MODULE 1: INTRODUCTION TO MONOGASTRIC ANIMAL PRODUCTION

1.1 TYPES OF MONOGASTRIC ANIMALS

A monogastric organism has a simple single-chambered stomach, compared to a ruminant organism, which
has a four-chambered complex stomach. Examples of monogastric animals include omnivores such as
humans, poultry, rats, and pigs, carnivores such as dogs and cats, and herbivores such as horses and
rabbits. Herbivores with monogastric digestion can digest cellulose in their diets by way of symbiotic gut
bacteria. However, their ability to extract energy from cellulose digestion is less efficient than in ruminants.
Herbivores digest cellulose via microbial fermentation. Monogastric herbivores which can digest cellulose
nearly as well as ruminants are called hindgut fermenters, while ruminants are called foregut fermenters.
These are subdivided into two groups based on the relative size of various digestive organs in relationship
to the rest of the system: colonic fermenters tend to be larger species such as horses and rhinos, and cecal
fermenters are smaller animals such as rabbits and rodents. Great apes derive significant amounts of
photonic acid from the hindgut fermentation of plant materials. Monogastrics cannot digest the fiber
molecule cellulose as efficiently as ruminants, though the ability to digest cellulose varies amongst species.
Monogastric species such as poultry, pigs and fish are more reliant on grains and pulses that compete for
land that could grow human food. Ruminant species – such as sheep, cattle and goats rely more on grasses
and forages that are inedible by humans. This is a simplistic but important differentiation.
1.2 Breeds of Monogastric Animals
1.2.1 Breeds of Fowls
A breed is a differentiation within one animal’s species which is transmitted as sheared characteristics to
descendant. A breed is obtained through selection by mating or by adaption to the environment (nature
selection). The breed is difference by color of plumage, body size, and comb shape, place of origin and presence
or absence of wattle. The exotic breeds are fast growers, large body size and produce larger –size eggs. They are
not broody and are kept commercially for meat and eggs.
They need to be taken care of to do well in the tropics. Examples of exotic breed in Ghana are Rhode Island
Red, White Leghorn, Light Sussex, Plymouth Rock, New Hampshire, Hisex, Hypeco and ISA. Other
important exotic breed in the tropics are Australop, Minorca, Star cross, Cornish, Ancona, Starbro (brown),
etc. There are also crosses between the two.
1.2.2 Breeds of Pigs
The breeds of pigs reared in Ghana included both the local and the exotic breeds. The local breeds of West
Africa include the Bakosi of Cameroon and the Ashanti dwarf of Ghana
Types of Pigs
All the breeds can be grouped into two types as
1. Meat type (pork)
2. Lard type (fat)

1.2.3 Breeds of Rabbits Reared In Ghana

The breeds of rabbits kept by Ghanaian farmers include the Chinchilla, New Zealand white, California
white, Flemish giant, New Zealand red, Champagne d’argent, White beveran, the Angora and the Blue
Viana
Characteristics Of Some Breeds Of Rabbits
1. New Zealand white: The breed originated from USA. The fur is white. It is the most popular breed in
use. It has broad back and shoulders with a medium length. It has pink eyes. The mature weight is between
5 – 6kg, reaching a live weight of 4-5kg at 8 months. It can be used for both meat and fur production
2. California it also originated from USA it is lighter breed with the adult fur attaining an adult weight of 4-
5kg. it has white body fur with black marking on the ear, feet, tail and nose. It is of medium length with flat
back. It has a high growth rate and a prolific breeder of raising 8 out of 12 bunnies in litter.
3. Chinchilla: the breed is of British origin. The body varies between blue and grey or deep slate. The
animals have a mature weight of 5-6kg. It has a fairly long body early maturing and good meat quality.
4. The Flemish giant: It originated from Belgium. It is the largest of all breeds of rabbits. It is dark steel – grey
in colour and produces a dense and hard pelt. It is of medium body with raised back. It is a good meat producer
that can reach a mature adult weight of 5.5-7kg
5. The Angora: This is the only rabbit reared for its fur. Its common colour is white. It has tuffs of wool on its
ears and feet. The breed requires a lot of care and attention.
6. Dutch: It is a small breed with a mature live weight of 2.5-3kg. It has a wide band of fur around its body at
the shoulders as well as a white stripe down the middle of its face. Its front feet fall within the white band. The
tips of its back feet are also white.
7. New Zealand Red: This breed is essentially a red New Zealand White type which had not been as
intensively selected for growth rate. Mature live weight is lower than the white type, at 3-4.5kg.

1.3 Breed Selection

1.3.1 Selection of Breeding Rabbits
General, selection of rabbits for breeding is based on their fecundity, growth rate, mothering ability and
disease resistance. In the male, follicle stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone stimulate the
production of sperm. The male hormone, testosterone, produced in the testicles, stimulates the development
of the vas deferens, and associated glands. It is also responsible for the extra muscle growth in males as
compared to females and for the male odour which helps to stimulate the female to stand still for mating.
The sperm are stored in the vas deferens prior to ejaculation into female at mating. Each ejaculation may be
up to 6 ml, consisting of a mixture of sperm and associated nutrients fluids. Sperm need to spend about 4-5
hours maturing in the female reproductive system before they are capable of fertilizing the ova. The
process is called capacitation. The potentially high fertility of the domesticated rabbit under the best
feeding and management is exemplified by the following:
• A well – fed female can conceive after only 6 months of life
• A healthy doe will normally accept the buck the first time they are put together, including just after giving
birth and during lactation.
• The gestation period is only after 32 days
• Litter sizes at birth of 8 – 10 are common
• The doe can continue producing litters until 3-4 years of age.
A major constraint to even greater production in rabbits is the very short daily suckling period, which means
that every young rabbit needs to suckle at virtually every opportunity if it is to survive. Failure to do this is a
cause of significant litter mortality
1.3.2 Selection Of Breeding Boar (Select At 4-5 Months Age)
Selecting a boar is even more important than choosing your breeding sows. In choosing a breeding boar, the
same factors should be taken into account as for the sows; this includes the presence of 12 teats. Avoid choosing
a boar too highly in – bred from your existing stock, as in breeding will lead to reduced fertility, poor growth,
and lower levels of diseases resistance.
The boar to be selected for breeding should possess the following qualities:
a) True features of the breed
b) Strong straight feet with short straight pastern to stand on and mount the sow during mating
c) A long slightly arched deep back and meaty body with smooth ham
d) No observable defects such as uneven-sized testicles, hernia and wrinkled skin.
e) Good standing and movement posture
f) Strong and muscular
g) They should not be temperamental (and this will increase the number of weaned latterly.)

Boars should be selected for breeding at the age of 4 or 5 months but should not be used for mating until about 8
months old or more. Boars are usually fertile up to four years continuous service although some may show good
performance after this age.
1.3.3 Selection Of Breeding Poultry
In the poultry industry, birds are selected and evaluated on their general health, conformation, body weight and
performance data. The qualities in the broiler breeder will vary from the layer and pullets but the same criteria
are evaluated.
Basic qualities for selection
1. Rate of growth
2. Mature size
3. Egg laying ability
4. Breed type
5. Colour
6. Fertility and vigor
7. Disease resistance

Breeding is not simply a static, intellectual pursuit but requires a certain level of creativity and flexibility. The
choices made by individual breeder not only help to mold a strain of poultry but can be a source of pride and
satisfaction for the effort of managing the breeding stock. Breeders should feel empowered to tailor choice of
selection criteria to fit their desired goals and needs
1.4 Production Systems
There are three main systems of producing Monogastrics. The kind of management system selected will depend
on the purpose of production, availability of capital Labour, land and other facilities. The 3 main systems of
poultry keeping are:
Extensive system: Free running range
Semi-intensive systems: Run system
Intensive systems: Deep litter wire/slated floor/battery cage.
1.4.1 Extensive System
The extensive system of management can be free–running. This system is the commonest in Ghana. The
birds mostly not used for commercial purpose. Unlimited grassland is available to the birds. The capital
investment is small and the Animal’s/bird’s population per hector of land is minimal. Production is usually
very low. The use of technology is also limited.
Free-Range: This system allows Animals/birds to roam about over a large area of land and beyond the
farmer’s compound. The farmer may provide Animals/birds with poorly ventilation house for birds to pass
the night but mostly birds are allowed to roost on nearly trees. The birds depend on herbage, seeds insets
and sometimes the farmer’s kitchen leftover as their source of feed. The health of the birds is not attending
and hens make their own nest in the provided coops or in the bush to lay their eggs. Mostly the local birds
are kept.
Advantages Extensive System
1. They are not limited to space therefore there is no overcrowding
2. Fowls have enough exercise
3. It does not need any management skills.
4. No capital is needed in terms of feed and housing.
5. There is less or no money spend in maintaining
6. Fowls obtain enough forages and grits.

Disadvantages Extensive System

1. Eggs are few, unclean and sometime broken or they are totally lost
2. It is difficult to know fowls’ population
3. Fowls are easily affected by infectious diseases
4. Fowls are often found to be nuisance during their feeding. Chickens may eat sown seed when looking for
food
5. Fowls are sometimes lost to predators and thieves.
6. There is high mortality rate during outbreak of diseases.
7. It gives low income to the farmers.

1.4.2 Semi Intensive System

This system combines some aspects of intensive and extensive systems. There are two main types of semi-
intensive system. These are the run system and the movable fold unit. Diseases and pest are cared for. The space
requirement per bird in this system is 0.9m2.
1. Run System

The run-system of poultry keeping implies the keeping of birds in a fixed housed by giving the bird’s access to
grass runs enclosed by a fence made of wire netting or other chicken proof barriers to a height of about 2m. In
this system the birds roam about in the run during the day and are shut up in the house at night. Page 9
Food and water are supplied in troughs situated in the house so avoiding feed wastage by rain, wind and wild
animals. The birds enter the house occasionally during the day to eat and drink.
Advantages Semi Intensive System
1. It requires less land compared to free-range system
2. It is suitable for commercial egg production
3. It is best to practice as backyard poultry
4. The birds and the eggs can be adequately protected at all times against thieves and predator
5. Dose not involves expensive equipment and housing. The house and equipment can be constructed by the
average man at little cost and without much difficulty.

Disadvantages Advantages Semi Intensive System

1. Labour is required to weed unwanted and overgrown grasses
2. Grasses can harbor pest and disease pathogens
3. It is expensive compared to free-range system
4. The land can be easily contaminated if heavily stocked
5. The grasses may become smelly and muddy during the rains.
6. The run requires more elaborate housing and fencing than in the free-range system hence the initial
expenditure.

