LECTURE NOTES

Business Communication
Introduction:
Business Communication is goal oriented. The rules, regulations and policies of a company have to be
communicated to people within and outside the organization. Business Communication is regulated by
certain rules and norms. In early times, business communication was limited to paper-work, telephone
calls etc. But now with advent of technology, we have cell phones, video conferencing, emails, satellite
communication to support business communication. Effective business communication helps in building
goodwill of an organization.
Business communication skills are critical to the success of any organization despite its size,
geographical location, and its mission. Business communication is interlinked with internal culture and
external image of any organization. So it is the determining factor to communication inside the
organization.
Good Business communication practices assists the organization in achieving its goal of informing,
persuading, favorable relationship, and organizational goodwill. Organizations can only survive if they
accept the rapidly changing global challenges and the communication processes are structured and
delivered. The present workforce is dynamic in nature so communication is a challenge when executed
against the backdrop of culture, technology and competition.
The success of any business to a large extent depends on efficient and effective communication. It takes
place among business entities, in market and market places, within organizations and between various
groups of employees, owners and employees, buyers and sellers, service providers and customers, sales
persons and prospects and also between people within the organization and the press persons. All such
communication impacts business. Done with care, such communication can promote business interests.
Otherwise, it will portray the organization in poor light and may adversely affect the business interest.
Communication is the life blood of any organization and its main purpose is to effect change to influence
action.
In any organization the main problem is of maintaining effective communication process. The
management problem generally results in poor communication. Serious mistakes are made because
orders are misunderstood. The basic problem in communication is that the meaning which is actually
understood may not be what the other intended to send. It must be realized that the speaker and the
listener are two separate individuals having their own limitations and number of things may happen to
distort the message that pass between them. When people within the organization communicate with each
other, it is internal communication. They do so to work as a team and realize the common goals. It could
be official or unofficial. Modes of internal communication include face-to-face and written
communication. Memos, reports, office order, circular, fax, video conferencing, meeting etc. are the
examples of internal communication. When people in the organization communicate with anyone outside
the organization it is called external communication. These people may be clients or customers, dealers
or distributors, media, government, general public etc. are the examples of external communication.
Meaning of communication
The word communication has been derived from the Latin word 'communicare' that means ‘to share’.
Communication may be defined as interchange of thought or information between two or more persons to
bring about mutual understanding and desired action. It is the information exchange by words or

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symbols. It is the exchange of facts, ideas and viewpoints which bring about commonness of interest,
purpose and efforts. According to Keith Davis,‘The process of passing the information and understanding
from one person to another."Communication is something so simple and difficult that we can never put it
in simple words," says T.S. Mathews. But we do need a definition to understand the term. In his book
Communication in Business, Peter Littledefines communication as follows: “Communication is the
process by which information is transmitted between individuals and / or organizations so that an
understanding response results.” Another very simple definition of 'communication' has been provided by
W.H. Newman and C.F. Summer Jr: “Communication is an exchange of facts, ideas, opinions, or
emotions by two or more persons.”
It is essentially a bridge of meaning between the people. By using the bridge a person can safely across
the river of misunderstanding’. It is the ability of mankind to communicate across barriers and beyond
boundaries that has ushered the progress of mankind.
It is the ability of fostering speedy and effective communication around the world that has shrunk the
world and made ‘globalization’ a reality. Communication had a vital role to play in ensuring that people
belonging to a particular country or a culture or linguistic group interact with and relate to people
belonging to other countries or culture or linguistic group. Communication adds meaning to human life.
It helps to build relationship and fosters love and understanding. It enriches our knowledge of the
universe and makes living worthwhile.
However, communication incorporates, besides commonality, the concepts of transfer, meaning and
information. It implies that there must be a receiver if communication is to occur. The sender of message
must consider the receiver while structuring his message from a technical standpoint as well as in
delivering it. When the receiver is not considered, there is either no response or there is wrong response.
Sharing of understanding would be possible only when the person, to whom the message is meant,
understands it in the same sense in which the sender of the message wants him to understand. Thus,
communication involves something more than mere transmission of the message or transmission and
physical receipt thereof. The correct interpretation of the message is important from the point of view of
organizational efficiency. As such, the greater the degree of understanding presents in the
communication, the more the likelihood that human action will proceed in the direction of
accomplishment of goals.
Business Communication:
William G. Scott defines business communication as “Administrative communication is a process which
involves the transmission and accurate replication of ideas ensured by feedback for the purpose of
eliciting actions which will accomplish organizational goals.”
The last definition covers 4 aspects of administrative communication, as follows:
1) The sender’s ability to transmit his own ideas accurately.
2) The receiver’s mental ability to get the same idea as were transmitted i.e. accurate replication.
3) The feedback or the receiver’s response.
4) Eliciting action which will help to achieve the goals.

