage (E0 = E1

– E2) is negative and will be in phase opposition
(180° out of phase) with the primary voltage.

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 LVDT
Advantages Disadvantage Applications

▪1 Frictionless. 1▪ The output is AC, ▪1 Power Generation

▪2 Range : ±100μm to ±25 demodulator is required to ▪2 Gas and steam turbines
cm get the DC output. ▪3 Nuclear turbine
2▪ The fast dynamic responses
▪3 Highly sensitive to small
of the LVDT may get limited
displacement
due to the mass of the
▪4 Smaller size, light weight
movable core or due to the
▪5 Consume less power
frequency of the applied
primary voltage.

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Piezoelectric Sensor

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 Piezoelectric Sensor
▪ Working Principle: Piezoelectric effect

▪ the ability of particular materials for generating an electric

charge in reply toward applied mechanical pressure.

▪ Ex: Mechanical Stress analyser

▪ Inverse effect - Whenever an electric field is applied onto crystal

terminals, it undergoes mechanical stress and results in shape
change.

▪ Ex: Watch Quartz, Reverse Buzzer

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 Piezoelectric Sensor
▪ It consists of internal Resistance Ri which is also known as insulator
resistance.

▪ An inductor is connected which produces inductance due to inertia

of sensor.

▪ The value of capacitance Ce is inversely proportional to the

elasticity of the sensor material.

▪ To obtain the complete response of the sensor, load and leakage

resistance should be larger enough such that low frequency is
maintained.

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 Piezoelectric Sensor
Advantages Disadvantage Applications

▪1 Smaller size, light weight 1▪ cannot be used to measure ▪1 SONAR

▪2 High output with static pressure. ▪2 Diesel fuel injectors
negligible phase shift ▪3 Inkjet Printers

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Photoelectric Sensor

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 Photoelectric Sensor
▪ A Photoelectric Sensor is a device that uses light to
detect the presence or absence of an object.

▪ working principle: to change the intensity of light into

electrical signals by using a photoelectric component
like a conversion element.

▪ This sensor is composed of transmitter and receiver

▪ Emitter : LED, a laser diode & an IR diode

▪ Receiver : photodiode, a photocell, and a

phototransistor

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Types of Photoelectric Sensor

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 Through-beam photoelectric sensor
▪ the emitter and the receiver in their own separate
component.

▪ When a sensing object passing between the Emitter and

Receiver interrupts the emitted light, it reduces the
amount of light that enters the Receiver. This reduction in
light intensity is used to detect an object.

▪ In light-on mode, the sensor’s output will be on when the

light can reach the receiver, and off when the light is
blocked and is not reaching the receiver.

▪ In the dark-on mode, the sensor’s output will be on when

the light is being blocked and not reaching the receiver,
and off when the light is reaching the receiver.
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 Reflective photoelectric sensor
▪ the emitter and the receiver together in same
component.

▪ For the Retroreflective Sensor to work, the sensor’s

emitter needs to be pointed at a reflector and
aligned, so the light travels from the sensor’s emitter
to the reflector and then bounces back to the
sensor’s receiver.

▪ Light passes through the sensing object twice,

making these Sensors suitable for sensing
transparent objects.

▪ Works on both light and dark mode.

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 Diffusive photoelectric sensor
▪ the emitter and the receiver together in same
component.

▪ When light from the Emitter strikes the sensing

object, the object reflects the light and it enters the
Receiver where the intensity of light is increased.
This increase in light intensity is used to detect the
object.

▪ Works on both light and dark mode.

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Distance coverage

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 Photoelectric Sensor
Advantages Disadvantage Applications

▪1 Affordable. 1▪ Need for two devices. ▪1 used for counting devices

▪2 Response time - faster 2▪ Installation of through beam ▪2 used to stop an automatic
▪3 Detect broad range of is complex. closing door
materials, positions &
colors.

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Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)

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 LDR
▪ Working Principle: Change in resistance - Photoconductivity

▪ Photoconductivity - the material’s conductivity is increased when light is

absorbed by the material.

▪ made up of semiconductor materials that have high resistance

▪ When light falls on the device, the electrons in the valence band of the
semiconductor material are excited to the conduction band.