2. Movable Fold Unit System

This system consists of a portable house with a fixed run attached so that the fowls have enough sunlight and air
during the day and roosting in the house at night. The fold is moved to a new ground every day. The floor of the
unit should be covered with find wire mesh to prevent predators and other vermin from entering the pen. Laying
nest is kept in the pen but feeders and water are fixed to the sides of the unit. The unit can be built with wheels
to make movement easy. Because of the daily movement, the house should be strongly built but not too bulky.
Tractors may sometimes be used to move the unit daily.
Advantages Movable Fold Unit System
1. It makes good use of the pasture land as other livestock are also allowed grazing the same time
2. The system is useful for all ages and kind of birds
3. Feed and water are not easily contaminated by birds
4. The control of pest and diseases are easy because birds are kept in smaller group and culling is easier. The
outbreak of any infection disease is easier to isolate and handle.
5. Birds are safe from the attack of wild animals
6. Uniform distribution of manure and control of parasites is important.

Disadvantages Movable Fold Unit System

1. Cost of building units is high which can contain only few birds
2. Extra labour is needed to move unit everyday
3. It cannot be used in place where the land is undulating
4. Constant movement causes wear and tear of the unit

3. Free-Running System

This is more organized than free-range. Birds is housed to over large fenced grassland. Farmers provide feed in
feeding troughs at vantage points on the range, disease and pest are controlled by the farmers. Exotic breeds (male)
are reared alongside the local breeds. This is to improve the performance of the local ones.
Advantages Free-running system
1. Stock population can be determined
2. It can be adopted for all classes of birds (layers or broilers)
3. Birds have enough exercised due to large area of land
4. Initial capital and labour is small
5. Breeding can be planned
6. Breeds are less exposed to diseases and pest a well as thieves.
Disadvantages Free-running system
1. It cannot be practices where land is limited
2. It is not suitable for eggs production. Birds used energy reserves meant for egg production for exercise.
3. There is not enough control over productivity
4. Birds are exposed to predator

The main difference between the free – running and the free range is that:
1. The fowls on free-range are properly housed
2. They are confined to a fenced area (range)
3. Free-running birds are not allowed to mix with other stray birds.

1.4.3 Intensive System

This system is suitable at place where land is limited. It involves complete restricting of birds to poultry pen and
has no access to grass run. It is capital intensive. In this system, proper attention must be given to feeding (a
complete ration must be supplied since they are not able at supplement their feeding with insects, worms and
greenery), sanitation and disease control. Two main types are deep litter and battery cage systems.
1. Deep Litter System

In this system, a large number of birds are totally confined to the house and are not given the opportunity of
running out in the open. The farmer provides and maintains the best environmental condition for the production.
It is easier to make use of labour saving device to provide working condition free from drudgery. This is the
most popular kind of intensive system for commercial production. It is suitable for rearing all classes of birds as
well as brooding chickens. All fittings in the pen should be laid above the floor litter, fitting like feeders,
waterier and laying nest must be movable.
Advantages Deep litter system
1. It requires less labour
2. It is efficient and reliable system in keeping large flock at one particular time
3. It provides efficient management (vaccination, culling) etc.
4. Compared to battery cage system, it requires less capital
5. With good management practices, it reduces disease outbreak

Disadvantages Deep litter system

1. It provides less movement of birds hence les exercise
2. Birds have no access to natural green forages
3. Cannibalism may occur due to overcrowding and wet litter
4. Eggs can be dirty if collection is not done in time

2. Battery Or Cage System

This system comprises of a number of cages made up of mainly welded wire which are arrange in tiers and
often kept in well ventilated and lighted house. Each cage is designed to contain few numbers of birds (2-3)
depending on space, design and how the cages have been constructed. It is designed such that the movement of
birds is limited but they can sit and stand. Feeding and watering trough are fitted at the front part of the cage
with waters hanging over the feeders. The dropping from the birds may pass through the floor wire mesh to the
floor of the house or a pit to be removed later.
Advantages Battery or Cage System
1. It is conducive for research purpose
2. Limited land is needed
3. Quality eggs can be produced
4. The occurrence of parasitic disease is minimized
5. Individual performance and conditions of birds can be ascertained
1.4 Self- Assessment
1. State five problems of poultry production in in Ghana
2. Identify four characteristics of the class avian
3. After considering the profitability and finance of starting any poultry enterprise state in order of importance
things to consider
1.6 Practical Activity
1. Feed formulation for poultry..

POULTRY PRODUCTION
LABELLED PARTS OF CHICKEN

Poultry plays an important role in most developing countries, as it contributes to the livelihood of rural
smallholder farmers who keep village chickens. Although poultry is raised all around the world under very
different circumstances, the main objective is always the same: maximum production with as few costs as
possible and with minimum risks. Poultry is a collective term used to designate species of birds that have been
domesticated to reproduce and grow in captivity and that render product of economic value. The many different
kinds of poultry include domestic fowls (Gallus gallus), duck (Anasplatyrhynchos), guinea fowl
(Numidameleagris), goose (Anseranser), Ostrich (Struthiocamelus_spp), pigeons (Columba livia) and Turkey
(Meleagris gallopavo). Poultry are produced mainly for their meat and eggs. They belong to a class known as
Aves.
The avian has the following characteristics.
[Link] are homeothermic (they can maintain a relative constant internal body temperature (41.7 oC) Page 15
2. They lay shelled eggs on land (Oviparous).
3. They have feathers over their body (scales occur only on feet and /or face).
4. They have beak (the jaws are without teeth but enclosed in horny plate that form the beak)
5. They are omnivorous (feed on both plants and animals)
Fowls or chickens are more numerous than any other kind of poultry. Poultry is usually taken by the rural
farmer to mean chicken because they are reared more often than any other kind of poultry and are also more
profitable and useful to the farmer. It is an important source of animal protein, and can be raised in situations
with limited feed and housing resources. Chickens are ‘waste converters’: they ‘convert’ a scavenged feed
resource base into animal protein. They are therefore by far the most important species for generating income
for rural families. The two main forms of keeping small-scale chicken are small-scale subsistence farming and
commercial farming. If poultry is mainly kept for home consumption of eggs and meat, costs and effort can be
kept to a minimum. But for a poultry enterprise to be successful it must have a reliable market for its products
and a steady supply of reasonably priced quality feed. It is important that feed resources are locally available.
The only gland uropygeal gland is found at the base of the tail. This gland produces oil and it is used as a water
proofing material. The bird picks it and smear on the body. It makes the feathers shiny and also water proofing
against rain.
Importance of Poultry Production
1. It provides food in the form of meat and eggs.
2. Source of income
3. Source of employment for both farmers and other people.
4. Source of organic manure.
5. Source of food for fish pond. Poultry litter when put into fish ponds provide nitrogen for algae development
and fish feed on the algae.
6. For research projects
7. Source of industrial raw material. Eggs are used for cosmetics and confectionaries. Page 16
8. For recreational purposes.
9. For social and religious purpose.
Problems in Poultry Production
There are many problems in the production of broiler, chickens, turkeys and eggs.
1. Disease and parasite problems: - While chicken and turkeys are normally healthy, they are subjected to
many diseases and parasites. Losses may be high and heavy if proper methods of prevention and treatment have
not been followed e.g. Avian influenza
2. Problem in feeding and management: - Feed cost may become excessive and the enterprise unprofitable if
the birds are not fed balanced rations. Proper housing, ventilation and labour problems may also affect the profit
from the enterprise.
3. Problems in marketing: - The profit from the poultry enterprise is influenced by the market. Eggs, broilers,
turkeys, etc. bring more money during the seasons of Christmas, Easter and other festivals than other periods of
the year.
4. Size of enterprise: - The fact that a chick, hen or turkey is short-lived and require only small investment may
cost the producer to become careless. The larger is it to give the enterprise the care and management that it
should receive the better
5. Finance:- Poultry is capital intensive
6. Importation of cheap poultry products
7. Access to flexible loans
8. Inconsistency of government agricultural policies
9. Insufficient technical officers
10. High cost of drugs/vaccine. Some drugs/vaccines are prepared for certain number of birds. Farmers
therefore abuse the drugs/vaccines if they have fewer birds than what the drugs/vaccines require. Page 17
Starting Poultry Farming
After considering the profitability and finance the following are the order of importance in stating any poultry
enterprise.
1. Knowledge or knowhow
2. Demand. There must be effective demand.
3. Good veterinary services
4. Good breed
5. Feed cost which is about 80% of the total cost
6. Housing
Advantages of Hybrid Poultry Production
1. Exhibit hybrid vigor
2. Uniformity in body conformation which help in culling
3. Auto-sexable that is two strains of different breeds may be crossed to utilize sex – link genes for sexing the
chicks at one day old
4. Hybrids combine desirable qualities of their parents.
Sources of Day-Old Chicks
There are two main sources of day-old chicks. These are the broody hen and the hatchery.
A. Day Old Chicks from The Broody Hen: Using the broody hen to obtain chicks is the natural way of
incubation. A broody hen has relatively broad breast with fluffy down feathers to provide the needed warmth
for incubation. It has the ability to sit on eggs for longer hours. It will not move from the nest when disturbed
but will make clear squawking noise. The broody hen must be allowed to sit on between 8-15eggs. The hen
warms the eggs and turns them at regular intervals. The process of turning the eggs is to ensure that the
developing embryo is always in torch with the warm breast of the hen. Page 18
Conditions for Natural Incubation
The nest should be sited at a quite cool and dry place
The hen should be allowed to go out early in the morning and late in the evening
The hen must be well fed on cereals, greens and grits in addition to clean drinking water
A sand bath should be provided
The hen and it eggs should be protected from rain, insect pest and vermin
After hatching the hen should be allowed to come out of the nest by itself.
Advantages of Natural Incubation
1. It is suitable for hatching few eggs
2. It does not need much capital or skills to run
3. There is the likelihood of high hatchability
4. The only source of heat is the broody hen
5. No labour is required.
Disadvantages of Natural Incubation
1. It is the broody hen that decides when to sit on the eggs
2. Hatching eggs are exposed to the danger of pest attack
3. The broody hen and the eggs may be at the mercy of the weather
4. It is not suitable for commercial purpose Page 19
DAY OLD CHICKS FROM COMMERCIAL HATCHERIES: This is the artificial means of producing day
old chicks and incubators are used. The hatchery is the place where the artificial ways of producing day old
chick are carried out. The incubator is the main equipment at the hatchery. There are two main types of artificial
incubators. These are manual and automatic incubators. The basic principle of an incubator is ensuring desirable
temperature, relative humidity and ventilation and regular turning of the eggs over a period of time. Embryo
uses oxygen for metabolism. The oxygen is derived from the circulating air in the incubator. Adequate turning
for at least 4times a day is necessary to prevent adhesion of the embryo to the egg shell. The main difference
between manual and automatic incubators is that with the manual, the operator has to be doing the turning of the
eggs at regular interval with the help of some knobs while with the automatic, all the turning is done by the
incubator itself. There are numerous kinds of incubators using different sources of heating system including
electricity, gas, oil and kerosene. Before one can go to a certain hatchery for day old chicks, he/she should know
the history of the place.
Eggs for Hatching
1. Eggs selected for hatching should be clean, should have no cracks and should have uniform size and weigh
55-60g.
2. After collection, hatching eggs should be fumigated or dipped in sanitizing solution twice before setting-
firstly, fumigation on the farm soon after laying and secondly, fumigation at the hatchery before setting.
3. Fumigated eggs are kept in clean rooms at the optimal temperature of 15-16 0C and relative humidity of 75-
80% to ensure proper hatchability. The egg storage room should be air- conditioned to attain proper temperature
and relative humidity.
4. Eggs should be stored for 3-4 days but not more than 7 days if high hatchability is expected. Prolonged
storage, i.e. beyond 4 days, makes eggs deteriorate, thus reducing hatchability.
5. Eggs are normally stored with the blunt end up.
6. Incubation ensures embryonic development of the chick within the shell up to hatching.
7. The eggs should be selected from disease free hen. Page 20

