CASE STUDY
Deep-Sea Mining in the Pacific Ocean
The demand for metals like nickel, manganese and lithium is increasing for the
production of batteries, solar panels, smartphones, and military weapons.
Currently, there is a growing interest in the mineral deposits of the deep sea.
This article sheds light on the potential impact deep-sea mining would have on
biodiversity, the climate and human cultures.
Deep-sea mining is the practice of removing metals and minerals from the ocean’s
seabed at depths of more than 200 metres. There are different types of deep-sea
mining, defined by the type of ore targeted for exploitation. The most advanced in
terms of technology and process at the International Seabed Authority (ISA) is
polymetallic nodule mining. But there are also deep-sea mining plans to mine the
cobalt-rich crusts of seamounts and hydrothermal vents for polymetallic sulphides.
Deposits of these metals and minerals like manganese, nickel and cobalt have built
up on the seafloor over millions of years and these minerals are being sought after
by mining companies under claims that these minerals are needed to fulfil the supply
chain needs for manufacturers of Electric Vehicles and clean energy infrastructure.
However, reports and experts continue to highlight that deep-sea minerals is not
necessary for the green transition.
Deep-sea mining is still in the experimental stage, and the impacts on deep-sea
ecosystems and the climate remain largely unknown, but existing information has
led scientists to warn that biodiversity loss will be inevitable – and most likely
irreversible.
In January 2024, Dutch research confirmed the risks for species living in the
deep-sea
Polymetallic nodules
Deposits of metals and minerals have developed into polymetallic nodules
that vary in size from tiny particles visible only under a microscope to large
pellets more than 20 centimetres across. However, most nodules are between
3 and 10 cm in diameter. They lie on the seabed sediment, often partly or
completely buried. They vary greatly in abundance, in some cases touching
one another and covering more than 70% of the sea floor surface.
Polymetallic nodules are found in both shallow (e.g. the Baltic Sea) and
deeper waters (e.g. the central Pacific).
Location of deep sea minerals and countries with exploration licenses
Plumes
The effects of plumes and noise as a result of deep sea mining. A sediment plume in the deep sea
potentially affects individual organisms, but also populations and ecosystem services.
Exploration and exploitation activities by huge machines are creating
plumes of fine particles, which will travel across the seabed away from
the mined area. In addition, the ore slurry transported to a ship at the
sea surface needs to be dewatered and the waste water is returned to
the sea, creating a discharge plume with a mixture of dissolved material
and suspended particles of a range of sizes (see animation). A more
turbulent environment delays the settling of particles on the seabed by
stirring them higher into the water column. This spreads the impact of
the plume over a wider area while also reducing its intensity. Modelling
suggests that the plumes could cover an area several tens of thousands
of square kilometres beyond mining sites, with sediment levels in the
water far exceeding the amount that animals in the area have adapted to
Deep Sea Ecosystems
The deep sea is considered the least explored biome on Earth.
Conditions within the deep sea are a combination of low temperatures,
darkness, and high pressure. The extreme conditions make the
environment difficult to access and explore and therefore very little is
known about deep-sea ecosystems. The lowest ecological zone in a
water body is called the benthic zone that also involves the sediments at
the seafloor. Benthic biodiversity plays an important regulatory role in
marine ecosystem functioning, including the transport of energy, solutes
and materials within sediments and across the sediment–water
interface.
Researchers have revealed an astonishing diversity of microscopic life
thriving in the benthic zone.
They sampled the ocean floor at hundreds of points throughout the
world and analysed the sediment collected at each spot for
environmental DNA (eDNA). The researchers concluded that nearly
two-third of the benthic diversity cannot be assigned to any known
biological group.
Other researchers have demonstrated that polymetallic nodule fields are
hotspots of abundance and diversity.
Much of the highly vulnerable fauna lives attached to nodules or in the
sediment immediately beneath it. The majority of species are yet to be
discovered but scientists think that as many as 10 million species may
inhabit the deep sea. A recent study concluded that over 90% of the
species observed within the Clarion Clipperton Zone, one of the first
potential areas to be open to commercial deep-sea mining, are currently
undescribed by science, highlighting just how little we know about
deep-sea ecosystems[7].
A hydromedusa, seen at just over 3900 m and just above the seafloor along the west wall of Mona
Canyon. © NOAA OKEANOS EXPLORER Program, Oceano Profundo 2015; Exploring Puerto
Rico’s Seamounts, Trenches, and Troughs
Although more research is needed on the (long-term) impact of deep sea
mining, scientists continue to warn there are serious concerns over the
multiple impacts the activity would have. The most direct impact from
deep-sea mining would be the loss of species and the fragmentation or
loss of ecosystem structure and function. The noise of the machinery
would affect wildlife, the scraping off of the seabed would kill animals
and plants, and the sediment plumes smother and impact marine life of
all zones of the ocean. The damage caused to the deep-sea ecosystems
would most likely be permanent.
Deep-sea mining would also effect the higher ocean levels. Cumulative
pressures from overfishing, climate change and pollution are putting the
oceans and all marine life at risk of collapse. Deep-sea mining is a
relatively new addition to the list of threats facing the oceans, but their
effects could be catastrophic.
Scientists have divided the ocean into five main layers, known as
“zones”. The surface layer of the ocean is known as the epipelagic zone
and extends from the surface to 200 meters. It is also known as the
sunlight zone because this is where most of the visible light exists. With
the light comes heat. According to the UN Environmental Programme
(UNEP), 60% of the world’s major marine ecosystems in the sunlight
zone have been degraded or are being used unsustainably. Since the
1980’s an estimated 20% of global mangroves have been lost and 19% of
coral reefs have disappeared. IUCN has assessed that nearly 10% (over
1,550 of the 17,903 marine animals and plants assessed) of global
marine species are at risk of extinction.