▪ These photons in the incident light should have energy greater than the
bandgap of the semiconductor material to make the electrons jump from the
valence band to the conduction band.

▪ results in a large number of charge carriers.

▪ more current starts flowing through the device when the circuit is closed and
hence it is said that the resistance of the device has been decreased
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 LDR
▪ light-dependent devices whose resistance is decreased
when light falls on them and that is increased in the dark.

▪ When a light dependent resistor is kept in dark, its

resistance is very high. This resistance is called as dark
resistance.

▪ Also known as photocell, photoconductor

▪ When light is incident on a photocell it usually takes about

8 to 12 ms for the change in resistance to take place, while
it takes one or more seconds for the resistance to rise back
again to its initial value after removal of light. This
phenomenon is called a resistance recovery rate.
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 Types of LDR
▪ Intrinsic photoresistors (Undoped semiconductor):

▪ These are made of pure semiconductor materials such as silicon or germanium.

▪ Electrons get excited from valance band to conduction band when photons of enough energy fall on it and
the number charge carriers are increased.

▪ Extrinsic photoresistors:
▪ These are semiconductor materials doped with impurities which are called dopants.

▪ These dopants create new energy bands above the valence band which is filled with electrons.

▪ Hence this reduces the bandgap and less energy is required in exciting them.

▪ Extrinsic photo resistors are generally used for long wavelengths.

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 LDR
Advantages Disadvantage Applications

▪1 Highly Sensitive 1▪ use of LDR is limited where ▪1 Light intensity meters

▪2 Small device the light signal changes very ▪2 street lights
▪3 Response time - faster quickly. ▪3 Detect absences or
2▪ Temperature stability is low. presences of light like in a
camera light meter

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Motion Detection Sensor

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 Passive Infrared Sensor (PIR)
▪ a sensor that is used to measure infrared light radiating
from objects like the human body or animals.

▪ detect the movement of an animal or human within a

fixed range

▪ It includes two main parts like pyroelectric sensor and

fresnel lens.

▪ A fresnel lens is a special lens that focuses the IR signals

on the pyroelectric sensor.

▪ pyroelectric sensor is capable of detecting different

infrared radiation levels.

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 Passive Infrared Sensor (PIR)
Fresnel Lens

▪ The Fresnel lens in the sensor increases the

sensor’s field & range of view of the sensor.

▪ It is lightweight, slim & outstanding light

gathering capacity.

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 Passive Infrared Sensor (PIR)
The Pyroelectric Sensor

▪ This sensor has a window including two rectangular slots &

is made of a coated silicon material that simply allows IR
radiation to flow.

▪ After this window, there are two separate IR sensor

electrodes which are responsible for generating the
positive and negative output respectively.

▪ Whenever there is no movement in the region of the sensor,

then both slots can detect a similar amount of IR radiation
which results in a zero o/p signal.

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 Passive Infrared Sensor (PIR)
The Pyroelectric Sensor

▪ when a human moves in the region of the sensor, first it

interrupts half of the sensor. So it causes a positive
differential change between the two halves.

▪ Once the human interrupts the other half of the sensor, it

generates a negative differential change.

▪ So by reading this change within voltage, then motion is

detected.

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 PIR Sensor
Advantages Disadvantage Applications

▪1 Does not need external 1▪ less sensitivity & coverage ▪1 automatic door openings
supply 2▪ do not function above 35 2 security alarm systems
▪2 Consumes less power degrees Centigrade. ▪3 intrusion alarms
▪3 doesn’t emit any kind of 3▪ not sensitive to extremely
slow movement of objects.
radiation

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 Ultrasonic Sensor
▪ Device that measures the distance of an object by
emitting ultrasonic waves and converting the reflected
sound into electrical signal.

▪ Ultrasonic waves are sound waves which has the

frequency that are beyond the hearing range of human.
(frequency above 20KHz)

▪ The transmitter emits the ultrasonic sound. It will be

reflected if an object is present infront of the sensor.

▪ Reflected sound will be received by the receiver in the

same device.

Distance = (Time * speed of sound)/2

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 Ultrasonic Sensor
▪ To generate the ultrasonic sound, need to trigger
the trigger pin as high for minimum of 10μs.

▪ Then the module will start sending 8 sonic burst

ultrasounds at 40KHz.