The following are Setter Time (Days) Hatcher Time (days) Total Incubation Time
incubation periods for (Days)
different birds: Type
of Bird
Chicken 18-19 2-3 21
Turkeys 24 4 28
Guinea Fowl 24 4 28
Incubation/hatching: The eggs should not be set in the incubator right from the store/cold room. They should
be left for at least 6hours because of the following reasons: The eggs will “sweat” and this will lead to water in
the incubator. The germ cell gets shock due to sudden change in temperature leading to aborted. The sweat will
dissolve any dissolvable substance on the egg and will be reabsorbed into the egg. The incubator has two
setting, the setter and the hatcher. The setter is where the eggs are first set from the cold room. The setter should
have a temperature of 37.8oC and a humidity of 45%. The eggs are taken from the setter for candling and after
that sent to the hatcher. The hatcher should have a temperature of 37.5oC and a humidity of 75%. At hatching
the chicks jerk its head by reflex and break it way through the egg shell. The break through is known as
‘pipping’ and is achieved with the help of the beak.
Candling: this is when light is used to look through egg to see the developing embryo in a dark room. There
three types of eggs are identified. These are unfertilized egg (the light pass through and is clear throughout),
aborted egg (dark spot is seen in the egg) and fertilized egg (light does not pass through the egg). Infertile eggs
and dead embryos can be detected by candling. Candling helps to determine if the chick is developing according
to expectations. If the chick is not developing well, remove the egg, as it may produce unwanted gas later on.
Try to find out why the egg did not develop properly. Candling is best started on the 5th day of incubation.
Remove any infertile egg or eggs containing dead chicks from the incubator. A second candling should be done
after 16 to 18 days of incubation. After candling, the eggs are sent to the hatcher compartment of the incubator.
Sexing: After hatching, sexing is done to determine the sexes of the chicks and three methods are used. These
are:
Colour Sexing: This is the use of the colour of the chicks to determine their sex gene linkage. Example if the
parental stock colour is brown (male) and white (female), then all brown chicks are males meaning that they
have inherent the brown colour from the cock. All the white chicks will be females.
Feather Sexing: this is using the differences between the covert and quill feathers. If the covert is longer than
the quill, the bird is said to be female but if they are equal, then it is a male. Page 22
Vent Sexing: this is the use of vent sexier to determine the sexes of the chick. The sexier is put in the Cloaca to
look for the testicle and if not found then the chick is female.
Hatchability
It is the average number of quality chicks attainable as a percentage of the total number of eggs set. Desirable
range is between 50-85%.

Factors Affecting Hatchability

➢ Proportion of cocks to hens at the time of laying
➢ Ages of breeding stock
➢ Diseases such as salmonella
➢ Poor quality and nutritional imbalance
➢ Regularity of eggs collection and their fumigation
➢ Duration of eggs storage and condition at the room
➢ Hygiene at the hatchery
➢ Poor hatching condition such as temperature and humidity
➢ Poor ventilation and inadequate turning.

Preparing To Receive Day Old Chicks

The following are practices that need to be undertaken before birds arrive.
❖ Remove all old litter if the brooder house has ever been used
❖ Check the room for any cracks. All cracks should be sealed
❖ The floor, walls and roof should be thoroughly cleaned.
❖ The house must be fumigated with recommended chemicals e.g. Izal or dettol.
❖ Broken doors and windows as well as roof leakages should be repaired;
❖ Dry clean new litter about 5cm thick should be placed on the floor
❖ All equipment to be used must be washed
❖ Lighting and heating equipment should be installed 3days before birds arrive
❖ There should be footbath filled with disinfectant at the entrance of the pen
Brooding
Brooding is a stage in poultry production when chicks are given all necessary condition, they need in order to
survive without the broody hen. Young birds are susceptible to disease and stressful condition therefore much
care should be taken in order not record high mortality. The brooder house is the first transit house for the
chicks during at least the first 4weeks from the hatchery. When the birds arrive on the farm, the first thing to do
is introduce them to water. This is done by dipping the beak of the chicks into the water. Every chick needs a
floor space of 0.05m2 in the brooder house. This means that the farmer should know the size of the brooder
house and heating facilities in order to buy the correct number of day-old chicks to prevent overcrowding. The
following are management activities needed to be undertaken when the birds arrive on the farm.
Heating: The brooder house should be heated to a temperature of 35oC before the birds arrive and this is
reduced gradually to 21oC by the end of the 4th week. Apart from using thermometer to determine the require
temperature, the behavioural signs of the bird will guide the farmer. If the chicks crowd around the source of
heat or together at one place, it means that the temperature in the room is low and the need to increase it. If the
chicks stay away from the source of heat, it means that the temperature in the room is high therefore the need to
reduce it. But if the chicks are evenly spread in the room, it means that temperature in the room is normal. If the
source of heat is coal pot or lantern then the litter materials around should be cleared and fire guards put around
it.

After two weeks the chicks should be able to walk in and out of the brooder. The artificial heating can be turned
off after 4 weeks, if outside day-time temperatures are above 20°C. You might have to keep the lamp burning
during cold nights. Keep an eye on the chicks to make sure that they are comfortable.
Feeding: It is very important to introduce birds to drinking of water by dipping their beak into the water
provided on the day of arrival. The water giving to birds on the day of arrival should contain glucose or sugar to
compensate the loss of energy as a result of transportation. Chicks can stay away from feed for about 3days
after hatching but must be introduced to feeding by providing feed on shallow feeders. The feed should be
stirred from time to time and if possible, fresh chick mash added.
Light: In order to encourage birds to eat more in the early stage of life especially in the night, light should be
provided. The light also helps in the early stages of life.
Ventilation: The rooms should be adequately ventilated to prevent the build-up of ammonia gas from
decomposing litter material.
Sanitation: The following sanitation measures should be followed in order to reduce mortality to about 2% or
less.
1. The litter material must be kept dry especially around watering trough
2. Debeak chicks as early as possible, before 3rd week after hatching
3. Avoid rearing chicks of different ages
4. Footbaths should be filled with disinfectant
5. Cull sick ones as quickly as possible and call the veterinary for advice
6. Discard feed which has grown mouldy and don’t give birds dirty water
7. Reduce contact between the sick and healthy birds.
Disease Control:
Farmers lose their chicks in large numbers because certain diseases are not prevented. Apart from sanitation
measures that should be taken by the farmer, vaccination programmes should be followed. Vaccination
programme is zone specific. In all cases advice from the veterinary service is very important. Drugs and
vaccines should be bought from the right source and the manufacturer’s instructions on administration and
storage must be followed. Sick birds should be quarantined. The quarantined or sick pen should not be put on
the path or direction of the prevailing wind. These serve as a guard to prevent easy transmission of disease.
Work in the brooder house before entering the adult pen to prevent the conveying of disease pathogen from
adult birds to the younger ones.

Health Maintenance In Poultry

The production of commercial poultry in large flock requires effective disease prevention and control. This
involve appropriate vaccination, medication, bio-security and sanitation programme. Sanitation: Poultry dust
can cause respiratory disease and should be avoided. Cleaning should be avoided as much as possible while
birds are in the house. When the house is depopulated, they should be carefully cleaned and disinfected before
bringing new stock. Cleaning and disinfection cannot guarantee a sterile but a number of disease agents can be
greatly reduced.
The following steps are recommended to clean and disinfect poultry house;
❖ Remove all old litter and dropping from the floor, building surface and equipment
❖ Clean, disinfect and flash water line in the house
❖ Wash the building and equipment using appropriate cleaning agent
❖ After washing the building dry and apply disinfectant
❖ Open the house to dry and ventilation, and allowed empty for at least 36hours.

