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weight is at the front

• Front wheel drive adds further
advantages particularly if the
engine is mounted sideways on
(transversely).
• More room in the passenger
compartment
• Power unit can be made as a
complete unit
• Drive acts in the same direction
that the steered wheels are
pointing

Front engine RWD Rear wheel drive

from a front engine was the method
used for many years. Some
manufacturers have continued its use,
BMW for example. A long propeller
shaft from the gearbox to the final
drive, which is part of the rear axle, is
the main feature. The propshaft has
universal joints to allow for suspension
movement. This layout has some
advantages.

• Weight transfers to the rear

driving wheels when accelerating.
• Complicated constant velocity
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joints such as used by front wheel

drive vehicles, are not needed.

Four wheel drive combines all the good

points mentioned above but does make
the vehicle more complicated and
therefore expensive. The main
difference with four wheel drive is
that an extra gearbox known as a
transfer box is needed to link the
front and rear wheel drive.

Rear engine The rear engine design

has not been very popular but it was
used for the best-selling car of all
time - the VW beetle. The advantages
are that weight is placed on the rear
wheels giving good grip and the power
unit and drive can be all one assembly.
One down side is that less room is
available for luggage in the front. The
biggest problem is that handling is
affected because of less weight on
the steered wheels. Flat type engines
are the most common choice for this
type of vehicle.

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Mid-engine Fitting the engine in the

mid position of a car has one major
disadvantage; it takes up space inside
the vehicle. This makes it impractical
for most ‘normal’ vehicles. However,
the distribution of weight is very good.
This makes it the choice of high
performance vehicle designers. A good
example is the Ferrari Testarossa.
Mid-engine is used to describe any
vehicle where the engine is between
the axles, even if it is not in the
middle!

Chassis Vehicle chassis can be of two main types: separate or

integrated. Separate chassis are usually used on heavier
vehicles. The integrated type, often called monocoque, is used
for almost all cars.

The two types are shown here.

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Body Shown here is a car and a list of body panel names. Click
the buttons in turn to reveal the panel or other body
component.

Front engine FWD detailed layout Front engine front wheel

drive is now the most common layout, so this will be used for a
more detailed explanation. All layout designs however, have
similar major components and these operate in much the same
way. The main systems of a front engine front wheel drive car
are as follows:

• Power train, consisting of; Engine, clutch, gearbox, final

drive and drive shafts (engine and transmission system
combined).
• Braking system
• Steering system
• Suspension system
• Electrical system

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Power train There are various

groupings of engine, clutch,
gearbox and final drive. One of
the most common is shown
here. The basic power flow,
meaning the way in which
energy is passed through the
system, is as follows:

As fuel and air mixture is

ignited above the pistons, they
push on connecting rods which
are on cranks, just like a
cyclists legs driving pedals.
This makes the crankshaft
rotate. Power is passed
through the clutch and then
through a gearbox. The output
of the gearbox is linked to the
final drive. This then applies
the power to the front wheels
through drive shafts. These
shafts have joints so they can
move with the steering and
suspension.

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Engine A fuel air mixture

enters through an inlet
manifold and is fired in each
cylinder in turn. This expands
and pushes down on the piston.
The spent gases leave via the
exhaust system. The power is
applied to the crankshaft. The
pulses of power from each
piston are smoothed out by a
heavy flywheel. Power leaves
the engine through the
flywheel which is fitted on the
rear of the rotating
crankshaft and passes to the
clutch.

Clutch The clutch is to allow

the driver to disconnect drive
from the engine and move the
vehicle off from rest. The
engine flywheel and clutch
cover are bolted together so
the cover always rotates with
the engine. A pressure plate
and clutch springs are mounted
on the cover. A gearbox shaft
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is fixed so that it rotates with

the clutch driven plate but it
can slide slightly. The clutch,
or driven plate has friction
linings. The clutch is engaged
when the pedal is up because
the clutch springs and pressure
plate hold the driven plate
against the flywheel. This
makes the drive pass to the
gearbox. To disengage the
clutch the pedal is pressed
down. A release bearing makes
the pressure plate move back
away from the flywheel, and
frees the driven plate from
the flywheel. No drive is now
passed to the gearbox.

Gearbox A gearbox is needed

because an engine produces
power only when turning quite
fast. The gearbox allows the
driver to keep the engine at its
best speed. When the gearbox
is in neutral, power does not
leave it. When the gearbox is

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in first gear, power is

transferred from a small to a
larger gear, and then out to
the final drive. Different
stages of speed reduction
(second and third gear) are
created using different sizes
of gear. Less speed out of the
gearbox has a higher turning
force (torque) because the
engine is running faster.
Fourth gear normally makes
the output shaft turn at the
same speed as the engine.
Fifth gear makes the output
shaft run faster than the
engine for economical higher
speed driving.