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The process of communication involves a series of stages:

1) An idea arises in the mind of the sender, which he wants to share.

2) The sender encodes the idea in the form of a ‘message’.
3) The sender chooses some medium / channel to put across the message.
4) The receiver receives the message.
5) The receiver decodes – absorbs, understands, interprets the message.
6) The receiver sends feedback or his response.
The components or elements of the communication process are as follows:
1) The sender or the communicator
2) The message
3) Encoding
4) The medium / channel
5) The receiver
6) Decoding
7) Feedback
Importance of feedback in the process of communication
Effective feedback, both positive and negative, is very helpful. Feedback is valuable information that will
be used to make important decisions.
After getting the meaning of the message‘, the receiver provides feedback‘which he =encodes‘ in the
form of a response/reaction/reply to the message. Feedback plays an important part in the communication
process, because it is desired and expected by both the sender’ and the receiver‘. The sender’ wants to
know whether and how his =message’ has been received, and the =receiver‘, either consciously or
unconsciously, usually provides a sign indicating that he has received the message.
It should be noted that feedback may be positive or negative. Positive feedback indicates to the sender
the fact that his message has been received, understood, and accepted; and that he can proceed to the next
point. Negative feedback tells the sender that his message has not been properly understood. It, therefore,
functions as a corrective, as it makes the =sender‘realize the defects or flaws in his manner of encoding.
He will, therefore, have to encode the same message in a different way, so as to enable the =receiver‘to
understand it.
Feedback may be immediate or delayed. In the case of interpersonal communication it is quick, as the
sender is able to observe the response/reaction (e.g. a smile, nod, frown etc.) when he is conveying the
message. He can also guess whether the =receiver’ agrees or disagrees with him. However, in the case of
a letter, feedback may be delayed as the =receiver’ will take time to reply. Sometimes, feedback is
obtained indirectly, by observing the subsequent change of behavior on the part of the =receiver‘.

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Feedback is very important in business. It is important for the businessperson to know whether his/her
clients and customers are satisfied with the products and services, or whether s/he needs to make changes.
Feedback from employees is also necessary to improve the performance of an organization.

The diagrammatical representation of the communication process can be shown as follows:

Encoding Message Decoding Message

Sender Channel Medium Receiver

Feedback

How to achieve effective communication:

1) Communicate for a purpose
2) Compose message with care
3) Study the receiver
4) Select appropriate medium
5) Provide room for feedback
6) Act promptly on the received feedback
1.3 Importance and purpose of communication
Just as communication is vital for our existence in civilizes society, so also it is essential for functioning
of organization. So without communication there would be no organization. Needless to say,
communication is the ingredient that makes organization possible. It is the vehicle through which the
basic management functions are carried out. Managers direct through communication; they coordinate
through communication; and they staff, plan, and control through communication. Virtually all actions
taken in an organization are preceded by communication.
Purpose of Communication
For instruction: The instructive function unvarying and importantly deals with the commanding nature.
It is more or less of directive nature. Under this, the communicator transmits with necessary directives
and guidance to the next level, so as to enable them to accomplish his particular tasks. In this, instructions
basically flow from top to the lower level.

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For integration: It is consolidated function under which integration of activities is endeavored. The
integration function of communication mainly involves to bring about inter-relationship among the
various functions of the business organization. It helps in the unification of different management
functions.
For information: The purposes or function of communication in an organization is to inform the
individual or group about the particular task or company policies and procedures etc. Top management
informs policies to the lower level through the middle level. In turn, the lower level informs the top level
the reaction through the middle level. Information can flow vertically, horizontally and diagonally across
the organization. Becoming informed or inform others is the main purpose of communication.
For evaluation: Examination of activities to form an idea or judgment of the worth of task is achieved
through communication. Communication is a tool to appraise the individual or team, their contribution to
the organization. Evaluating one’s own inputs or other’s outputs or some ideological scheme demands an
adequate and effective communication process.
For direction: Communication is necessary to issue directions by the top management or manager to the
lower level. Employee can perform better when he is directed by his senior. Directing others may be
communicated either orally or in writing. An order may be common order, request order or implied order.
For teaching: The importance of personal safety on the job has been greatly recognized. A complete
communication process is required to teach and educate workers about personal safety on the jobs. This
communication helps the workers to avert accidents, risk etc. and avoid cost, procedures etc. For
influencing: A complete communication process is necessary in influencing others or being influenced.
The individual having potential to influence others can easily persuade others. It implies the provision of
feedback which tells the effect of communication.
For image building: A business enterprise cannot isolate from the rest of the society. There is
interrelationship and interdependence between the society and an enterprise operating in the society.
Goodwill and confidence are necessarily created among the public. It can be done by the communication
with the different media, which has to project the image of the firm in the society. Through an effective
external communication system, an enterprise has to inform the society about its goals, activities,
progress and social responsibility.
For employees’ orientation: When a new employee enter into the organization at that time he or she
will be unknown to the organization programs, policies, culture etc. Communication helps to make
people acquainted with the co-employees, superior and with the policies, objectives, rules and regulations
of the organization.

