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What are Propositions?...from a Concept Mapping Perspective

Alberto J. Cañas

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Introduction
Concept maps are graphical tools for organizing and representing knowledge. The smallest unit of knowledge according to Ausubel's cognitive theory (1963, 1968) are
"concepts" and "propositions". They are the building blocks for knowledge in any domain. We can use the analogy that concepts are like the atoms of matter and
propositions are like the molecules of matter. Understanding concepts and propositions is therefore a key step in learning about concept maps and how to construct
good maps. A companion document, What is a Concept? ... from a Concept Mapping Perspective (/docs/[Link]), briefly presents "concepts". This document
introduces the idea of "proposition", and explains how to build them.

Propositions are statements about some object or event in the universe (a concept), either naturally occurring or constructed. Propositions contain two or more concepts
connected using linking words or phrases to form a meaningful statement. (See the companion document, What are Linking Words? ... from a Concept Mapping
Perspective (/docs/[Link]) for an introduction to linking words).

In the concept map in Figure 1, "Length of Day" and "Summer" are concepts, and "is longer in" are linking words, and together they form the proposition "Length of Day is
longer in Summer". In the same Figure, the proposition "Height of Sun above Horizon is determined by 23.5 Degress Tilt of Axis of Earth", is composed of the concepts
"Height of Sun above Horizon" and "23.5 Degress Tilt of Axis of Earth" together with the linking words "is determined by". The proposition "23.5 Degrees Tilt of Axis of
Earth points Towards the Sun in Summer" is composed of three concepts (23.5 Degrees Tilt of Axis of Earth, Towards the Sun, Summer) and two linking phrases (points,
in).

Figure 1. Concept map about "What causes Seasons"?

Building Propositions

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Within a proposition, the linking words express the relationship that exists between the joined concepts in the specific context being considered. The following is a list of
propositions from different topics:

Birds have Hollow Bones

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Energy is the capacity to do Work

Learning can take place through Apprenticeship

Credibility is the basis for Good Journalism

Successful Businesses create Wealth

Increase in Rainfall may cause Flooding

Notice that in each of these propositions can be read independently and understood, even though the context of the proposition is not clearly stated. For this reason,
they are sometimes called semantic units, or units of meaning. Each of these propositions consist of two concepts connected through linking words (shown in italics) (e.g.
the first proposition includes concept "Birds" and "Hollow Bones" and the linking word "have").

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The following is a list of badly formed propositions, since they don't convey any meaning:

House of Cards

Birds in Trees

Fruit for example Apple

Education with Meaningful Learning

Exercise for Health

What does "Birds in Trees" tell us? Not much. What was the meaning that was meant to be conveyed with this proposition, maybe that "Birds live in Trees"? or that "Birds
build Nests in Trees?" Adding a verb (live, build) changes the proposition into a unit of meaning, into a proposition that makes sense on its own and conveys knowledge.
The other entries in this list also lack good linking words that better describe the relationship between the corresponding concepts.

Static and Dynamic Propositions

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Linking words can express static and dynamic relationships. Static relationships between concepts help to describe, define, and organize knowledge for a given domain,
while dynamic relationships describes how the change in one concept affects the other concept. Static relationships lead to static propositions, while dynamic
relationships lead to dynamic propositions. In general, adequate knowledge representation requires both static and dynamic propositions, as it is the latter that capture
covariation and changing relationships among two or more concepts (Derbentseva, Safayeni, & Cañas 2004). The following table shows sample static and dynamic
propositions.

Static Propositions Dynamic Propositions

Increase in Rainfall may cause Flooding
Plants have Leaves

Academic Performance in High School is a

The Soldier fought like a Lion
good predictor of Academic Performance in
University
Squares are Polygons

Travel Time is an inverse function of Speed for

Energy obeys Conservation Laws
a Given Distance

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Concept maps tend to include mainly static propositions, leading to descriptive maps that don't provide much explanation. When establishing the relationship between
concepts, we should make an attempt to describe not only static relationships, but also construct dynamic propositions that result in richer concept maps.

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Propositions are not limited to connecting only two concepts. In the above list, "Travel Time is an inverse function of Speed for a Given Distance" included three concepts,
"Travel Time", "Speed", and "Given Distance". However, when constructing concept maps we strive to keep propositions as short as possible, preferably connecting only
two concepts.

References
Derbentseva, N., Safayeni, F., & Cañas, A. J. (2004). Experiments on the Effect of Map Structure and Concept Quantification during Concept Map Construction
([Link] In A. J. Cañas, J. D. Novak & F. M. González (Eds.), Concept Maps: Theory, Methodology, Technology, Proceedings of the
First International Conference on Concept Mapping. Pamplona, Spain: Universidad Pública de Navarra.

Last update: June. 28, 2009

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