Final drive The final drive

assembly of a front wheel
drive vehicle has two main
tasks:

• Further speed reduction

of about 3:1. This is
output gear to pinion ratio
which will vary with
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different types of
vehicles and engines.
• Different speeds to the
drive shafts must be
possible by a unit called
the differential. This is
needed because when the
vehicle is cornering the
road wheels turn at
different speeds.

Drive shafts The two drive

shafts each have two constant
velocity (CV) joints. They are
heavy duty steel shafts and
simply pass the drive to the
wheels. The joints are needed
because the movement of the
steering and suspension
changes the position of the
wheels.

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Braking system Hydraulic

brakes are used to slow down
or stop the vehicle. The hand
brake uses a mechanical linkage
to operate parking brakes. The
main brakes work on all four
wheels and the hand brake
usually just on the rear. The
hydraulic principle is that foot
pressure on the brake pedal
pushes fluid under pressure to
all four wheels. Braking
materials (friction linings) are
pressed against rotating
surfaces, slowing them down
thereby slowing down the
vehicle. Discs, normally on the
front, are gripped between
pads of friction lining. Drums,
normally on the rear, are
gripped on their inside
surfaces by shoes covered with
friction lining. This is the most
common arrangement but some
vehicles have all drums or all
discs.

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Steering system Both front

wheels are linked mechanically
and must turn together to
provide steering control. The
image here shows a rack and
pinion. The steering wheel is
linked to the pinion and as this
is turned it moves the rack to
and fro. This moves both the
wheels. Many vehicles have
power assisted steering which
uses a pump driven by the
engine to make turning the
steering wheel easier. Some
very modern systems use small
electric motors for this task.

Suspension system The main

reasons for the suspension
system are as follows:

• Absorb road surface

faults (shocks) to give a
comfortable ride
• Keep the tyres in contact
with the road surface
• Resist braking and

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steering forces
• Allow for different loads
of passengers and luggage

A single trailing arm with coil

springs and damper on the rear
and strut with a coil spring and  Draw the suspension spring
built in damper on the front before and after the wheel
are shown here. Many hits a bump…
variations of design are used
but the principle is the same.

Tyres also absorb road shock

and play a very important part
in road holding. Most of the
remaining shocks and
vibrations are absorbed by
springs in the drivers and
passengers seats.

Electrical system The electrical system covers many aspects

such as lighting, wipers and instrumentation. A key aspect is the
production of a spark to ignite the fuel (unless the engine is
diesel of course). An alternator, driven by the engine, produces
electricity to run the electrical systems and charge the
battery.

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Summary Layouts of a vehicle vary as do body styles and

shapes. However, the main systems of a light vehicle are very
similar. These are the:

• Power train
• Braking system
• Steering system
• Suspension system
• Electrical system

These systems are covered in more detail in other sections of

‘Automotive Technician Training’

 Look back over the previous section and write out a list of
the key bullet points here:

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HEALTH AND SAFETY ON VEHICLES

This section is an overview of some key aspects relating to

safe working practices. Every subject or topic of the
multimedia material has some further guidance that you
should also work through as you study each area.

Lifting and Supporting the Vehicle Lifting and supporting the

vehicle should follow standard safe working practices
particularly when under vehicle inspection and repair work is
required. The vehicle should be lifted on the manufacturer's
specified lifting and supporting points. When using a vehicle lift
do not exceed the safe weight limit (SWL) and be careful to
distribute the weight so that the vehicle does not over balance
when the weight of the engine is transferred to the engine
crane or taken by a trolley.

Mechanical Lifting Whenever lifting an engine inspect the

crane, and chains, slings or ropes before use. Always keep sling
legs as long as possible in order to reduce the strain in each leg.
Exceeding an angle of 90° should be avoided. The stress in the
pair of legs is approximately one and a half times the weight of
the engine at a 90° angle. Carefully select the lifting eye
positions to ensure that they will not bend or shear. Keep
fingers and hands clear of the sling as the weight is taken up, as
this is the most likely time to get caught. During the lifting
operation when the engine is being guided within the engine
compartment, keep hands clear so that they are not trapped or

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squashed. Take care to avoid damage to other components of

the vehicle.

Sharp Objects Engine components are made from hard

materials by various manufacturing methods that can produce
very sharp corners. Minor cuts are common but more serious
cuts can occur. Always treat cuts and grazes immediately. Avoid
close work by selecting tools that bring hands away from sharp
points. Socket extensions are suitable for this.

Protective Clothing During cleaning operations, chemicals or hot

water or steam are used and personal protective clothing and
procedures that are described in the manufacturer's manuals or
data sheets must be followed.