Communication Methods
Oral Communication:
Oral communication is communication by means of spoken words.
Principles of oral communications:
1. Know your objective
2. Know your audience

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3. Know your subject
4. Know how to use your voice
5. Know how to use body language
6. Know when to stop

Advantages: Disadvantages:

Its direct & time saving It lacks legal validity

It saves money Possibility of misunderstanding

It conveys the exact meaning of words It lacks accountability
It provides immediate feedback Problem of retention

It is more persuasive in nature The need for good speaking skills

On-the-spot additions, deletions and corrections Not always effective
are possible
Confidential messages can be communicated Lacks planning
It is informal and friendlier Diversion of subject matter

Develop relations
Motivates the speaker

Face-to-face communication

Advantages Disadvantages

1. Combination of verbal & non-verbal 1. Difficult to practice in large

factors organizations

2. Immediate feedback possible 2. Not effective if the receiver does not pay
attention

3. Modifications while delivering the 3. Not effective in large gatherings

message is possible

4. Particularly suitable for discussions

Written communication:
Written communication is the expression of language by means of visible signs.

Advantages Disadvantages

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 Reference  Time, trouble & expenses

 Permanent record  Feedback is slow

 Legal validity  Problem of storage

 Aids memory & retention  Lacks friendliness

 Accurate & organized  Unsuited to countries where illiteracy

rate is high

 Fixing responsibility  Unsuited to countries where illiteracy

rate is high

 Wider reach  Problem of instant clarification

 Goodwill  Problem of writers

 Less chances of misunderstanding  Problem of communicating secret

information

 Suitable for lengthy message

 Corporate image

Non-verbal Communication:
Communication is the transfer of information from one person to another. Most of us spend
about 75 percent of our waking hours communicating our knowledge, thoughts, and ideas to
others. However, most of us fail to realize that a great deal of our communication is of a non-
verbal form as opposed to the oral and written forms.
Nonverbal communication includes facial expressions, eye contact, tone of voice, body posture
and motions, and positioning within groups. It may also include the way we wear our clothes or
the silence we keep.
In person-to-person communications our messages are sent on two levels simultaneously. If the
nonverbal cues and the spoken message are incongruous, the flow of communication is hindered.
Right or wrong, the receiver of the communication tends to base the intentions of the sender on
the non- verbal cues he receives.

Categories and Features G. W. Porter divides non-verbal communication into four broad
categories:
Physical This is the personal type of communication. It includes facial expressions, tone of
voice, sense of touch, sense of smell, and body motions.
Aesthetic This is the type of communication that takes place through creative expressions:
playing instrumental music, dancing, painting and sculpturing.
Signs This is the mechanical type of communication, which includes the use of signal flags, the
21-gun salute, horns, and sirens.

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 Symbolic This is the type of communication that makes use of religious, status, or egobuilding
symbols.

Our concern here will be with what Porter has called the physical method of non-verbal
communication.
Knowledge of non-verbal communication is important managers who serve as leaders of
organizational "teams," for at least two reasons:
 To function effectively as a team leader the manager must interact with the other members
successfully. Non-verbal cues, when interpreted correctly, provide him with one means to do so.
 The team members project attitudes and feelings through non-verbal communication. Some
personal needs such as approval, growth, achievement, and recognition may be met in effective
teams. The extent to which these needs are met is closely related to how perceptive the team
leader and team members are to non-verbal communication in themselves and in others on the
team.

If the team members show a true awareness to non-verbal cues, the organization will have a
better chance to succeed, for it will be an open, honest, and confronting unit. Argyle and his
associates have been studying the features of nonverbal communication that provide information
to managers and their team members.