▪ It will be received by the receiver called Echo pin

and it calculate the output time to measure the
distance.

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 Ultrasonic Sensor
Advantages Disadvantage Applications

▪1 not impacted by the 1▪ sound speed is based on ▪1 Robotic sensing

target’s color. humidity and temperature, ▪2 Ultrasonic anemometers
▪2 Distance range : few cm environmental circumstances ▪3 Tide gauge
to 5m – affect accuracy
2▪ not function in a vacuum.
▪3 High precision
3▪ large to integrate with small
projects..

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Actuators

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 Actuators

▪ Actuators are mechanical or electro-mechanical devices that, upon being operated

electrically, manually, or by various fluids, allow controlled and sometimes limited
movements or positioning.

▪ The two basic motions are linear and rotary.

▪ Types: Electric, Hydraulic, and Pneumatic actuators

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 Pneumatic Actuators
▪ Pneumatic actuators use compressed air or pressurized gas
to create a controlled movement.

▪ Here pressurised gas or compressed air enters a chamber

thus building up the pressure inside.

▪ Once this pressure goes above the required pressure levels

in contrast to the atmospheric pressure outside the
chamber, it makes the piston or gear move kinetically in a
controlled manner, thus leading to a straight or circular
mechanical motion.

▪ Examples include pneumatic cylinders, air cylinders, and

air actuators.

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 Pneumatic Actuators
▪ Cheaper and often more powerful than other actuators,
they can quickly start or stop as no power source has to be
stored in reserve for operation.

▪ Often used with valves to control the flow of air through the
valve, these actuators generate considerable force through
relatively small pressure changes.

▪ pneumatic actuators used in lifting devices and humanoid

robots with arms and limbs.

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 Hydraulic Actuators
▪ It has a cylinder or fluid motor that uses hydraulic
power to generate mechanical motion, which in turn
leads to linear, rotatory or oscillatory motion.

▪ Given the fact that liquids are nearly impossible to

compress, a hydraulic actuator can exert a large
force.

▪ When the fluid enters the lower chamber of the

actuator, pressure inside increases and exerts a
force on the bottom of the piston, also inside the
cylinder.

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 Hydraulic Actuators
▪ The pressure causes the sliding piston to move in a
direction opposite to the force caused by the spring
in the upper chamber, making the piston move
upward and opening the valve.

▪ The downside with these actuators is the need for

many complementary parts and possibility of fluid
leakage.

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 Electric Actuators
▪ Electric actuators convert energy from an electrical power source into mechanical energy.

▪ A variety of uses include valve operation, cutting equipment, food and beverage manufacturing,
and material handling.

▪ They are generally easy to maintain compared to hydraulic and offer a high level of precision.

▪ Some disadvantages of electrical actuators are they are not suited for all environments and need
supervision for overheating tendencies.

▪ Taking into consideration their need for constant power, electrical actuators have no fail-safe
position if there is a power loss and have an average failure rate that is higher than that of a
pneumatic actuator.

▪ Types: Solenoid, Electric motors (AC & DC motors)

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 Solenoid Actuators
▪ The solenoid consists of two main parts, coil and
plunger.

▪ The plunger may be freestanding or spring loaded.

▪ When current is applied through the coil, the plunger

will move in force according to the voltage rating
specification and applied voltage.

▪ Solenoids are used where a large and sudden force

must be applied to perform a job.

▪ The force may be applied in kilo or Newton.

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 DC Motors
▪ A DC motor uses a Permanent Magnet (PM) to
produce a static magnetic field across two pole
pieces.

▪ When a DC current is applied through the

commutator to the armature.

▪ When a current is passed through the armature coil

in the presence of a strong magnetic field, the
armature starts to rotate.

▪ This type of actuators are used in conveyor systems.

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 AC Motors
▪ A synchronous motor’s speed of rotation is determined
by the frequency of the ac voltage.

▪ The rotor is a PM, and the field is provided by coil

driven from the ac line.

▪ Because of the inertia of the PM, the starting torque is

not very high, but once the rotation is started the PM
will rotate in phase with the field reversal caused by
the oscillation of ac line voltage.

▪ Hence the rate of rotation is determined by the ac line

frequency

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Thank You

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