Engine Oils Particular points to be aware of, and to take care

with, are hot oil, the health hazards of engine oils, and proper
disposal to avoid environmental contamination.

Oil drainer in use

Skin Contact with Engine Oils Avoid skin contact with new and
used engine oils. Use a barrier cream or non-porous gloves. Be
careful with hot oil, particularly when carrying out oil-draining
operations.

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Oily Rags and Contaminated Clothing Never keep oily rags in

overall, or other pockets, and change out of oil-contaminated
clothing as soon as reasonably possible.

Disposing of Used Engine Oils Dispose of used engine oil to a

licensed waste-disposal company, or to an approved collection
point. Never pour any oils into a drain or onto the ground. Oils
are often carcinogenic and can cause cancers.

Grade and Type of Oil In consideration of the ‘duty of care’ to

other people’s property, always be careful to use the correct
grade and type of oil for oil changes.

Pressure-Relief Valves Pressure-relief valves are controlled by

spring tension. Always wear safety goggles when removing and
replacing these because they can, in some circumstances, fly out
with their own spring force.

Oxyacetylene When removing parts of the exhaust system, it

may be necessary to use an oxyacetylene flame to heat up pipes.
This is to free them so they can be separated. Always follow
standard safety precautions for the use of the equipment. Be
very careful that the flame is directed ONLY onto the exhaust-
pipe joint, and always pointing away from fuel pipes and the
vehicle floor. Use protective screens where flammable
substances are in the area of the flame, or consider another
method if the fire risk is too high.

Avoid Fires The main safety precautions to avoid fires where

fuel or vapour is likely to be around, is to disconnect the vehicle

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battery whenever it is not required for the current task. Mark

off with warning signs a ‘no naked flames’ work area. Obtain, and
keep close by, a suitable fire extinguisher such as CO2. When
checking cylinder compressions or any similar task disable the
ignition system.

Check which extinguishers are safe to use on fuel fires

Draining Fuel Never drain fuel into an open container such as a

bowl, oil drain tray or cans where there is a risk of spillage from
overfilling. Always use a pumped, sealed and earthed or
grounded tank that is specially constructed for the job.

Fuel drainer

Skin Care All fuels and oils are harmful to skin and internal
organs. The range of hazards is from drying out of the skin to
dermatitis and cancers. Avoid prolonged or frequent contact
with fuels and oils. Use a barrier cream or suitable gloves and
wash after any skin contact as soon as reasonably possible.
Replace skin oils with a lanolin cream. Never keep contaminated
cloths in pockets.

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Pressurised Systems Many fuel systems are pressurised. The

hazard from pressurised fuel occurs when the pressure is
released. In the case of petrol, the risk is from a spray when a
pipe or hose is loosened or punctured. The petrol spray could
cause a fire if ignited and a personal injury if sprayed into the
eyes. Involuntary movement into a rotating component is also
possible. Always wear safety goggles when working with
pressurised fuel lines.

Fuel is under pressure

Releasing Fuel Pressure Most petrol fuel injection systems

have a method for releasing the fuel pressure. In some cases, a
pressure release valve is fitted to the fuel rail. In others, it
may be necessary to disable the fuel pump by removing a fuse or
relay and running the engine until it stalls. Some systems may
need a pipe union or joint to be gently eased to release the
pressure. In all cases, follow the manufacturer’s instructions.

Fuel pressure valve

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Compressed Air It is sometimes required to use an air line to

clean components or fuel pipelines. Take care with compressed
air. It must not be directed towards the skin. Always wear
safety goggles when using an air line.

Diesel Injection Systems Diesel injection systems work at very

high pressures. Particular care must be exercised to ensure
that diesel fuel is not injected through the skin and into the
body. This risk is greatest when carrying out tests on injectors.
Always follow correct safety and operational procedures for
these tests. Wear a full-face visor when working with high-
pressure test equipment.

Arc Welding Electronic modules should be removed from the

vehicle whenever any electrical arc welding is being carried out
on the vehicle.

Remove ECU before welding

Automatic Transmission For vehicles with automatic

transmission, ensure that ‘park’ is selected and kept in place
during all engine running tests except when a gear selection is
required for a specific test. Work to the side of the vehicle
whenever possible as an additional safety precaution.

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Test Instruments Observe all standard procedures for the use

of electrical instruments. Always observe the correct polarity,
range, and connections.

High Voltages Ignition circuits use pulses of electrical energy

in excess of 10,000 volts. These are created in the ignition coil,
and conducted through the coil and spark-plug wires. Although
shocks from ignition systems are rarely fatal, the reaction to
the shock may cause serious injury, such as the involuntary
movement of hands and arms, or whole body movements, into
hazardous areas like running engines.