Nonverbal communication is indirect, without words or without verbal messages. Non verbal
communication constitutes 45% of the impact of message in oral communication. The major
elements of non-verbal communication can be divided into body language (Kinesics), vocal tone,
space & proximics, dress & grooming etc.
1. Eye contact is a direct and powerful form of non-verbal communication. The superior in the
organization generally maintains eye contact longer than the subordinate. The direct stare of the
sender of the message conveys candor and openness. It elicits a feeling of trust. Downward
glances are generally associated with modesty. Eyes rolled upward are associated with fatigue. 2.
Facial Expressions. A smile, frown, raised eyebrow, yawn, and sneer all convey information.
Facial expressions continually change during interaction and are monitored constantly by the
recipient. There is evidence that the meaning of these expressions may be similar across cultures.
3. Gestures: One of the most frequently observed, but least understood, cues is a hand
movement. Most people use hand movements regularly when talking. While some gestures (e.g.,
a clenched fist) have universal meanings, most of the others are individually learned and
idiosyncratic.
A gesture is an action of body , hand or head, which conveys a message. Eg: yes, no, Namaste,
wait.
a. Communicating information: eg: ‗V‘ sign, pointing finger etc.
b. Communicating information : eg: clapping indicates appreciation, fistclenching shows
aggression, face touching shows anxiety
c. Supports speech
d. Expressing self-image
4. Posture: The way we stand or sit, the position of the hand & head, basically how we carry
ourselves. Eg. Hunched shoulders show low confidence, in emergency a person tends to sit on
the edge of a chair. Posture can be used to determine a participant‘s degree of attention or
involvement, the difference in status between communicators, and the level of fondness a person
has for the other communicator. Studies investigating the impact of posture on interpersonal

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 relationships suggest that mirror-image congruent postures, where one person‘s left side is
parallel to the other‘s right side, leads to favorable perception of communicators and positive
speech; a person who displays a forward lean or a decrease in a backwards lean also signify
positive sentiment during communication. Posture is understood through such indicators as
direction of lean, body orientation, arm position, and body openness.
5. Tactile Communication
Communication through touch is obviously non-verbal. Used properly it can create a more direct
message than dozens of words; used improperly it can build barriers and cause mistrust. You can
easily invade someone's space through this type of communication. If it is used reciprocally, it
indicates solidarity; if not used reciprocally, it tends to indicate differences in status. Touch not
only facilitates the sending of the message, but the emotional impact of the message as well.
6. Dress & grooming: Uniforms have both a functional and a communicative purpose. This
man's clothes identify him as male and a police officer; his badges and shoulder sleeve insignia
give information about his job and rank. Elements such as physique, height, weight, hair, skin
color, gender, odors, and clothing send nonverbal messages during interaction.
7. Proxemics: Proxemics is the study of how people use and perceive the physical space around
them. The space between the sender and the receiver of a message influences the way the
message is interpreted.
The perception and use of space varies significantly across cultures and different settings within
cultures.
Space in nonverbal communication may be divided into four main categories: intimate, social,
personal, and public space.

Dimensions of Communication

In an organization, communication flows in 5 main directions

1. Downward
2. Upward
3. Horizontal /Lateral
4. Diagonal
5. Grapevine Communication

Downward Communication:
Communication that flows from a higher level in an organization to a lower level is a downward
communication. In other words, communication from superiors to subordinates in a chain of command is
a downward communication. This communication flow is used by the managers to transmit work-related
information to the employees at lower levels. Employees require this information for performing their

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jobs and for meeting the expectations of their managers. Downward communication is used by the
managers for the following purposes
 Providing feedback on employees’ performance.
 Giving job instructions
 Providing a complete understanding of the employees’ job as well as to communicate to them
how their job is related to other jobs in the organization.
 Communicating the organizations mission and vision to the employees
 Highlighting the areas of attention.
Organizational publications, circulars, letter to employees, group meetings etc are all examples of
downward communication. In order to have effective and error-free downward communication, managers
must:
 Specify communication objective.
 Ensure that the message is accurate, specific and unambiguous.
 Utilize the best communication technique to convey the message to the receiver in right form

Advantages Disadvantages

 Discipline  Lack of vision & arbitrary decision

making can prove detrimental and
harmful to the organization

 Implementation of orders happen  Balance in sharing information is

efficiently important so is indicious use of
discretion

 Tasks & positions can be well  Delay implementation of decisions

defined

 Clarity in the minds of employees

about their responsibility, avoids  Oral communication leads to
confusion information loss, distraction & lack
of accountability