Broiler Production

A broiler is a bird which is able to attain a market weight of 2-3.5kg within 8-12weeks. They have high feed
conversion efficiency that is they are able to convert feed into meat within a short period. Broiler production
may be full time or part time. The full-time broiler farmers produce them throughout the year. The main reason
for this programme is to break the life cycle of disease pathogens and pest. Before new birds are brought in the
pens are thoroughly cleaned and disinfected. By this programme, one can raise 3batches of birds with one
month break and they are reared up to 12weeks. Four batches of birds can be raised with one month break and
they are reared up to 8weeks. The feed given to broilers should contain ingredient that will meet their daily body
requirement. In broiler production they should be fed ad-libitum from day one till about the 8 th week. Broiler
birds are taken from the brooder house to the finisher pen between 34weeks. The birds should be given vitamin
(anti-stress) when moved from the brooder house to the finisher pen.
Record Keeping
Records kept on the farm include health, feed consumption, growth performance and carcass, financial,
depreciation on interest; labour and stock. These records help in the routine management of birds. They also
help in the economic viability of the enterprise and also help the farmer to obtain loan.
Layer Production
Layer production involves raising birds purposely for their eggs. In layer production there are three stages of the
bird’s life that all need critical attention. These are chick, pullet or grower and laying stages.
1. Vaccination: Vaccination is an effective method of preventing a variety of poultry diseases from causing
economic damage to the flock. Vaccination is for the prevention of viral diseases outbreak. When there is
outbreak of viral disease, there is no cure, so it is better to control before an outbreak. This varies from one
environment to another. The main diseases to be vaccinated are Marek, fowl pox, Gumboro and Newcastle.
Marek’s is given at day old at the hatchery. For other health problems, administer coccidiostat and broad-
spectrum antibiotics. Before any oral vaccine e.g. Gumboro is given, all water must be withdrawn from the
birds for some hours.
Typical factors to consider in developing vaccination programmes are:
❖ Disease history of the farm or area
❖ Previous success in ejecting disease agents
❖ Number of age groups on the farm
❖ Separation of other poultry in the area around the farm
❖ Farm security
❖ The economic impact of an outbreak of the disease in the farm

Example of Broiler Layers

vaccination
programme
Ages (weeks)
1 1stGumboro 1stGumboro
2 1st Newcastle 1st Newcastle
3 2ndGumboro 2ndGumboro
4 Fowl pox 1st fowl pox
6 2ndNewcastle 2nd Newcastle
6 Worm treatment Worm treatment
12 2nd fowl pox
15 Worm treatment
16 3rd Newcastle

Medication: It is typically used to control bacterial, internal parasite and coccidian. Coccidiosis is difficult to control
therefore control drugs are given to broilers until 7days before slaughter. Antibiotic can be used to control bacterial
diseases e.g. Salmonella or E. coli but good management can prevent most diseases.
3. Bio-security: Bio-security is management system to minimize the pathogens exposure to the flock. Disease agents
like coccidia or E. coli and Marek’s virus can be readily excluded from commercial farms.
The following steps are recommended to maintain as good bio-security programme.
➢ Use ‘all in all out’ management whenever possible with only one age of poultry on the farm
➢ Exclude all unnecessary visitors.
➢ Require necessary visitor to put on clean protective clothing, footwear and head covering
➢ Remove dead birds daily and dispose them in a sanitary manner
➢ Keep delivery personnel out of the poultry house
➢ Protect and control farm asserts with fence and gate
➢ Disinfect the tyres of every vehicle that enters the farm
➢ Clean and disinfect any equipment that is brought to the farm
➢ Establish a good rodent control programme and exclude all wild birds from the house
➢ Remove shrubs, trees and trash from the area adjacent to poultry house and keep vegetation mowed short.
Chick Stage: This stage of life is spent in the brooder house. They are given chick starter until they are about 4-
8weeks before transferring them to the grower or adult pen. The chick mash comprises of 22.5% C.P, 1.10% calcium
and 0.5% available phosphorus.
Pullet Stage: The chick stage is followed by pullet stage when the birds are prepared for laying. The pullets are given
grower mash until the 18th week. The grower mash comprises of 16% C.P, 0.94% calcium and 0.47% available
phosphorus. If growers are fed high C.P diet they will start laying early and stop laying early. Each bird needs about
85g of grower mash per day. This will allow fowls to develop properly with good body conformation and start laying
when they are 20weeks. The feeds are provided in troughs with free swinging rollers at the top to prevent birds from
defecating into the feed. Laying nest should be ready by the 18th week as some of the birds may start laying. The
laying nest should have a slopping top (45o) with wood shaves in them.
Laying Stage: This is the stage when the farmer starts to reap what he has sown. Laying starts at 20-24th week but
may start at the 18th week. Laying continue till 72nd week when the birds moult. It is economically good to dispose
of the birds at this age. Egg production increase gradually with peak production at 8-12week after onset of laying.
240-250 eggs can be produced by a bird during the laying period. In Ghana average laying is 230. The birds eat layer
mash and it is given to them 2weeks before the onset of laying. The birds eat this diet until they are disposed from the
farm. The layer mash should contain 17% C.P, 3.38% calcium and 0.54% available phosphorus. Layer mash must
have higher levels of calcium as it used in egg shell formation. A layer hen needs 120g of feed to satisfy it energy
requirement. Never deprive the laying hen of feed and water.
Characteristics To Determine Whether A Hen Will Lay
➢ The size of the bird. Bigger size birds lay poorer than smaller ones
➢ The condition of the feathers. Those in lay look relatively dirty
➢ Bulging abdomen or shape. Good layers look broad in shape than bad layers
Factors Affecting Egg Production
➢ Inadequate and imbalance diet
➢ Poor quality feed ingredient
➢ Frequent feed shortage
➢ Overcrowding
➢ Severe fluctuation in temperature
➢ Persistent high ambient temperature
➢ Diseases such as chronic respiratory disease
➢ Damp and wet litter
➢ Endo and ecto-parasites
➢ Poor ventilation
Factors Contributing To Small Egg Size
➢ Early laying by birds (pullets)
➢ High environmental temperature
➢ Inadequate water
➢ Diseases
➢ Inadequate protein and energy in ration (Methionine and lysine)
Factors Contributing To Poor Egg Shell Formation
➢ Imbalance of calcium, phosphorus and vitamin D
➢ Inadequate feed intake
➢ High environmental temperature
➢ Disease
Factors Contributing To Cracked Egg
➢ Overcrowding
➢ Long periods between egg collections
➢ Genetic that is some birds do not squat to lay
➢ Staff negligence
➢ Improper sorting of eggs
Cannibalism
The commonest type of cannibalism seen in poultry is vent pecking. Once embarked upon by individuals, vent
pecking tends to be imitated by other birds and the resulting injuries lead to death. The problem usually starts in
pullets as they come into lay and is sometimes provoked by the straining associated with the passage of usually large
eggs; the resulting damage to the skin of the vent and the mucous membrane of the cloaca encourages attack by
another bird. It is a behavioural problem in poultry. Birds usually pull feathers and peck toes, vent, head or tail.
Cannibalism occurs at any age. Very often it is a result of prolapsed and egg bound.
Other causes of cannibalism:
1. Overcrowding
i. Too little floor space ii. Too little feeder space iii. Too little water space
2. Improper arrangement or spacing of feeding and watering equipment.
3. Poor ventilation
4. Letting birds get out of feed or water
5. Allowing crippled or injured birds to mix with healthy ones.
6. Imbalanced diets, for example lack of methionine.
Boredom
2. Excessive heat
Cannibalism is less likely to occur if the diet contains relatively high fibre content such as 20 per cent bran (e.g.
Wheat bran).
Control:
➢ Reducing light intensity
➢ Debeaking (removal of one-third of the beak, by cautery).
This problem of cannibalism is not common under the extensive system. Solution to cannibalism and pecking are to
remove the causative situation and to debeak the birds at 2-3weeks or 16weeks old. Cannibalism is also observed in
chicks when,
1. Wet dirty litter stuck the toe
2. Itching toe
3. Feeders are empty
4. Chicks are mixed with different colours
5. Poor feather development (overheating in the brooder house)
Egg eating may occur in battery cage when the eggs are held by floor wire mesh/net on the floor. The basic
preventive measure is to improve upon management practice. Debeaking is a control measure in this case. Egg eating
in deep litter house can also be controlled by removing the “ring leaders”.
Culling Out
This is the act of picking out or rejecting of birds that are below standards. This goes on from day old to adults. This
practice is profitable. The main objective of culling layers is to increase profit. Some of the signs to consider before
culling are under weight, broodiness, inactiveness, picking those with poorly develop combs and wattle, non-laying,
etc.
Advantages of Culling Out
➢ It guards against diseases because unthrifty birds may be carries of diseases
➢ Increase total eggs production level
➢ Ensure that birds conform to breed standard
➢ It helps to conserve feed and space
➢ Reduce cost of production
Pullets that are well developed and vigorous should be kept for production. Pullets cannot be kept on the same bases
as hen e.g. hens which have being in heavy production show certain signs such as bleaching of the beak and shanks,
and worn out or broken feathers. These signs are not present in pullets. In order to increase the accuracy of culling
out the following should be taken into consideration.
1. All pullets in a particular pen should be of the same age
2. Breeds or strains should be in the same pen
3. The farm records should be kept in respect to each pen
4. Leg band of a particular colour should be attached to a pullet coming to lay late
5. Birds showing broodiness should be leg banded and separately whenever they desire to sit on eggs
6. Birds starting to moult early and growing out of production should be differently leg banded.
7. Birds with leg bands are having undesirable characteristics therefore if they do not display good qualities as judged
by other characteristics, they should be culled.
MOULTING
The shedding of feathers and occurs around one year. When it happens egg production falls but when it is restored
the sizes of eggs increase. Moulting is achieved by stressing the bird by reduction in feed. In time birds shed and
replace their feathers and normally occur once in a year. Usually, a good layer will moult late in life and do it faster
(rapidly) while a poor layer moults early in life and do it slowly. Knowledge of this can be applied in culling and this
requires experience.
DISEASE OF POULTRY
Bacillary White Diarrhoea (BWD) or Pullorum Disease: It is a bacterial disease caused by salmonella pullorum.
Symptoms are white diarrhoea, refusal to eat, huddle with wings hanging down. Treat by adding 0.4% of
furazolidone in daily feed for 10days. It is transmitted through egg so to prevent it, ensure that breeding stock are
free, vigorous sanitation and annual testing.
Fowl Typhoid: It is a bacterial disease caused by S. gallinarum. Symptoms include green diarrhoea or as BWD. Treat
by adding 0.4% of furazolidone in daily feed for 10days. Preventive measures are vaccination at 8weeks and carry
out regular agglutination test for carries.
Avian Paratyphoid: It is a bacterial disease caused by Salmonella spp other than those causing BWD and typhoid.
Symptoms are white diarrhoea, refusal to eat, huddle with wings hanging down. Treat by adding 0.4% of
furazolidone in daily feed for 10days. Preventive measures include fumigation and elimination of vermin.
Fowl Cholera: It is a bacterial disease caused by Pasteurella moltocida. The modes of transmission are wild birds,
droppings of affected birds, visitors and other wild animals.
Symptoms include labour breathing, dark droppings, high temperature, very red comb that may turn almost black. It
is treated by sulphur drugs and antibiotics. Good management and sanitation combined with vaccination will serve as
a preventive measure.
Chronic Respiratory Disease (CRD): It is caused by Mycoplasmic gallisepticum. Transmission is through eggs to
offspring, contact, air and droplets. Symptoms include nasal discharge, dry cough, respiratory noise and lack of
appetite. Treat by the use of antibiotics. Preventive measure is by proper sanitation.
Marek’s Disease: It is a viral disease caused by MD virus. Transmission is through infected premises, oral and
respiratory routes. Symptoms include blindness and paralysis of legs and wings. There is no treatment. Prevention is
by vaccination at day old and the use of resistant breeds.
Fowl Pox: It is a viral disease. It is transmitted through contaminated feed and water, direct contact and mosquitoes
and other flying insects. Symptoms are dry fowl pox (swells on the comb, wattle and face) and wet fowl pox
(discharge from eyes and nostrils and cheesy material or exudates from mouth). There is no treatment. Prevention is
by vaccination.
Newcastle Disease: It is very infectious disease caused by virus. Transmission is through infected droppings and
respiratory discharge among birds. Also from farm to farm through equipment, trucks, personnel and wild birds.
Symptoms include rapid breathing, gurgling noise in the throat without discharge of mucus from mouth and nostrils.
There may be some paralysis. There is no effective treatment. All birds should be slaughtered after the outbreak.
Infectious Bronchitis: It is a viral disease caused by corona virus. It occurs in chicks. Transmission is through
airborne route and contacts. There is rattling in throat, gasping, nasal discharge, watery eyes and depression.
Decreases in egg production and sometimes deformed eggs are produced. Treatment is by using sulphonamides and
antibiotics. Prevention is by vaccination using polyvalent vaccine
Gumboro (infectious bursal): It is caused by virus and transmission is by contaminated material and dropping.
Symptoms include watery droppings, soil vent, ruffle feathers, depression and white diarrhoea. There is no treatment
therefore prevent by vaccination.
Coccidiosis: This is a protozoa disease caused by Eimeria spp. Symptoms are watery droppings, blood spots may be
detected in the droppings, chick drop, reduce feed intake and may huddle. Treatment is by sulphamethezine or
sulphaquinozaline in water for 3days and repeat after 2days. Prevention is by good sanitation, ventilation, preventing
contaminated water and addition of coccidiostat in drinking water for birds.
Pests of Poultry
Endo-parasites: There are many worms which infest various internal parts of the birds. E.g., Round worms, tape
worms, etc. which are spread through feaces and varieties of intermediate hosts such as snails, flies and cockroaches.
Symptoms include increase in feed intake but no weight gain, enteritis (inflammation of intestine), anaemia, decrease
in egg production and at times egg with pale yolk. Treatment is by the use of recommended drugs. E.g., Piperazine
and livasole. Prevention is by regular changing of litter, periodic deworming, ensuring good hygiene, do not rear
chicks of different ages together and prevent birds from getting access to earth worm, beetle and cockroaches.
Ecto-parasite: The important ones are lice, mites, ticks and fleas. Symptoms include skin irritation, lameness,
decrease in egg production, anaemia, swollen legs, skin scaling and loss of feathers (alopecia). Control measures are
dusting or spraying the birds, litter, feeders, drinkers and equipment. Preventive measures include regular changing
of litter materials and ensuring good sanitation.
Vaccines and Vaccination
Birds are given prophylactic treatment to protect them against certain types of disease which do not have any known
treatment or to minimize the severity of some other diseases such as coccidiosis. The causes of many diseases with
no known treatment are vital e.g. Newcastle disease, gumboro, fowl pox, etc. Factors to consider before vaccination
are local disease pattern, cost benefit of the vaccination against potential disease losses and the health status of birds.

