COMPOSITE MATERIALS

A composite is a structural material that consists of two or more combined

constituents that are combined at a macroscopic level and are not soluble
in each other. One constituent is called the reinforcing phase and the one
in which it is embedded is called the matrix. The reinforcing phase
material may be in the form of fibres, particles, or flakes. The matrix
phase materials are generally continuous. Examples of composite systems
include concrete reinforced with steel and epoxy reinforced with graphite
fibres, etc.
Examples of naturally found composites: wood, where the lignin matrix is
reinforced with cellulose fibres and bones in which the bone-salt plates
made of calcium and phosphate ions reinforce soft collagen.
Advanced composites are composite materials that are traditionally used
in the aerospace industries. These composites have high performance
reinforcements of a thin diameter in a matrix material such as epoxy and
aluminium. Examples are graphite/epoxy, Kevlar®/epoxy, and boron/
aluminium composites. These materials have now found applications in
commercial industries as well.
Combining two or more materials together to make a composite is more
work than just using traditional monolithic metals such as steel and
aluminium. However, there are advantages of using composites over
metals:
1. Monolithic metals and their alloys cannot always meet the demands
of today’s advanced technologies. Only by combining several
materials can one meet the performance requirements. For
example, trusses and benches used in satellites need to be
dimensionally stable in space during temperature changes between
–256°F (–160°C) and 200°F (93.3°C). Limitations on coefficient of
thermal expansion thus are low and may be of the order of ±1×10–
7in./in./°F (±1.8×10–7m/m/°C). Monolithic materials cannot meet
these requirements; this leaves composites, such as graphite/epoxy,
as the only materials to satisfy them.
2. In many cases, using composites is more efficient. For example, in
the highly competitive airline market, one is continuously looking for
ways to lower the overall mass of the aircraft without decreasing the
stiffness and strength of its components. This is possible by
replacing conventional metal alloys with composite materials. Even
if the composite material costs may be higher, the reduction in the
number of parts in an assembly and the savings in fuel costs make
them more profitable. Reducing one lbm (0.453 kg) of mass in a
commercial aircraft can save up to 360 gal (1360 l) of fuel per year;
fuel expenses are 25% of the total operating costs of a commercial
airline.
 3. Composites offer several other mechanical advantages over
conventional materials. These may include improved strength,
stiffness, fatigue and impact resistance, thermal conductivity,
corrosion resistance, etc.

How to measure the mechanical advantage of

composite:
For example, the axial deflection, u, of a prismatic rod under an axial load,
P, is given by

Where L = length of the rod

E = Young’s modulus of elasticity of the material of the rod
Because the mass, M, of the rod is given by

Where ρ = density of the material of the rod, we have

This implies that the lightest beam for specified deflection under a
specified load is one with the highest (E/ρ) value. Thus, to measure the
mechanical advantage, the (E/ρ) ratio is calculated and is called the
specific modulus (ratio between the Young’s modulus (E) and the density
(ρ) of the material).
The other parameter is called the specific strength and is defined as the
ratio between the strength (σult) and the density of the material (ρ), that
is:
The two ratios are high in composite materials. For example, the strength
of a graphite/epoxy unidirectional composite could be the same as steel,
but the specific strength is three times that of steel. What does this mean
to a designer? Take the simple case of a rod designed to take a fixed axial
load. The rod cross section of graphite/epoxy would be same as that of the
steel, but the mass of graphite/epoxy rod would be one third of the steel
rod. This reduction in mass translates to reduced material and energy
costs. Figure 1.1 shows how composites and fibres rate with other
traditional materials in terms of specific strength. Note that the unit of
specific strength is inches in Figure 1.1 because specific strength and
specific modulus are also defined in some texts as

Where g is the acceleration due to gravity (32.2 ft/s 2 or 9.81 m/s2).

FIGURE 1.1: Specific strength as a function of time of use of materials.