 It helps in uniting different level of  Absence of feedback mechanistic

authority & brings in team spirit can lead to frustration, lack of trust
in authority & feel exploited

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Upward Flow of Communication:
Communication that flows to a higher level in an organization is called upward communication. It
provides feedback on how well the organization is functioning. The subordinates use upward
communication to convey their problems and performances to their superiors.
The subordinates also use upward communication to tell how well they have understood the downward
communication. It can also be used by the employees to share their views and ideas and to participate in
the decision-making process. Upward communication leads to a more committed and loyal workforce in
an organization because the employees are given a chance to raise and speak dissatisfaction issues to the
higher levels. The managers get to know about the employees’ feelings towards their jobs, peers,
supervisor and organization in general. Managers can thus accordingly take actions for improving things.
Grievance Redressal System, Complaint and Suggestion Box, Job Satisfaction surveys etc all help in
improving upward communication. Other examples of Upward Communication are -performance reports
made by low level management for reviewing by higher level management, employee attitude surveys,
letters from employees, employee-manager discussions etc.

Advantages Disadvantage

 Employee’s participation  Failure on the part of subordinates to take

initiative & participate in the decision
making

 Trust , emotional bonding, understanding  Long line of authority, inability of the

& cooperation between management & seniors to listen or to act, create barriers
employees Employees enthusiastic

 Authority earns subordinates cooperation  Long line of authority, inability of the

response to management‘s call seniors to listen or to act, create barriers

 Delays due to slow transmission, distortion

of communication further hamper the
process

 Employees failure to handle upwards

communication

Lateral / Horizontal Communication:

Communication that takes place at same levels of hierarchy in an organization is called lateral
communication, i.e., communication between peers, between managers at same levels or between any
horizontally equivalent organizational members.

Advantages Disadvantages

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  It is time saving  Ungoverned horizontal communication to
leads to indiscipline

 It facilitates co-ordination of the task.  Employees tend to waste precious time

arguing and debating over issues and
decision

 It facilitates co-operation among team

members
 It provides emotional and social assistance
to the organizational members.

 It helps in solving various organizational

problems.

 It is a means of information sharing.

 It can also be used for resolving conflicts

of a department with other department or
conflicts within a department.

Diagonal Communication or crosswise communication:

Communication that takes place between a manager and employees of other workgroups is called
diagonal communication. It generally does not appear on organizational chart. For instance - To design a
training module a training manager interacts with Operations personnel to enquire about the way they
perform their task. The Accounts people of an organization visiting different employees in various
departments for their IT calculation, bonus for workers etc. fall under diagonal communication.
Diagonal communication Speeds up the flow of information, Creates healthy work relationships, Brings
in proper co-ordination among different sections, Makes problem solving easy and Controls distortion &
dilution of message because of direct, inter level communication.

Advantages Disadvantages

 Speeds up the flow of information  It is likely to bypass the vertical chain of

commands. This may create doubts in the
minds of bypassed Superiors

 Creates healthy work relationships  It may be seen as interference

 Brings in proper co-ordination among  It may create doubts the superior‘s

different sections accountability & cooperation

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 Channels of communication
A breakdown in the communication channel leads to an inefficient flow of information. Employees are
unaware of what the company expects of them. They are uninformed of what is going on in the company.
This will cause them to become suspicious of motives and any changes in the company. Also without
effective communication, employees become department minded rather than company minded, and this
affects their decision making and productivity in the workplace.
Eventually, this harms the overall organizational objectives as well. Hence, in order for an organization
to be run effectively, a good manager should be able to communicate to his/her employees what is
expected of them, make sure they are fully aware of company policies and any upcoming changes.
Therefore, an effective communication channel should be implemented by managers to optimize worker
productivity to ensure the smooth running of the organization.
Formal Channels of Communication
The messages which are circulating on regulated, preset channels, of an organization are creating the
formal communication. The content of the communication is related to the organization’s activity, to the
work and to anything which is related to those. The formal communication can consist in verbal
messages, nonverbal messages, written, under the shape of letters, telephone messages, radio messages,
and printed, internal notes. Even some gestures can consist in formal communication. The messages are
transmitted by the authorized ones: on official channels, these arrive to the ones who need to react, to
people or machines which need to know the content of these messages.
Usually, all formal communications are recorded and kept in the organization’s evidence. Are retained
copies of these by the transmitter, by the receiver, by all of the desks from the organization which need to
know and keep the information? Examples of formal communications are given by work commands,
reports and financial evidence, reports over sells / inventory, statements referring to the company’s
policies, post descriptions, etc.
The formal communication network is formed out of formal channels, created by setting a formal system
of responsibilities according to the hierarchical structure of the organization. The perfect network is the
one which contains communication channel from bottom up, downwards and horizontally. Often the
direction of horizontal communication is missing or it is inefficient and in this way the accuracy of the
information decreases. The situation is appearing because of the lack of permanent circulation of the
information between departments, although this is vital for the organization in conditions of existent
competition, or the lack of specialists in organizational communication.
The number of communication channels available to a manager has increased over the last 20 odd years.
Video conferencing, mobile technology, electronic bulletin boards and fax machines are some of the new
possibilities. As organizations grow in size, managers cannot rely on face-to-face communication alone to
get their message across. A challenge the managers’ face today is to determine what type of
communication channel should they opt for in order to carryout effective communication.
In order to make a manager's task easier, the types of communication channels are grouped into three
main groups: formal, informal and unofficial.
 A formal communication channel transmits information such as the goals, policies and
procedures of an organization. Messages in this type of communication channel follow a chain of