Types of Vaccines
There are 2 types namely;
Live Attenuated Vaccine: They are usually made using naturally occurring disease organism which has been rendered
less virulent by some suitably means. They are administered through drinking water, eye drops, spray or aerosol and
in some cases by injection. Only a small amount of antigen is required in live vaccines because the virus multiplies
rapidly in the bird to stimulate the production of protection. Live attenuated vaccine (should be stored within the
temperature range of 4-8oC)
Killed Vaccines: They consist of large amount of antigens combines with adjuvant (a substance injected into the body
to stimulate simultaneously with antigens which potentate the immune response). They are prepared by rendering
disease causing organisms inactive but capable of antigen activity. They are normally injected. Killed vaccine.
NB: Live and killed vaccines are normally combined in vaccination programme to give protection against a number
of diseases.
Litter Material
The litter material for the floor has to be carefully chosen. The particle size of the litter material should not be too
small else birds will assume it as feed and when eaten will cause a problem. The best litter material is soft wood
shavings which have been chopped short. Other examples are rice hauls, chopped straw and processed newspapers.
A good litter material should have the following characteristics:
• It must be absorbent
• Low in cost
• Readily available
• Must be free from contaminants
• Capable of breaking down easily by micro-organisms
• It should not impede the movement of birds.
Harmful Effects of Wet Litter
➢ It soils and contaminates nest boxes and eggs, thus transmitting bacteria and other pathogens which decrease egg
hatching.
➢ It enhances build-up and spread of disease.
➢ It causes fly build-up.
➢ Wet and damp litter may accumulate in between the toes of cocks thus interfering with mating, thereby reducing
fertility of eggs, or predispose the affected feet to infection.
➢ Damp litter in poultry houses enhances build-up of ammonia gas in the house.
Effects of High Ammonia Gas
1. Irritation of the eyes leading to conjunctivitis which could lead to blindness.
2. Irritation of the respiratory tract, causing respiratory distress and increase in rate of respiratory infection.
3. Birds in a house, filled with high levels of ammonia, become restless and go off their feed with a resultant
reduction of their production.
The Climatic Environment of Poultry House
Light: - Low light intensity reduces cannibalism and pecking problem. Day light (photoperiod) influence feeding
behaviour and long day length. The reproductive system of poultry birds is highly influenced by day length.
Therefore, controlled lighting programmes are used to sustain good semen and egg production. Day length should
never be reduced when good egg production is desired.
Temperature
Layers: Feed intake of birds fed Ad libitum falls or decrease as temperature rise depending on specie and dietary
energy level. Egg production probably maximize around 18-21oC. Production is depressed at temperature above or
below this range. As generalization high protein diets tend to be associated with high optimum temperature and low
protein diet with low optimum temperature. As temperature rise, average egg weight tends to fall which may be a
reflection of low nutrient intake. Birds have other means of adjusting to temperature apart from energy intake. This
includes wing spreading and panting. Long term adaptation to temperature includes reduced growth rate and enlarge
of comb and wattle.
Broilers: Weight gain is maximized at 18-24oC. Feed intake reduces with increasing temperature thereby improving
feed conversion deficiency at 0.7% per 5oC rise in temperature. There is growth depreciation at high temperature due
to nutrition environment interaction. The birds respond by reducing feed intake and therefore protein intake. Rearing
temperature has little effect provided it is not too hot (33oC).
Feeding and Nutrition of Poultry
Feed is defined as a compound mixture of different edible ingredient which provides nourishment to the birds. The
alimentary canal of fowls is very short and simple therefore it eats more concentrated feed and digests them within a
short period to provide it with the required energy for activities. The fowl is unable to eat bulky feed that ruminants
eat but it uses its feeds more efficiently. The amount of fibre that fowls need to improve the efficiency of digestion
should not exceed 7%. If fibre content is above this level in feed, fowls will eat just a little. In general, poultry has
higher dietary requirement for protein (amino acids) when they are day old and this decline as they mature. Hens
require higher protein than cocks. Hens also require higher calcium level (3-4%) for egg shell formation. Maintaining
calcium-phosphorus ratio (2:1) in growing diet is critical for bone development. Layers or breeders’ diet should never
be fed to growing poultry as the higher calcium content inhibit phosphorus absorption and may cause rickets.
Feeding of fowls depend on
❖ The nutritional requirement by the fowls
❖ The composition of the feed ingredient
❖ The ability to combine the various feed stuff in order to meet the nutrition requirement of the fowls
❖ The quality and quantity of feed stuff available
❖ The ages of the birds
❖ Type of birds (layers, broilers or cockerels)
❖ Purpose of production
Birds need feed for three main reasons. These are:
1. The maintenance of vital body activities such as respiration, circulation and temperature control.
2. Growth and development
3. Production (eggs or meat)
The Digestive System Of Poultry

Esophagus Flexible tube that connects mouth to the crop.

Crop : moisten and temporary storage of food
Proventriculus This is the stomach of the bird. It uses acids and digestive enzymes to breakdown food.
Gizzard: Functions like “teeth,” it mechanically grinds up food particles.
Small Intestines has three sections: these absorb nutrients from the food they eat.
- Duodenum
- Ileum
- Jejunum
Ceca: Fermentation of any leftover food particles/ water absorption.
Colon: Large intestine enable further water absorption
Cloaca: Also known as the vestibule, responsible for expulsion of faeces and urine through the vent.
Liver This is the Multi-lobed organ which produce bile to digest fats (stored in gall bladder). - detoxification
store fat and fat-soluble vitamins (i.e., A,D,E, K) metabolize fats, carbohydrates, and proteins that are in the
diet.
Pancreas: Function: Produces insulin, useful in carbohydrate digestion. Nutrition Page 42

Some Common Sources of Feed Nutrient Source

Feed Nutrient
Protein Plant source: soybean meal, cotton seed cake,
groundnut cake, copra cake and palm kernel
cake.
Animal source: fish meal, meat meal, blood
meal, milk and milk product.
Carbohydrate High energy source: sorghum, millet, maize,
rice and wheat Low energy source: wheat bran,
rice bran and maize bran.
Minerals Limestone, bone meal, dicalcium phosphate;
oyster shells, dolomite, common salt,
manganese, and trace minerals.
Vitamins Vitamins pre-mix, yeast, alfalfa, grass, green
forage crops.
In formulating ration for poultry, consideration should be given to the following.
1. Lysine and methionine are most essential amino acids that are most likely to be the limiting factor.
2. Mineral of concern are Ca, P and salt.
3. The ration must be palatable
4. Use a variety of ingredients in the ration so as to reduce the risk of any deficiency
5. The nutritional requirement of the bird
6. Feedstuff available.
Management
Male: Female ratio: A very important feature in the fertility of eggs is the mating ratio. There should be one male
(cock) to every 10-12 females (hens). If there are too many males, they fight among themselves rather than mating,
and if there are fewer than the optimal number of males, not all the females are mated resulting in the production of
infertile eggs with consequent poor hatchability. The health status of the birds is important for optimal production.
For example, lame males will not mate.
Sexual maturity: If the birds are too old or too fat, their productivity will be decreased. Layer breeders are normally
kept for 14 to 16 months. However, culling is dictated by falling off of production at the end of laying.
Nest Boxes
These should be provided in the poultry house, a week or two, before the birds start laying. Communal nesting boxes
for birds should be of 60cm by 180cm (30cm by 30cm by 38cm dimensions for 4-5 birds) with a minimum of 20
boxes per 100 birds. The nesting boxes should be placed in shaded places in the house and should be kept clean. The
litter in them should be replaced regularly so that eggs are not laid on contaminated surface.