Values of specific modulus and strength are given in Table 1.1 for typical
composite fibres, unidirectional composites, cross-ply and quasi-isotropic
laminated composites, and monolithic metals.
TABLE 1.1: Specific Modulus and Specific Strength of Typical Fibres, Composites, and
Bulk Metals
On a first look, fibres such as graphite, aramid, and glass have a specific
modulus several times that of metals, such as steel and aluminium. This
gives a false impression about the mechanical advantages of composites
because they are made not only of fibres, but also of fibres and matrix
combined; matrices generally have lower modulus and strength than
fibres. Is the comparison of the specific modulus and specific strength
parameters of unidirectional composites to metals fair? The answer is no
for two reasons. First, unidirectional composite structures are acceptable
only for carrying simple loads such as uniaxial tension or pure bending. In
structures with complex requirements of loading and stiffness, composite
structures including angle plies will be necessary. Second, the strengths
and elastic moduli of unidirectional composites given in Table 1.1 are
those in the direction of the fibre. The strength and elastic moduli
perpendicular to the fibres are far less.
Specific modulus and Specific strength are not the only mechanical
parameters used for measuring the relative advantage of composites over
metals. It depends on the application. Consider compression of a column,
where it may fail due to buckling. The Euler buckling formula may be
used, etc

Composites have distinct advantages over metals. There are drawbacks

and limitations too in use of composites. These include:
1. High cost of fabrication of composites is a critical issue. For
example, a part made of graphite/epoxy composite may cost up to
10 to 15 times the material costs. A finished graphite/epoxy
composite part may cost as much as $300 to $400 per pound ($650
to $900 per kilogram). Improvements in processing and
manufacturing techniques will lower these costs in the future.
Already, manufacturing techniques such as SMC (sheet moulding
compound) and SRIM (structural reinforcement injection moulding)
 are lowering the cost and production time in manufacturing
automobile parts.
2. Mechanical characterization of a composite structure is more
complex than that of a metal structure. Unlike metals, composite
materials are not isotropic, that is, their properties are not the same
in all directions. Therefore, they require more material parameters.
For example, a single layer of a graphite/epoxy composite requires
nine stiffness and strength constants for conducting mechanical
analysis. In the case of a monolithic material such as steel, one
requires only four stiffness and strength constants. Such complexity
makes structural analysis computationally and experimentally more
complicated and intensive. In addition, evaluation and measurement
techniques of some composite properties, such as compressive
strengths, are still being debated.
3. Repair of composites is not a simple process compared to that for
metals. Sometimes critical flaws and cracks in composite structures
may go undetected.
4. Composites do not have a high combination of strength and fracture
toughness compared to metals. Metals show an excellent
combination of strength and fracture toughness compared to
composites.
5. Composites do not necessarily give higher performance in all the
properties used for material selection. Composites show better
strength than metals, but lower values for other material selection
parameters.

Classification of Composites:
Composites are classified by the geometry of the reinforcement —
particulate, flake, and fibres (Figure 1.8) — or by the type of matrix —
polymer, metal, ceramic, and carbon.

Geometry of the Reinforcement:

1. Particulate composites consist of particles immersed in matrices

such as alloys and ceramics. They are usually isotropic because the
particles are added randomly. Particulate composites have
advantages such as improved strength, increased operating
temperature, oxidation resistance, etc. Typical examples include
use of aluminium particles in rubber; silicon carbide particles in
aluminium; and gravel, sand, and cement to make concrete.
2. Flake composites consist of flat reinforcements of matrices. Typical
flake materials are glass, mica, aluminium, and silver. Flake
composites provide advantages such as high out-of-plane flexural
modulus, higher strength, and low cost. However, flakes cannot be
 oriented easily and only a limited number of materials are available
for use.
3. Fibre composites consist of matrices reinforced by short
(discontinuous) or long (continuous) fibres. Fibres are generally
anisotropic and examples include carbon and aramids. Examples of
matrices are resins such as epoxy, metals such as aluminium, and
ceramics such as calcium–alumino silicate. The fundamental units of
continuous fibre matrix composite are unidirectional or woven fibre
laminas. Laminas are stacked on top of each other at various angles
to form a multidirectional laminate.
4. Nanocomposites consist of materials that are of the scale of
nanometres (10–9 m). The accepted range to be classified as a
nanocomposite is that one of the constituents is less than 100 nm.
At this scale, the properties of materials are different from those of
the bulk material. Generally, advanced composite materials have
constituents on the microscale (10–6 m). By having materials at the
nanometre scale, most of the properties of the resulting composite
material are better than the ones at the microscale. Not all
properties of nanocomposites are better; in some cases, toughness
and impact strength can decrease.
Applications of nanocomposites include packaging applications for
the military in which nanocomposite films show improvement in
properties such as elastic modulus, and transmission rates for water
vapor, heat distortion, and oxygen.
Body side moulding of the 2004 Chevrolet Impala is made of olefin-
based nanocomposites. This reduced the weight of the moulding by
7% and improved its surface quality. General Motors™ currently
uses 540,000 lb of nanocomposite materials per year. Rubber
containing just a few parts per million of metal conducts electricity
in harsh conditions just like solid metal. Called Metal Rubber®, it is
fabricated molecule by molecule by a process called electrostatic
self-assembly. Awaited applications of the Metal Rubber include
artificial muscles, smart clothes, flexible wires, and circuits for
portable electronics.