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 command. This means information flows from a manager to his subordinates and they in turn
pass on the information to the next level of staff.
 An example of a formal communication channel is a company's newsletter, which gives
employees as well as the clients a clear idea of a company's goals and vision. It also includes the
transfer of information with regard to memoranda, reports, directions, and scheduled meetings in
the chain of command.
 A business plan, customer satisfaction survey, annual reports, employer's manual, review
meetings are all formal communication channels.
Informal Channels of Communication
Informal communication arises out of all those channels that fall outside the formal channels and it is
also known as grapevine. It is established around the societal affiliation of members of the organization.
Informal communication does not follow authority lines as in the case of formal communication.
Informal communication takes place due to the individual needs of the members of an organization and
subsists in every organization. Normally, such communication is oral and may be expressed even by
simple glance, sign or silence. Informal communication, is implicit, spontaneous multidimensional and
diverse. It often works in group of people, i.e. when one person has some information of interest; he
passes it on to his informal group and so on.
An organization can make efficient use of informal channels to fortify the formal channels of
communication. It acts as a valuable purpose in expressing certain information that cannot be channeled
via the official channels. It satisfies the people desires to identify what is happening in the organization
and offers an opportunity to express dreads, worries and complaints. Informal communication also
facilitates to ameliorate managerial decisions as more people are involved in the process of decision-
making.
Inspite on many advantages, informal communication has certain disadvantages. Informal
communication contains facts, deceptions, rumors and unclear data. The informal channels of
communication may transmit completely imprecise information that may harm rather than help an
organization. In addition, it is impossible to fix the responsibility for its origin or flow of information.
However, for the efficient working of any organization both formal and informal communications are
required.
An example of an informal communication channel is lunchtime at the organization's cafeteria/canteen.
Here, in a relaxed atmosphere, discussions among employees are encouraged. Also managers walking
around, adopting a hands-on approach to handling employee queries is an example of an informal
communication channel. Quality circles, team work, different training programs are outside of the chain
of command and so, fall under the category of informal communication channels.

Grapevine Communication (Informal Communication)

Grapevine is an informal channel of business communication. It is called so because it stretches
throughout the organization in all directions irrespective of the authority levels. Man as we know is a
social animal. Despite existence of formal channels in an organization, the informal channels tend to

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develop when he interacts with other people in organization. It exists more at lower levels of
organization. Grapevine generally develops due to various reasons. One of them is that when an
organization is facing recession, the employees sense uncertainty. Also, at times employees do not have
self-confidence due to which they form unions. Sometimes the managers show preferential treatment and
favor some employees giving a segregated feeling to other employees. Thus, when employees sense a
need to exchange their views, they go for grapevine network as they cannot use the formal channel of
communication in that case. Generally during breaks in cafeteria, the subordinates talk about their
superior’s attitude and behavior and exchange views with their peers. They discuss rumours about
promotion and transfer of other employees. Thus, grapevine spreads like fire and it is not easy to trace the
cause of such communication at times.
Example of Grapevine Network of Communication
1. Suppose the profit amount of a company is known. Rumour is spread that this much profit is there and
on that basis bonus is declared.
2. CEO may be in relation to the Production Manager. They may have friendly relations with each other.
Advantages of Grapevine Communication
1. Grapevine channels carry information rapidly. As soon as an employee gets to know some confidential
information, he becomes inquisitive and passes the details then to his closest friend who in turn passes it
to other. Thus, it spreads hastily.
2. The managers get to know the reactions of their subordinates on their policies. Thus, the feedback
obtained is quick compared to formal channel of communication.
3. The grapevine creates a sense of unity among the employees who share and discuss their views with
each other. Thus, grapevine helps in developing group cohesiveness.
4. The grapevine serves as an emotional supportive value.
5. The grapevine is a supplement in those cases where formal communication does not work.
Disadvantages of Grapevine Communication
1. The grapevine carries partial information at times as it is more based on rumours. Thus, it does not
clearly depicts the complete state of affairs.
2. The grapevine is not trustworthy always as it does not follows official path of communication and is
spread more by gossips and unconfirmed report.
3. The productivity of employees may be hampered as they spend more time talking rather than working.
4. The grapevine leads to making hostility against the executives.
5. The grapevine may hamper the goodwill of the organization as it may carry false negative information
about the high level people of the organization.
A smart manager should take care of all the disadvantages of the grapevine and try to minimize them. At
the same time, he should make best possible use of advantages of grapevine.