PIG PRODUCTION
Parts of A Pig

BREEDS OF PIG AND PRODUCTION SYSTEMS

It is a population of animals which are distinguished from another population of the same pieces by recognizable
genetic characteristics. Some common breeds and their distinguishing features are as follows:
Ashanti Black Pig (ABP)
The ABP is a local breed raised at the subsistence level in mixed farming systems in Ghana. It is a meat animal
(pork), It has short head with lengthy snout, small ears which are either horizontal or slightly pricked. Its body is
lanky and carries fairly long legs. The skin is black and occasionally spotted. It has long and thick hairs. ABP is
resistant to trypanosomiasis disease and heat stress. The sow is known to be a good mother and looks after young
very well. The Ashanti Black Pig (ABP) of Ghana is an endangered pig breed with less susceptibility to disease and
parasite resistant traits. ABP is hardy this means the breed can survive under poor management. They typically
subsist by rooting and scavenging therefore it has a low demand for feed. The ABP is also unusual in that it can
digest fibrous matter and tannin-rich diets more efficiently than imported genotypes.
The disadvantage with ABP is they have low growth rates, and poorer reproductive performance. The average mature
body weight is 60 kg and litter size is 5–7 piglets.
Large White (YORKSHIRE)
It originated from England. It is white with a dished face and erect ears. Large white has large, long and pricked ears.
It has a straight backline and well supported stomach. The chest is wide and deep extending down below the elbow.
The legs are also strong and solid with strong bones and joints particularly the hocks. It is an adaptable breed, grows
fast and has good meat quality.
Land Race
It originated from Scandinavia and it is a bacon type. It has white coat color with straight snout and long face. Land
race is characterized by large drooping ears, long smooth body sides, long legs and its prolific breed. Its progeny
grows fast. It has higher level of susceptibility to stress than some other breeds.
Duroc
Origin is the USA and has deep red color. It has a fast-growing large breed which has been selected specifically for
overall muscle and meat production. Duroc has the ability to grow to heavier weight without depositing much fat.
Females have average litter size and mothering ability. It is hardy and resistant to stress as compared to other breeds
and this results in lower levels of mortality. The sow is mostly used in cross breeding programmes.
Hampshire
It is a native of England. It’s a medium size black pig with distinct white saddle which encircles the fore quarters.
The sow is prolific and possesses above average milking ability. Hampshire is better able to cope with more
extensive conditions than white breeds. It is a meaty well-muscled breed which shows good efficiency of feed
conversion. It is popular in crossbreeding programmes.
Berkshire
It was developed in England for the pork trade. It is a small early maturing pig which has a black coat with white feet
and nose. In the tropics, it has proved very hardy and it is used in crossbreeding programmes. In certain areas, it is
prized for its fat content.
Behavioural Features of Pig
The pig is not a dirty animal and will normally defecate and urinate away from its eating and resting areas. The
pattern breaks down if pigs are overcrowded or stressed in other ways. High temperature makes them roll in their
own faeces and urine so as to increase evaporation to make their body cool. This behavior depresses growth and
reproductive performance.
Sexual Behaviour
Oestrus / Heat is the state of the female animal when it seeks and accepts the male. The signs include restlessness,
swelling of the vulva accompanied by a mucous discharge, frequent mounting of other sows or gilts, emitting loud
grunting noise, acceptance of the boar and adopting immobile posture when pressure is exerted to the back (standing
reflex). This period lasts for 2-3 days. The usual length of time between heat periods is 18-21 days. The boar is
known to stimulate oestrus in females. This process is known as Bio stimulation. The boar produces a substance
called muskone to this effect. The substance is odorous. The female is stimulated either by sight, smell or sound.
Small quantity of seminal fluid can be dropped on the snout of the sow to induce oestrus. Failure to exhibit oestrus is
termed sub-oestrous or silent heat. It is attributed to faulty husbandry practices, faulty observation and detection,
disease and many others
NB: Pigs are polytocus (multiparous) species. Thus, giving birth to more than one offspring at a time. Monotocus
(uniparous) species give birth to only one offspring at a birth.
Mating Behaviour
Libido is the sex drive of male animals. This develops at puberty and depends basically on testosterone. It may be
affected by physical changes or injuries to the male. Mating occurs when the female exhibits oestrus. The boar takes
from 5-15 minutes to complete copulation.
General Anomalous Behaviour
When pigs are confined in feeding stys or farrowing crates for a long period of time, they exhibit abnormal behavior
such as chewing of wood. They also bite the galvanized or wooden pattern at the front of the sty. When more than
one pig is confined in an area and the floor space is insufficient, cannibalism results. This can also be due to
nutritional deficiencies.
Thermoregulation in Pigs
Pigs regulate their body temperatures through wallowing in water, panting, clustering (piglets), drinking of more
water and taking in less feed, sweating through the snout etc. Comfort zone (thermo neutrality zone) is the
temperature range within which no extra body heat is needed to keep the animal warm or cool. Metabolic rate is
minimal.
Hyper thermal: Environmental temperature rises above comfort zone. Metabolic rate increases in attempt to expel the
excess heat by expiration.
Minimum critical temperature for new born piglets is around 30°C and that of adult pigs is 2023°C.
Feeding
Pigs have a variety of feed items to thrive on as they chew 'anything' or many things. Pigs feed should be well
balanced and adequate for growth, maintenance, production and cold thermogenesis. Feeding must be at regular
intervals as pigs are creatures of habit and grow best under regularity. Two main types of feed for pigs are
conventional and non-conventional feeds.
Conventional feed is of two types: Energy source and Protein source. Examples of energy sources are maize,
sorghum (guinea corn), millet, wheat and wheat bran, cassava, Sweet potato, yam, rice and rice bran, citrus, kitchen
waste. Examples of protein sources are soya bean meal, groundnut meal, coconut oil meal, beans, fish meal, meat,
bone meal, blood meal, sunflower meal, palm kernel meal.
Non-conventional feed is banana (leaf, stem, fruit), pawpaw (stem, fruit, leaves), brewery by- products, water
hyacinth, leaf meal (pig/hog weed, cabbage leaves, cassava), pito mash, feather meal.
Building Systems, Environmental Controls and Building Materials
Housing
Housing protects pigs from the elements of wind, sun, rain and provides warmth and dry bed. It also prevents
bullying, protects suckling piglets, facilitates mating, prevents physical trauma especially during pregnancy, handling
and removal of excreta are made easy.
Floor: It should be hard and impervious to water; concrete preferred. Concrete floors are durable and also facilitate
easy cleaning. It should have a gradient of about 3.5-4cm per metre towards the main drain. This is to facilitate
drainage. The floor should be rough to avoid slipping of animals. A space should be created for the construction of
feeding and watering troughs, and if possible, wallows.
Recommended floor space for pigs are:
• Gilts, fatteners and dry sows: 1.2 - 1.4m2
• Weaners: 0.5-0.9m2
• Farrowing sows: 5.9-6.5m2
• Boars: 9.3m2 (for living and service area)
• Sows and served gilts: 2.25m2 and 1.65m2 respectively.
Walls: Any material suitable to the locality and climate can be of good use. E.g. bricks, stones, mud, bamboo,
cement, wood etc. Stones, cement and bricks are expensive but durable and hygienic. Bamboo, mud and wood are
economical but are not durable and difficult to keep hygienically. In which ever form the wall is built, it should be
reinforced with steel bars or wooden poles to facilitate roofing. The wall can be built to the roof level at the back and
up to 1.5-2m at the sides and the fronts.
Roof: The roof should be of appreciable height, strong, durable, waterproof, bad conductor of heat and free from
tendency to condense moisture inside. It can be of galvanized sheets, tiles, aluminum sheets, wood, bamboo, thatch
etc. Aluminum and galvanized sheets are easy to fix, resistance to fire, reasonable long life, hygienic and do not
require heavy structures during roofing as they are light in weight. Wood, bamboo and thatch are good insulators of
heat and cheap but are liable to fire hazards, habour insects, snakes and need constant replacement.
Housing Management
There are four (4) management systems of a pig:
Traditional system: Pigs are allowed to roam about and scavenge in the neighborhood. They pick up ‘anything’ they
get from the backyard and refuse dumps. The Ashanti Black Pigs are normally kept under this system. As tropical
breeds, they adapt well to the local climate. Under this system, productivity is low, parasitic infection is high, piglet
mortality rate is high and growth rate is low.
Extensive system: The pigs are kept outdoors. They run in groups on well-established pasture _ but provided with
shade and water. Stock is divided into dry sows and pregnant sows. It is difficult to control breeding as the animal’s
mate randomly. Nutrient deficiency is minimal (vitamins and minerals) since it is supplied by the pasture they feed
on.
Semi-Intensive system: Pigs are kept partly outdoors on pasture and partly indoors. Breeding stock is allowed to run
on grass paddocks as the fattening stock is raised intensively in buildings. Pregnant sows are brought inside the pens
to farrow. The local breeds (ABP) predominate in this system. Productivity is relatively low and mortality rate can be
high. Contamination and spread of diseases are of minimal rate.
Intensive system: It has larger pens which provide enough space for each animal to obtain an adequate supply of feed
and water. Exotic breeds best suit this system. There is low mortality rate, high productivity and growth rate. ‘
1.3 Breeding And Selection
Breeding Management
Selecting the Breeding Pigs
Sows and gilts: Breeding sows and gilts should:
➢ Come from large litter size (of at least 8 -10 piglets) and have 12-14 functional teats well shaped and
symmetrically placed;
➢ Have a deep form, medium width and loin, evenly arched top line and smooth fine hair free from wrinkles; iii.
Stand squarely on straight strong medium legs; iv. Be docile;
➢ Have prominent eyes and good health.
Gilts reach puberty at 6 months of age but should be served when they attain 8-9 months of age at a weight of about
100-120kg. At first oestrous, the number of ova produced is small, milk produced is insufficient, litter is poor and
there is difficulty in delivery.
Boars: They reach puberty within 5-8 months of age but they are to be used for breeding between 9-12 months of age
at a weight of about 120-140kg. Breeding boars should have two (2) well developed testicles.
Methods of Mating (Breeding Systems)