The most common fibres used in advanced polymer composites are glass,
graphite, and Kevlar (a heat-resistant and strong synthetic fibre).
i. Glass fibre - is the most common fibre used in polymer matrix
composites. Its advantages include its high strength, low cost, high
chemical resistance, and good insulating properties. The drawbacks
include low elastic modulus, poor adhesion to polymers, high
specific gravity, sensitivity to abrasion (reduces tensile strength),
and low fatigue strength.
ii. Graphite fibres - are very common in high-modulus and high-
strength applications such as aircraft components, etc. The
advantages of graphite fibres include high specific strength and
modulus, low coefficient of thermal expansion, and high fatigue
strength. The drawbacks include high cost, low impact resistance,
and high electrical conductivity.
iii. An aramid fibre is an aromatic organic compound made of carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. Its advantages are low density,
high tensile strength, low cost, and high impact resistance. Its
drawbacks include low compressive properties and degradation in
sunlight. Types: The two main types of aramid fibres are Kevlar 29®
and Kevlar 49®. Both types of Kevlar fibres have similar specific
strengths, but Kevlar 49 has a higher specific stiffness. Kevlar 29 is
mainly used in bulletproof vests, ropes, and cables. High
performance applications in the aircraft industry use Kevlar 49.

Why fibre reinforcements are of a thin diameter:

The main reasons for using fibres of thin diameter are the following:
1. Actual strength of materials is several magnitudes lower than the
theoretical strength. This difference is due to the inherent flaws in
the material. Removing these flaws can increase the strength of the
material. As the fibres become smaller in diameter, the chances of
an inherent flaw in the material are reduced. A steel plate may have
strength of 100 ksi (689 MPa), while a wire made from this steel
plate can have strength of 600 ksi (4100 MPa). Figure 1.6 shows
how the strength of a carbon fibre increases with the decrease in its
diameter.

FIGURE 1.6: Fibre strength as a function of fibre diameter for carbon

fibres.
2. For higher ductility and toughness, and better transfer of loads from
the matrix to fibre, composites require larger surface area of the
fibre–matrix interface. For the same volume fraction of fibres in a
composite, the area of the fibre–matrix interface is inversely
proportional to the diameter of the fibre and is proved as follows.

Assume a lamina consisting of N fibres of diameter D. The fibre–

matrix interface area in this lamina is
 If one replaces the fibres of diameter, D, by fibres of diameter, d,
then the number of fibres, n, to keep the fibre volume the same
would be

Then, the fibre–matrix interface area in the resulting lamina would

be

This implies that, for a fixed fibre volume in a given volume of

composite, the area of the fibre–matrix interface is inversely
proportional to the diameter of the fibre.

3. Fibres able to bend without breaking are required in manufacturing

of composite materials, especially for woven fabric composites.
Ability to bend increases with a decrease in the fibre diameter and is
measured as flexibility. Flexibility is defined as the inverse of
bending stiffness and is proportional to the inverse of the product of
the
elastic modulus of the fibre and the fourth power of its diameter; it
can be proved as follows. Bending stiffness is the resistance to
bending moments. According to the Strength of Materials course, if
a beam is subjected to a pure bending moment, M,

where
v = deflection of the centroidal line (in. or m)
E = Young’s modulus of the beam (psi or Pa)
I = second moment of area (in.4 or m4)
x = coordinate along the length of beam (in. or m)

The bending stiffness, then, is EI and the flexibility is simply the

inverse of EI. Because the second moment of area of a cylindrical
beam of diameter d is

Then
 For a particular material, unlike strength, the Young’s modulus does
not change appreciably as a function of its diameter. Therefore, the
flexibility for a particular material is inversely proportional to the
fourth power of the diameter.