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Technology and Business Communication
Technology has changed business in many ways, but its effect on communication is arguably the most
significant. The use of technology in daily business operations is constantly evolving, and one such
example is the use of technology in business communication. Being in touch is very important to
businesses, that is why it is no wonder why a lot of resources is spent in improving the communication
procedures of various businesses. The revolution of the Internet has allowed businesses to have more
options as far as business communication was concerned. It made the technologies of software, hardware,
and network converge into one cohesive and solid system, which made the optimization of various
business procedures faster. Indeed, the employees and the organizations as a whole greatly benefit from
the use of technology in business. With a feasible business plan, organizations can save a lot of money
and raise the level of productivity of the staff if the use of technology were well-planned and executed.
Even medium-scale companies now have a chance to participate in the fierce competition among larger
businesses. This is just one proof that technology in business communication is capable of increasing
worker productivity. If you come to think about, the advantages do not need an employee to undergo a
radical adjustment. On the contrary, tasks are made simpler and more convenient for the user.
Communication Is Faster
Whether you need to speak with an employee who is traveling in another state or country or you need to
communicate with your supplier half way around the world, technology allows you to do so
instantaneously. In fact, thanks to email and text messages, you can now send messages to people in other
time zones before you forget without worrying that you will wake them up. In fact, the Internet has
allowed business people to communicate easily regardless of time zone and language issues.
Expanded Communication Opportunities
Technology allows individuals to communicate and carry on a business relationship without ever meeting
face to face, so people in all parts of the world now have the chance to interact with a company in a rural
part of India. For example, technology allowed for the emergence of the virtual assistant, a worker who
completes tasks for her client online without having ever met him, in the 20th century. Cost-Cutting
Procedures
In addition to migrating to a digital means of communicating, a business can save a lot with
technological advances in business communication. Business software products that combine voice and
data no longer have the need for multiple lines that can add a bulky amount to communication expenses.
In addition, minimal technical support is needed since most of the installation, operations, and
maintenance procedures can be done with little or no supervision at all.
Network Convenience
The use of modern technology in business communication eradicates the complexity that is involved in
monitoring network traffic. This is because all the communication data travels at the same stream.
Therefore, there is only one network that needs to be monitored, and this lessens the work of network
administrators, giving them more time to work on other tasks. The benefits of technology in business
communication are almost immeasurable, since its advantages are long term and ell-encompassing.
Businesses can use this to their advantage to increase productivity, to raise revenues, to build better
relationships with customers, and to survive longer in the business arena.

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Modes of communication
1. Telephone – Telephone is a device that transmits speech at a distance through the medium of
electronic waves. In 1876 telephone was invented by Alexander Graham Bell
Types of telephones:-
 Landline or standard telephones
 Cellular or Mobile phones: These are wireless devices that use radio waves to transmit
sounds. The two main cellular systems in operation are GSM – Global System for Mobile
Communications, and CDMA – Code Division Multiple Access.
 Satellite phones: These are used in areas where communication links are absent or
destroyed.
 Ethernet phones: There are digital phones which connect directly to a computer
network.

Telephone services:

1) Networking: – This works as a base for computer network and fax transmission.
2) Teleconferencing and videoconferencing : - Sounds and video are transmitted via phone lines
or satellites, so that people in different places and different countries can be communicate with
one another at the same time.