There are three (3) methods of mating: pen/ hand mating, pasture/flock mating and artificial insemination.
1. Pen/Hand Mating
The boar is kept separate from the sow/gilt and when a sow/gilt shows signs of heat she is brought to the boar for
servicing.
Advantages
i. It gives the breeder accurate breeding dates for the females.
ii. It ensures more females are bred by the male because he is not allowed to run with the female for long time.
iii. It helps the breeder to detect boar's or sow's fertility problem soon.
Disadvantages
i. It is time consuming
ii. Non-experts find it difficult to detect sows or gilts on heat.
1. Pasture/Flock Mating
It is a system whereby the boar is allowed to run with the sow herd throughout the year and serves any female
detected to be on heat. With this system, a boar rotational programme should be followed.
Advantages
i. It requires less labour.
ii. The likelihood of a boar missing a sow/gilt on heat is of minimal rate.
Disadvantages
i. It becomes difficult to maintain sow record for each litter.
ii. Boars wear themselves out by repeatedly serving a sow while she remains on heat.
iii. Sometimes, boars run together in the same herd waste their energies fighting over the females on heat which at
the end of the season may cause the female not served.
iv. A boar may gear all his attention to only one sow/gilt and others (sow/gilt) may go unserved.
2. Artificial Insemination
It is the deposition of spermatozoa into the female genetalia by artificial rather than by the natural means.
Advantages
i. It reduces the risk of spreading sexually transmitted diseases.
ii. It permits use of semen from incapacitated males.
iii. It permits cross breeding to change the production emphasis, such as switching from pork to lard. iv. It enables
the widespread use of outstanding sire and spread of genetic materials even to small farms.
v. It facilitates progeny testing under a range of environmental and managerial conditions, thereby further improving
the rate and efficiency of genetic selection.
Disadvantages
i. It requires technical know-how.
ii. It is capital intensive.
iii. It can easily spread diseases to farms
Management at Breeding Time
After selecting the desired gilts/sows for breeding, their meal allowance should be 2.7-3. 0 kg per day. If a gilt or sow
is too thin, flush it by increasing their daily allowance to 4kg per day for 2 weeks. The meal allowance for fat sows
should be reduced by 0.5kg per day.
All gilts and sows should be dewormed (2 weeks) before breeding time. They should be served twice, the service at
24 hours apart; the first service 12 hours after onset of heat and 24 hours after the first service.
Boars should have regular supply of green feed and exercise. They can mate about 2-3 times per day or about 20
times per month or about 50 times per year. If boar is overworked it affects service life. Mating ratio is 1:25.
In-pigs (gilts and sows) should be fed with a well-balanced diet with at least 14% crude protein content.
Daily meal allowance should be 0.7kg per 45kg body weight for mature sows, 1kg per 45kg body weight for gilts.
Increase daily allowance by 0.5-0.9kg per herd in the 13 weeks of gestation, since the development of the fetus is
very fast within this period.
Deworm pregnant gilts and sows two weeks before farrowing and introduce them to the farrowing pen at least a
week before farrowing.
During Farrowing clean and disinfect the farrowing pen and provide clean chopped straws as bedding material. The
daily meal should contain 16% crude protein.
A farrowing crate when used should be provided one to two days before farrowing. The sow should occasionally be
let out of the crate for exercise.
On the day that the sow farrows, she should be given no feed but plenty water. Warm the water if the weather is cold.
Sows which show signs of hunger should be fed about 0.2kg of bran mixed with water
Remove membranes from the mouth and nostrils of the piglets if necessary. Tie the umbilical cord, cut and spray it.
NB: The sow needs 110-117 days or an average of 114 days as gestation period (3 months, 3 weeks and 3 days).
Signs of Farrowing
▪ Abdominal contraction and between 15-60 minutes farrowing results.
▪ Bed making or it paws the ground/floor in absence of bedding.
▪ Increase restlessness.
▪ Expulsion of blood or strained fluid from the vulva.
▪ Expulsion of fetal faeces (small greenish pellets).
i.e., When it occurs farrowing results within 1- 1.5 minutes.
▪ Milk can be secreted from the teats of the sow up to about 24 hours before farrowing.
▪ Increase in rectal temperature caused by restlessness of the animal when in labour.
▪ Udder changes from soft and flaccid condition to firm and turgid.
Problems of Farrowing
➢ Dystocia: Difficulty of parturition because of big piglet and the gilt being small.
➢ Lack of abdominal contractions and without signs of birth due to deficiency of calcium, disease of womb or
hormonal imbalance.
➢ Death of piglet along the reproductive tract.
➢ Absence of muscular tone due to lack of exercise.
Management of Lactating Sows
Daily ration for lactating sows should be 2.3kg for the first week with the same ration as fed when farrowing. Add
0.2-0.3kg per day for each gilt suckling. Give piglets iron injection on the 3rd and 5th day after birth. Due to the
rapid growth of piglets, there is also a rapid increase in their blood volume. Hence, the need for a rapid
administration of iron to boost blood haemoglobin. Sow’s milk is at the peak at 3 weeks of age, and is unable to
support piglets’ growth exclusively on milk. Therefore, creep feed of 16 % crude protein is to be fed to piglets from 2
weeks to weaning. Piglets should be weaned between 5-6 weeks of age. Weaners’ meal should contain 14 % crude
protein.
When to Serve the Sow After Farrowing
A sow after weaning its litter comes on heat within 5-10 days. It can be served during this period if it is in a good
condition. The milk yield of a sow is at its peak when nursing its 3rd, 4th and 5th litters. It is therefore not advisable
to give a second chance to a sow which has nursed its 6th litter.
FEEDING PIGS
Management of Growing and Fattening Stock
The growing and fattening stage normally refers to the period from weaning to 60kg body weight. Just before
weaning piglets are fed on an 18 % protein diet. At 20-60kg life weight, change to 16 % protein ration and feed ad
libitum. It has been found that at 50kg life weight, growing and fattening pigs turn to put on fatter than necessary
hence, restriction is practiced. The energy level of the feed can be reduced by diluting the ration with bran at 55kg
body weight.
Feeding
There are three (3) systems of feeding pigs:
a) Scavenging: The pigs are not properly fed; they fend for themselves.
b) Ad libitum: Feeding where the animal has free and continuous access to feed. Pigs under this feeding system gain
excess weight.
c) Restricted feeding: Dependent upon calculated requirements, a fixed amount of feed is distributed to each pen or
animal, 2 or 3 times daily. This feeding system promotes development of lean meat and restricts growth rate.
Diseases and Pests
Non-Infectious Diseases
Piglet anaemia: Results when iron is deficient in the diet.
Symptoms: Piglets look pale with ruffle hair. Falling at one side and throwing the legs.
Control: Inject piglets on the 3"1 day of farrowing with iron and repeat 2 weeks after under serious condition. Mix
soil that contains iron with pig weed for the pigs to feed on.
Posterior paralysis: It occurs in sows after farrowing. The sow cannot stand due to calcium fall from the bones into
the breast milk to feed the piglets.
Symptoms: Limping of the sow. Paralysis
Control: Calcium injection.
*Chilling (hypothermia)
Infectious Diseases
Swine fever (Hog cholera, Wart hog disease)
Causative agent: Virus (Tampans, a type of tick acts as a vector. Virus is viable in chilled carcass for 15 weeks and
can withstand refrigeration at 5oC for 6 years).
Symptoms: High fever for 4 days. Loss of appetite, inability to walk properly with weakness in the back legs, nod
skin and bluish colour of extremities, discharge from eyes and nose, bloody diarrhoea or constipation, breathing
difficulties, recumbency (lying down) and death. Sows may abort
Control: Complete slaughter and burning or burying under lime of all carcasses.
Gastro-Enteritis (Infectious diarrhoea)
Causative agent: Bacteria
Symptoms: Diarrhoea and vomiting; Affected piglets faeces are usually white or green in colour; Rapid death.
Control: Administer Antibiotics.
Pests
Internal parasitism
Caused by internal parasites
Symptoms: The animal becomes pale and runs diarrhoea; Emaciated with ruffle nature of the hair coat.
Control: Deworm animals (feed, drench, bolus).
External parasitism
Caused by external parasites (flea, tick, lice, mite/mange).
Symptoms: Infected animal becomes restless; Animals loose hair and rub their bodies against any rough surface
because it is itchy.
Control: Hand picking, dipping, dusting, spraying
RECORD KEEPING
The basic reason for keeping record is to provide financial and physical information about the business. Some types
of records are:
➢ Production Record: it helps in culling non-productive breeding stock from the herd and in selecting replacement
breeding animals. It is the starting point for over all herd record.
➢ Sow/Gilt Records
Identification: number and breed;
Breeding background from where the animal was brought.
➢ Reproduction record (Breeding record): Heat periods;
• Date of service; indicated as first and repeated service.
➢ Farrowing record: Expected farrowing date;
• Actual farrowing date;
• Average weight of piglet at birth;
• Abnormalities in the litter.
➢ Weaning record: Weaning date;
• Number of piglets weaned;
• Average weight of piglets at weaning time.
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➢ Litter management record: Date of routine management procedure e.g. identification, weighing, clipping of milk
teeth, iron injection, creep feeding, castration, weaning, mortality. Health record: Health problems experienced;
• Treatment used;
• Success and failure of treatment;
• Death losses and date of losses.
➢ Culling record: Date and reasons for culling.
➢ Production record: Weight at birth, 3 and 6 weeks of age;
Litter size he came from;
• Age at 90 kg life weight.
➢ Reproduction record: Age and weight at first mating;
• Dates and number of sows served;
• Litter size and weight at farrowing and weaning.
➢ Health record: Same as sow’s.
➢ Herd Record
• Females served with indications whether first service or retained on heat breeders;
• Number of sows farrowed;
• Total number of piglets born alive or dead;
• Number of piglets weaned;
• Average weaning weight of piglets.
➢ Death record: Death by category e.g. piglets, weaners, growers, finishers and breeding animals; Causes of death.
➢ Additional inventory: Number of pigs brought from outside and the reason for bringing in new pigs;
• When and where pigs were obtained from.
➢ Feed Consumption Record
• Data on feed consumption, if possible, with a breakdown for each pig category: creep feed, weaner feed, grower
feed, finisher feed, breeder feed,
• Or for each group of pigs: piglets’, weaners, growers, finishers, boars, sows.
➢ Market Information records.
• Number of pigs marketed;
• Age at marketing time;
• Marketing weight;
• Carcass grade for slaughtered pigs;
• Carcass value: i.e. gross revenue.
RABBIT PRODUCTION
Rabbit