Fibre characteristics that contribute to the mechanical performance of a

composite.
Four fibre factors contribute to the mechanical performance of a
composite:

1. Length: The fibres can be long or short. Long, continuous fibres are
easy to orient and process, but short fibres cannot be controlled
fully for proper orientation. Long fibres provide many benefits over
short fibres. These include impact resistance, low shrinkage,
improved surface finish, and dimensional stability. However, short
fibres provide low cost, are easy to work with, and have fast cycle
time fabrication procedures. Short fibres have fewer flaws and
therefore have higher strength.

2. Orientation: Fibres oriented in one direction give very high stiffness

and strength in that direction. If the fibres are oriented in more than
one direction, such as in a mat, there will be high stiffness and
strength in the directions of the fibre orientations. However, for the
same volume of fibres per unit volume of the composite, it cannot
match the stiffness and strength of unidirectional composites.

3. Shape: The most common shape of fibres is circular because

handling and manufacturing them is easy. Hexagon and square-
shaped fibres are possible, but their advantages of strength and
high packing factors do not outweigh the difficulty in handling and
processing.

4. Material: The material of the fibre directly influences the mechanical

performance of a composite. Fibres are generally expected to have
high elastic moduli and strengths. This expectation and cost have
been key factors in the graphite, aramids, and glass dominating the
fibre market for composites.

Matrix factors that contribute to the mechanical performance of

composites.
Use of fibres by themselves is limited, with the exceptions of ropes and
cables. Therefore, fibres are used as reinforcement to matrices. The
matrix functions include binding the fibres together, protecting fibres from
the environment, shielding from damage due to handling, and distributing
the load to fibres.
Although matrices by themselves generally have low mechanical
properties compared to those of fibres, the matrix influences many
mechanical properties of the composite. These properties include
transverse modulus and strength, shear modulus and strength,
compressive strength, interlaminar shear strength, thermal expansion
coefficient, thermal resistance, and fatigue strength.

Other factors that influence the mechanical performance of a composite

other than the fibre and the matrix:
Other factors include the fibre–matrix interface. It determines how well
the matrix transfers the load to the fibres. Chemical, mechanical, and
reaction bonding may form the interface. In most cases, more than one
type of bonding occurs.
1. Chemical bonding is formed between the fibre surface and the
matrix. Some fibres bond naturally to the matrix and others do not.
Coupling agents* are often added to form a chemical bond.
2. The natural roughness or etching of the fibre surface causing
interlocking may form a mechanical bond between the fibre and
matrix.
3. If the thermal expansion coefficient of the matrix is higher than that
of the fibre, and the manufacturing temperatures are higher than
the operating temperatures, the matrix will radially shrink more
than the fibre. This causes the matrix to compress around the fibre.
4. Reaction bonding occurs when atoms or molecules of the fibre and
the matrix diffuse into each other at the interface. This interdiffusion
often creates a distinct interfacial layer, called the interphase, with
different properties from that of the fibre or the matrix. Although
this thin interfacial layer helps to form a bond, it also forms
microcracks in the fibre. These microcracks reduce the strength of
the fibre and thus that of the composite.

Weak or cracked interfaces can cause failure in composites and reduce

the properties influenced by the matrix. They also allow environmental
hazards such as hot gases and moisture to attack the fibres. Although a
strong bond is a requirement in transferring loads from the matrix to the
fibre, weak debonding of the fibre–matrix interface is used
advantageously in ceramic matrix composites. Weak interfaces blunt
matrix cracks and deflect them along the interface. This is the main
source of improving toughness of such composites up to five times that of
the monolithic ceramics.