Running Engines Whenever carrying out tests on running

engines, an awareness of rotating components must be
maintained. This is particularly important when using a
stroboscopic-timing light because it can give the impression
that the engine is stationary. Exhaust extraction should always
be used.

Cooling Fans Keep fingers clear of electrically operated cooling

fans because they are likely to start without warning during
running-engine tests.

Short Circuits As with all electrical work, there is a risk from

short circuits to ground causing fires and very hot strands of
wire. Follow standard procedures with the removal and
reconnection of the battery earth lead whenever working on
electrical components. This is advisable for all tasks, except
when the battery has to be connected for the work to be

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carried out. Note that it may be necessary to use a ‘keeper’ to

keep memory circuits alive if the battery is disconnected.

Working Below Vehicles There are a number of hazards to

avoid when working below vehicles. One is the risk of hitting
your head, which can obviously cause injury. Another risk is the
possibility of getting rust and dirt in the eyes. Avoid these
problems by wearing a bump cap and goggles, whenever working
below vehicles. The vehicle must always be supported safely
before working underneath or alongside it.

Car on a ramp

Overheated Coils Contact-breaker ignition coils can become

very hot if the ignition is left on without the engine running.
However, most electronic systems require the engine to be
started to trigger the switching of the primary circuit. These
systems will not overheat.

DIS coil

Arcing and Sparking! For all electronic-ignition systems, avoid

causing arcing when disconnecting terminals. This is achieved by
disconnecting the battery earth lead, or at least turning off the
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ignition. Do not allow high-voltage secondary-circuit sparks of

more than 5 to 6mm to occur during test procedures. This can
cause damage to electronic components. It is recommended that
electronic modules be removed if arc welding is required on the
vehicle.

Battery Polarity When fitting and

connecting a battery it is important to
observe the correct polarity. This is
Battery polarity Memory saver
necessary to reduce the risk of
damage to the electrical and
electronic systems on the vehicle. A
memory saver device may be needed
for some vehicles. Check with the
vehicle manufacturer’s data before
disconnecting the battery.

Battery Connection When connecting and disconnecting the

battery leads ensure that all electrical systems are switched
off. This will reduce the risk of arcing, which can cause damage
to electronic components.

Earth Lead Off First! Always disconnect the earth or ground

lead first; when reconnecting, connect it last and touch the lead
to the battery terminal and look for arcing. Arcing occurs when
a circuit or a short circuit is made.

Lifting Batteries Be careful when lifting batteries that they

are not tipped to the point where the acid escapes. When using

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lifting equipment of the cross grip type, take care that the
battery case is not fractured.

Battery Acid Mixing battery acid is not now a common task.

However, if acid is to be mixed, all safety rules must be
followed. This operation should only be carried out in a place
specially prepared and designated for the purpose. Safety-wear
includes a PVC apron and gloves, and a chemicals-rated face
visor. One rule above all others must be remembered, and that
is that acid is added to the distilled water. Water added to acid
will boil on contact causing an explosive reaction.

Lifting Heavy Objects Batteries should be treated as heavy

objects when being lifted. Add to this that there are special
conditions attached because of the acid content. It is,
therefore, important to plan the lift procedure beforehand and
to have the correct equipment available if required. Many
modern vehicle batteries that are more than 20 kg (40 lbs.) in
weight, are fitted with lifting ropes and handles. Check that
these are in good condition before lifting.

Flammable Gas The gas that is given off from a battery during
charging is a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen. This is a highly
flammable and potentially explosive mixture that can be ignited
with a spark or other hot or burning object.

Battery Charging Always charge batteries in a well-ventilated

area, switch off the battery charger, and leave for about 5
minutes before disconnecting the battery leads. This will avoid a

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high concentration of gas, and the risk of a spark, being brought

together near the battery. Always ensure that the battery
charging area is a no smoking area and that notices are posted
to ensure that this rule is observed.

Disposal of Batteries The disposal of batteries and battery

acid is subject to local environmental regulations. If procedures
are not in place in your workshop, seek advice from your local
environmental agency. Never dispose of batteries with normal
waste. Many areas have a collection site for hazardous materials
and batteries can normally be taken to those sites.

Battery disposal in accordance with local environmental regulations

Skin Contact When servicing vehicle systems avoid skin contact

with new and used engine oils. Use barrier cream or non-porous
gloves. Be careful with hot oil, particularly when carrying out oil
draining operations. Never keep oily rags in overall or other
pockets and change out of oil contaminated clothing as soon as
reasonably possible.

Exhaust Emissions When running an engine, it is important to

prevent the build-up of exhaust gas in the workshop. Use
extraction equipment or provide good ventilation.

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