Scientific name Oryctolagus cunniculus

Housing Hutchery
Mature male Buck
Mature female Doe
Parturition Kindling
New born Bunny
Gestation period 30 – 32 days
Group of rabbit Colony
Skin Pelt
Hair Fur
LABELLED PARTS OF A RABBIT

BREEDS
New Zealand White
It originated from the USA. It is white in colour and has a broad back and shoulders. It is medium in length. It has
pink eyes and weighs between 5 6kg at maturity. It is a heavy breed.
California White
It originated firm the USA. The colour is all white bat with black spots on nose, paws, ears and tails. It weighs
between 4.5 - 5.3kg at maturity. It is a prolific breed.
Chinchilla
It’s from Britain. This breed is blue grey in colour with a white belly. It has a fairly long body. It has a dewlap which
is obvious when the rabbit is in good condition and sitting in a resting position. It is early maturing and produces
good meat. Mature weight is between 4 45kg.
Flemish Giant
It originated from Belgium. The fur colour is usually grey but varieties may have black, blue or white colour at the
back and dark blue under colour. As the name suggests, this is a giant breed which at maturity can weigh between 6 -
9kg.
It is not a suitable breed for the beginner because it has low fertility, small litter size 'with more bones and intestines
compared with the medium breeds. .
Housing Requirements
Common design features of hutches are as follows:
✓ An overhanging roof to provide protection from rain and to limit the amount of sunlight entering the hutch.
✓ Three solid sides for protection from rain, wind and sun and with one side covered with wire mesh to allow
observation and ventilation.
✓ Wooden slatted or wire floors. Self-cleaning wire floors can lead to foot sores and the undersides of feet should be
checked regularly. ' > Solid floors give more protection from predators that may attack from below end are more
comfortable than wire floors, but need regular and thorough gleaming and I lot of bedding.
✓ There should be no ledges in the hutch or areas where faeces can accumulate. The ledges should be filtered with
thin strips of wood so as to avoid accumulation of faeces.
✓ Openings require padlock to discourage casual thieves.
✓ Hutch legs at least 1m high above the ground are required to deter predators such as rats, cats and dogs.
✓ Rat guards on the legs will keep away rats and mouse that may steal feed from the hutch. To avoid ants, the feet of
the legs of the hutch should be placed in can containing water or dirty oil.
Hutch Design
General purpose hutch dimension should be approximately 100cm above the ground. The height should be 60cm at
the front, 50cm at the back, 50-60cm width and 90-120m
Floor space for small-scale forage system is 1m2 per adult rabbit with no extra space for the litter.
In the 1arge-scale intensive system, floor space for rabbits up to 4kg live weight should be 0.35m2 per rabbit, 4-6kg
live weight should be 0.5m2 per rabbit with 0.2m2 extra for; the litter.
Floors should slope outwards. Wire floors should have 1-1.5cm squares and be made of thick galvanized wire. Slates
should be 2.5cm wide with 1cm gaps.
The hutch should be tall enough to allow rabbits stretch fully.
Behaviour
In the wild, the rabbit is active throughout the year and makes its home by burrowing into the ground with the aid of
strong nails on its feet. The burrow it builds consist of an entrance and a passage of l - 2m long at the end of which is
an enlarge section where the rabbit rests.
The wild rabbit is a social animal and lives with other rabbits, sometimes in a group of over 100. All the burrows of
these rabbits are close together and may be interlinking. Collectively, the community is called a ‘Rabbit warren’
Oestrous
The signs include: reddening of the vulva and general restlessness with head rubbing on the troughs and hutch side.
However, these signs of oestrous are not always apparent and the doc may mate when no signs are evident. The act of
mating stimulates the release of a surge of luteinizing hormone which results in the follicle shedding their ova about
10-12 hours after mating. The release of the ova can also sometimes be triggered by the play mounting of one doe by
another doc or by the simple presence of a buck. The oestrous cycle is l5 - l7 days.
There are two types of ovulation:
• Spontaneous ovulators: The animals do not require coitus for ovulation; ruminants, sow, bitch.
• Induced/Reflex ovulators: They require coitus for ovulation; cat, rabbit.
Mating
30th the bucks and the does are considered mature for mating at the age of 5-7 months. Does which are fed solely on
forages are normally ready for mating at 8-10 months. By this stage, their growth will be slowing and they will be
able to direct a larger proportion of available feed to reproduction.
Bucks can usually be used for mating at 6-8 months depending on condition. The mating ratio of buck to does should
not exceed l:10. Mating should be carried out in the early morning or late evening. If the doe is ready to be mated,
she will stand still within few seconds, stretch out and slightly raise her hind quarters so as to allow the buck to
mount and mate.
If the female is unfriendly to the male, she is removed back to her hutch and brought back the next day. if the buck
mounts the doe and falls on its side accompanied with a loud cry, then, mating is successful.
Remove doe and take her back to the same or another buck hours later if immediately after mating the doe urinates.
Urine harms the sperm.
Pregnancy
It lasts for 30-32 days. Protect doe from stress (dogs, general noise, heat). In terms of higher solar radiation, provide
shade or cover the sides of the hutch with wet sacks.
Clean the doe’s hutch from 20-25'h day of gestation. Provide a clean and a disinfected kindling box (45X45X60cm)
containing fresh dry litter (dry grass, straw or wood shavings). This gives maximum protection to the bunnies during
the first critical days of life. The bunnies are born hairless and blind and it takes l0-11 days for their eyes to open.
The doe plucks fur from her abdomen to make a nest at the latter days of gestation. This reveals her teat in
preparation for suckling.
Provide enough water during this period to keep the doc from dehydration. Dehydration is associated with the doe
eating up her bunnies shortly after birth (cannibalism). This should not only be blamed on dehydration since it is a
complicated issue such as painful birth, disease infection, natural tendencies and starvation.
Weaning period is 6-8 weeks.
Mating after weaning may be done after 2 weeks.
NB: Pseudo pregnancy
Selection for Breeding
Select rabbits for future breeding when they are 4-5 months of age. Base it on the following:
✓ Select those with heaviest birth weight;
✓ Give preference to rabbits from the largest litter;
✓ Select rabbits free from any sign of ill health;
✓ It should be docile and have good mothering abilities (doe);
✓ The male should have two well-developed testicles in its scrotum.
FEEDING SYSTEMS
There are three (3) feeding systems in rabbit production:
Extensive system: Total dependence on forages and kitchen waste.
Semi-Intensive system: The use of forages supplemented with prepared concentrate feeds.
Intensive system: Total dependence on concentrates.
Feeding Skills
The only method by which to satisfy all the nutrient requirements of rabbit is to feed a wide range of different feeds,
especially of those feeds that are known to be rich in those nutrients. Give at least three different forages at each feed.
Young forages tend to be high in amino acids and vitamins but low in minerals.
Observe the following rules when feeding rabbits on kitchen waste:
• It must be fed when fresh and unsoiled;
• It must be removed after a few hours if it is not eaten;
• It should represent less than half of the rabbit’s daily ration.
There should be less succulent feeds given to bunnies, nursing mothers and pregnant does to prevent diarrhoea.
When feeding mash rations, the particle sizes have to be fairly big to form course feed as fairly ground feed gets into
their nostrils and causes irritation and sneezing. To lessen this, sprinkle water on the feed before feeding it to the
animals. Chop roughages into smaller length to make feeding easier.
Some feedstuffs for rabbit’s feed are hay, peels from cassava, plantain, cocoyam and banana, kitchen left-overs,
maize, sorghum, millet, centrosema, tridax, Carrot, sunflower cake, groundnut cake, cotton seed cake (consider
gossypol), palm kernel cake, copra cake etc.
Waterers and feeders should be fixed to the hutch wall or floor. Place a clean stone inside the watering bowl
especially, when it is of plastic to stabilize it.
It is advisable to use earthen-ware dish as feeders and waterers. Clean them regularly to avoid infection.
N B: Coprophagy is the act of the rabbit eating its own faeces due to lack of Vitamin B complex.
Rabbit’s dropping is of two types:
i. One coated with mucous (caecotrophy) which the animal eats for Vitamin B; and
ii. Pelleted (the animal does not eat it).
Soyabean meal and fishmeal help alleviate the problem of the rabbit eating its own faeces since they are absorbed at
the upper digestive tract. Baobab leaf is of no exemption.
Pests
Ecto-parasites (lice, flees, ticks, mites).
Symptoms: Rough coat and skin; Scratching of body against objects.
Control: Hand picking, dusting, dipping.
Endo-parasites (worms)
Symptoms: Diarrhoea, emaciation, reduced feed Intake.
Control: Drenching.
Diseases
❖ Coccidiosis
Causal agent: Protozoa called coccidia
Occurs in dirty and overcrowded hutches Symptoms: Loss of weight
- Anorexia (lack of appetite
- Dullness
- Diarrhoea
- Dehydration
- Death in severe cases.
Control: Ensure hutch sanitation
Add coccidiostat to their drinking water.
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64
❖ Snuffle
Causal agent: It is caused by bacteria. It occurs mostly where there is lack of ventilation, overcrowding and build-up
of ammonia from accumulated urine.
Symptoms: Sneezing, noisy breathing, runny nose, wet and mottled fur on the face and inside of the front legs as a
result of the rabbit using its front legs to wipe its nose and face. '
Control: Keep rabbits in a ventilated hutch.
Isolate affected rabbits and treat with antibiotics.
❖ Sore Hocks
Causal agent: It is caused by bacteria (foot sore).
The sores may be caused by rough floors, particularly those made of very thin wire.
Control: Clean, dry and treat the sore with antibiotic ointment.
Correct the causal agent.
❖ Ear Canker
Causal agent: It is caused by mites (in the ears).
Symptoms: Mite causes skin injury and irritation;
- Skin develops a crust or scab;
- Affected animal shakes the head often and scratches the ears with the claws;
- The animal becomes weak and loses weight
Control: Remove crust or scabs in the ear with a swab and dress wound with palm oil or Vaseline
PRACTICAL ACTIVITY
Activity 1;
Students should visit a monogastric animal production farm to;
✓ Examine environmental control systems and biosecurity measures in a housing unit
✓ Observe various feed classes and formulation.
✓ Examine vaccination schemes and disease treatments schedules
✓ Castration, the removal of the needle teeth, de-beaking in poultry
✓ Self-Assessment