Type of Matrix

Polymer Matrix Composites - The most common advanced composites

are polymer matrix composites (PMCs) consisting of a polymer (e.g.,
epoxy, polyester, urethane) reinforced by thin diameter fibres (e.g.,
graphite, aramids, boron). For example, graphite/epoxy composites are
approximately five times stronger than steel on a weight-for-weight basis.
The reasons why they are the most common composites include their low
cost, high strength, and simple manufacturing principles. The main
drawbacks of PMCs include:
i. low operating temperatures,
ii. high coefficients of thermal and
 iii. moisture expansion, and
iv. low elastic properties in certain directions.

Polymers used in Advanced Polymer Composites

These polymers include epoxy, phenolics, acrylic, urethane, and
polyamide. Each polymer has its advantages and drawbacks in its use:
i. Polyesters: The advantages are low cost and the ability to be made
translucent; drawbacks include service temperatures below 170°F
(77°C), brittleness, and high shrinkage of as much as 8% during
curing.
ii. Phenolics: The advantages are low cost and high mechanical
strength; drawbacks include high void content.
iii. Epoxies: The advantages are high mechanical strength and good
adherence to metals and glasses; drawbacks are high cost and
difficulty in processing.
As can be seen, each of the resin systems has its advantages and
drawbacks. The use of a particular system depends on the application.
These considerations include mechanical strength, cost, smoke emission,
temperature excursions, etc.

Epoxy is the most common type of matrix material. Although epoxy is

costlier than other polymer matrices, it is the most popular PMC matrix.
More than two-thirds of the polymer matrices used in aerospace
applications are epoxy based. The main reasons why epoxy is the most
used polymer matrix material are
i. High strength
ii. Low viscosity and low flow rates, which allow good wetting of fibres
and prevent misalignment of fibres during processing
iii. Low volatility during cure
iv. Low shrink rates, which reduce the tendency of gaining large shear
stresses of the bond between epoxy and its reinforcement
v. Available in more than 20 grades to meet specific property and
processing requirements

Applications of polymer matrix composites range from tennis racquets to

the space shuttle. Namely: aircraft, space, sporting, medical, marine and
automotive industries.

Metal matrix composites (MMCs), as the name implies, have a metal

matrix. Examples of matrices in such composites include aluminium,
magnesium, and titanium. Typical fibres include carbon and silicon
carbide. Metals are mainly reinforced to increase or decrease their
properties to suit the needs of design. For example, the elastic stiffness
and strength of metals
can be increased, and large coefficients of thermal expansion and thermal
and electric conductivities of metals can be reduced, by the addition of
fibres such as silicon carbide.
Metal matrix composites are mainly used to provide advantages over
monolithic metals such as steel and aluminium. These advantages
include:
i. higher specific strength and
ii. modulus by reinforcing low-density metals, such as aluminium
and titanium;
iii. lower coefficients of thermal expansion by reinforcing with fibres
with low coefficients of thermal expansion, such as graphite; and
maintaining properties such as strength at high temperatures.
MMCs have several advantages over polymer matrix composites. These
include
i. higher elastic properties;
ii. higher service temperature;
iii. insensitivity to moisture;
iv. higher electric and thermal conductivities; and
v. better wear,
vi. fatigue,
vii. and flaw resistances.
The drawbacks of MMCs over PMCs include higher processing
temperatures and higher densities.
Reinforcing metals with fibres may reduce ductility and fracture
toughness. Ductility of aluminium is 48% and it can decrease to below
10% with simple reinforcements of silicon carbide whiskers. The fracture
toughness of aluminium alloys reduces by 50% or more when reinforced
with silicon fibres.

Fabrication methods for MMCs are varied. One method of

manufacturing them is diffusion bonding, which is used in manufacturing
boron/aluminium composite parts. A fibre mat of boron is place between
two thin aluminium foils about 0.002 in. (0.05 mm) thick. A polymer binder
or an acrylic adhesive holds the fibres together in the mat. Layers of these
metal foils are stacked at angles as required by the design. The laminate
is first heated in a vacuum bag to remove the binder. The laminate is then
hot pressed with a temperature of about 932°F (500°C) and pressure of
about 5 ksi (35 MPa) in a die to form the required machine element.
FIGURE 1.28: Schematic of diffusion bonding for metal matrix composites.