As we dive deeper into largely unexplored places, the temperature drops
and the pressure increases at an astounding rate. At the most extreme
depths where light can no longer penetrate, some of the most bizarre
and fascinating creatures in the sea can be found. The ISA is working on
a Mining Code deep-sea mining international waters. In 2024, the
member states of the ISA Assembly will meet to discuss the impact
deep-sea mining would have on the marine environment. Many experts
hope this will lead to a ‘precautionary pause’ or moratorium. To date, 24
countries have called for a moratorium or pause on the industry. While
the ISA is working on its code for the international waters, countries
could already start mining projects in their own domestically controlled
waters[8]
Impact of deep-sea mining on climate
Deep-sea mining could have a harmful impact on the climate. Not only is
deep-sea mining an energy-intensive industry with high greenhouse gas
emissions, but disruption of the ocean floor, which is by far the largest
carbon storage reservoir on Earth, can lead to reduced carbon
sequestration as well as the release of large amounts of the potent
greenhouse gas methane, exacerbating the climate crisis[9]
Local communities
An area of particular interest to companies in deep-sea mining is the
Clarion-Clipperton Zone in the Pacific Ocean. So far, already 17 deep-sea
mining contractors received exploration contracts for this zone, their
combined exploration areas covering approximately 1 million square
kilometres[10],
Pacific Peoples view themselves as custodians, not owners, of the
ocean and its resources. This relationship links to traditional Indigenous
understandings of the interconnected nature of the ocean, and how it
serves as a network to reefs, and other shallow waters[11]
Understandably, many members of civil society and traditional leaders
have spoken out against deep-sea mining, largely out of concern for the
health of their protected waters.
In Papua New Guinea, the Alliance of Solwara Warriors – comprising
NGOs, Indigenous communities and religious groups across several
island provinces – is demanding a permanent ban on deep-sea mining
within PNG waters. The Alliance calls the deep-sea environment the
“common heritage of mankind” and states that the world should “not
even think about mining those areas.” They fear that the government is
only focused on the return on investment they will get from deep-sea
mining and are not concerned about people’s livelihoods. “We should be
the guardian of the resources that creation has offered us. And not
everything that we have is for monetary value.” The Alliance of Solwara
Warriors argues that PNG has no need for seabed mining. “We are
blessed with abundant fisheries, productive agricultural lands and
marine life. Seabed mining would
benefit only a small number of people who are already
wealthy and not bring prosperity to our communities and
Indigenous ways of life.”
Call to action
Deep sea mining would not only result in the irreversible loss of species
and damage the seabed for thousands of years, it would potentially
result in negative consequences for the rest of the ocean, the climate,
and the millions of people who depend on its health.
The world has a responsibility to care for the well-being of the marine
ecosystems and of the people who rely upon and are connected to those
spaces. We should protect the ocean environment from deep-sea mining
and put people and places over profits.
At the IUCN World Conservation Congress in Marseille (September
2021), IUCN Members adopted Resolution 122 to protect deep-ocean
ecosystems and biodiversity through a moratorium on deep-sea mining
unless and until (amongst others) the risks of mining are
comprehensively understood and effective protection can be ensured,
and Policies incorporating circular economic principles to reuse and
recycle minerals have been developed and implemented.
We urge the public- and business sectors in The Netherlands, the
European Union and elsewhere to respect and extend the moratorium on
deep-sea mining and prevent multiple impacts of seabed mining – the
loss of species, the fragmentation or loss of ecosystem structure and
function, and the loss of livelihoods for people who rely upon and are
connected to those spaces.
Bottom Line!
There is no doubt that we need to accelerate the transition from fossil to
renewable energy. However, the demand for certain raw materials is
rising dramatically because of the energy transition. These raw materials
are often extracted in areas with unique biodiversity, such as tropical
forest, which leads to large-scale nature destruction. This is nature that
we can’t do without: it provides millions of people with food and clean
drinking water and helps us fight climate change. That is why, with the
project Bottom Line!, a coalition of Dutch and international civil society
organizations is working towards a fair energy transition with the least
possible impact on people and nature. Both in the Netherlands and in
the countries where the raw materials are extracted.
The Bottom Line! coalition consists of the following organizations:
Alliance for Tompotika Conservation (AlTo) Indonesia, Alyansa Tigil
Mina (ATM) Philippines, A Rocha Ghana, Deep Sea Conservation
Coalition (DSCC), IUCN NL, Natuur & Milieu and Stop Ecocide NL.
Bottom Line! is made possible with support from the National Postcode
Lottery.
Questions
1. Describe (2 marks) two types of deep‑sea mining and the ores they
target.
2. Explain (4 marks) how sediment plumes generated by mining operations
can impact benthic biodiversity and ecosystem services.
3. Outline (3 marks) the key environmental conditions of the benthic zone
and discuss why these conditions make deep‑sea ecosystems
vulnerable to disturbance.
4. Analyze (6 marks) how deep‑sea mining could interact with other
anthropogenic pressures (e.g., overfishing, climate change) to affect
ocean health at multiple trophic levels.
5. Evaluate (8 marks) the use of the precautionary principle by NGOs and
the ISA in regulating deep‑sea mining. In your answer, consider
environmental value systems and sustainability.
6. Discuss (6 marks) the role of the International Seabed Authority in
managing deep‑sea resources, and how effective governance can
balance resource extraction with conservation goals.