Metal matrix composites applications are in the space, military and

transportation industries,

Ceramic matrix composites (CMCs) have a ceramic matrix such as

alumina calcium alumino silicate reinforced by fibres such as carbon or
silicon carbide. Advantages of CMCs include high strength, hardness, high
service temperature limits for ceramics, chemical inertness, and low
density. However, ceramics by themselves have low fracture toughness.
Under tensile or impact loading, they fail catastrophically. Reinforcing
ceramics with fibres, such as silicon carbide or carbon, increases their
fracture toughness because it causes gradual failure of the composite.
This combination of a fibre and ceramic matrix makes CMCs more
attractive for applications in which high mechanical properties and
extreme service temperatures are desired.
One of the most common methods to manufacture ceramic matrix
composites is called the hot-pressing method. Glass fibres in continuous
tow are passed through slurry consisting of powdered matrix material,
solvent such as alcohol, and an organic binder. The tow is then wound on
a drum and dried to form prepreg tapes. The prepreg tapes can now be
stacked to make a required laminate. Heating at about 932°F (500°C)
burns out the binder. Hot pressing at high temperatures in excess of
1832°F (1000°C) and pressures of 1 to 2 ksi (7 to 14 MPa) follows this.
FIGURE 1.31:Schematic of slurry infiltration process for ceramic matrix composites.

Ceramic matrix composites are finding increased application in high-

temperature areas in which metal and polymer matrix composites cannot
be used. This is not to say that CMCs are not attractive otherwise,
especially considering their high strength and modulus, and low density.
Typical applications include cutting tool inserts in oxidizing and high-
temperature environments.

Carbon–carbon composites use carbon fibres in a carbon matrix. These

composites are used in very high-temperature environments of up to
6000°F (3315°C), and are 20 times stronger and 30% lighter than graphite
fibres.
Advantages of carbon–carbon composites: Carbon is brittle and flaw
sensitive like ceramics. Reinforcement of a carbon matrix allows the
composite to fail gradually and also gives advantages such as ability to
withstand high temperatures, low creep at high temperatures, low
density, good tensile and compressive strengths, high fatigue resistance,
high thermal conductivity, and high coefficient of friction. Drawbacks
include high cost, low shear strength, and susceptibility to oxidations at
high temperatures.
A typical method for manufacturing carbon–carbon composites is called
low-pressure carbonization and is shown in Figure 1.33. A graphite cloth is
taken, impregnated by resin (such as phenolic, pitch, and furfuryl ester),
and laid up in layers. It is laid in a mold, cured, and trimmed. The part is
then pyrolized, converting the phenolic resin to graphite. The composite is
then impregnated by furfuryl alcohol. The process drives off the resin and
any volatiles. The process is repeated three or four times until the level of
porosity is reduced to an acceptable level. Each time, this process
increases its modulus and strength. Because carbon–carbon composites
oxidize at temperatures as low as 842°F (450°C), an outer layer of silicon
carbide may be deposited.

FIGURE 1.33: Schematic of processing carbon–carbon composites.

The main uses of carbon–carbon composites are the following: Space

shuttle nose cones, Aircraft brakes and Mechanical fasteners.

Recycling Fibre-Reinforced Composites

The two main processes used for recycling of composites are called
chemical and mechanical processes. Recycling of composites is complex
because of the many variables in material types — thermoset vs.
thermoplastics, long vs. short fibres, glass vs. carbon, etc.
The various steps in mechanical recycling of short fibre-reinforced
composites are: shredding, separation, washing, grinding, drying, and
extrusion. The recycled material is available in powder or fibre form.
Powder form is reused as paste for sheet-molding compounds, and the
fibre form is used for reinforcement in bulk-molding compounds. One
cannot use too much of these as replacements because the impact
resistance and electrical properties degrade after about 20% content.
Products from recycled plastics are limited to fences and benches.
Chemical recycling is very costly. Processes such as pyrolysis
(decomposing materials in an oxygen-free atmosphere) produce many
gases, and hydrogenation gives high filler content. Gases and oils are
recovered, and the residues are used as fillers in concrete and roof
shingles. One other problem is the chlorine content. The scrap needs to be
dehalogenated after separation, especially if carbon fibres were used as
reinforcement. Glass fibres in recycled composites also pose the problem
of low compressive strength of the new material.