Telephone etiquette:

 Speak politely, precisely, clearly, confidently. Be positive & talk friendly with a smile in voice. 2.
Avoid shouting or speaking too low.
 Listen carefully and if a part of message is not clear, politely ask for repetition.
 While answering telephone calls, introduce yourself, your company & greet the person.
 Before making a call, one must be mentally prepared, if need be note down points.
 Make sure you have delivered the message completely and is understood by the receiving party.

Advantages
1. Time saving device
2. Immediate feedback
3. Legal validity
4. Intercom facility
5. It provides a large range of services like STD (Subscriber Trunk dialing), ISD (International
Subscriber dialing), call waiting, call forwarding etc.

Disadvantages
1. Body language cannot be communicated.
2. It is sometimes not time saving
3. Call may be made at a wrong time..

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 2. Fax: Fax is connected to telephone, can be used to send documents, photos, charts, graphs,
drawings, diagrams, certificates etc. It scans a printed page, converts it into signals & transmits
this signal over a telephone line to the receiving fax machine. Drawbacks – cost, time, quality.
3. Computer –
 Parts of computers – input, output, storage, processing devices.
 What is software & hardware?
 Uses of computer.
 LAN, WAN, Internet.
 Uses of Internet – Search, distant learning, E-commerce, videoconferencing, E-mail, social
networking sites, cloud computing etc.

The Role of the Manager in effective business communication

Business communication is no longer about how to write a letter, email or use effective writing skills. It
has also extended to other areas in the business, for example, excellent relationships within the business.
A manager should not only concentrate on successful communication with its external clients, customers
and stakeholders. The employees of the business actually are internal clients and should also be treated
with care. Many scholars refer to this as internal marketing, a very important feature of good business
communication. Employees’ well-being and work satisfaction play a large role in their productivity and
how loyal they will be towards the business. The role of the manager is to ensure good relationships with
and among employees. A healthy working environment is equally important. Previous research has
indicated that employees also have other career aspirations than only a salary.
Unhappy employees as a result of poor communication processes in the business can negatively affect the
corporate image of the business and make the business less successful. The manager of the business
should also keep track with changes in society, especially the ever changing business environment.
Communication processes in the business should reflect these changes.
Anyone involved in management – whether it’s for a large or small company – knows well the relational
complexities involved. Sometimes you have to give criticisms on an employee’s performance, other times
you get the privilege of praising another employee’s performance. You’re often tasked with overseeing
projects both large and small, while directing a diverse group of individuals and personalities in the
process. Needless to say, communication skills are essential for any management position.
While communication in management is not always easy, you may find yourself having to work with
difficult people, or with unmotivated people. But if you come to the table with the right tools to do the
job, you will have an effective team of individuals proud of the work they do for you, and you can feel
your own sense of pride in developing these key business relationships in the workplace.

Key Areas of Communication in Management

 Relationship Building
Relationship building is a key discipline to master. It helps you establish trust and friendship with
your employees. They will come to you with problems, and when the time comes that you must give
negative feedback they will actually be able to hear you out. On the flip side of that coin, when it
comes time to give positive feedback, your employees will take it to heart and it will motivate them

18
to do better work. In any work environment, as a manager is important to build these relationships
early on.
 Employee Engagement
One aspect of the manager-employee relationship has to do with including employees in on project
management and development - allowing them to give their input. This doesn’t necessarily mean that
you have to accept every idea that comes across your desk, but the fact that you are sincerely
listening to concerns positions you as a respected and trusted leader within the company. In short, if
employees truly feel like they are a part of the process, they will connect to projects in a more
meaningful way, and do high-quality work.
 Employee Recognition
Every manager should learn how to properly recognize employees in the workplace. However, it’s
not enough to simply recognize and praise an employee in your office, you must make every effort to
make recognition a very public event. Recognizing an employee for their hard work shows that you
value their contributions to the organization. Again, this is another communication strategy that will
motivate employees to do better.
 Employee Coaching
Finally, there is the discipline of employee coaching. Unfortunately, not every employee candidate is
going to walk into the office with a flawless performance record. They may fall down and make a
mess a few times before really grasping the tools needed to succeed in the workplace. You, as a
manager, are an instrumental part of that success. Successful managers should be having in-depth
conversations with employees about performance about once every quarter at least. It’s important
that you keep these conversations as informal as possible, so you can actually connect with the
employee you’re trying to coach.
 Communication is Motivating
Communication is a life force. If employees know where they stand in the work place, and they feel
comfortable in that environment, they will be motivated to do good work. Solid communication skills
are not just good for the life of the company, but they help you understand how everything is going
within the company. It gives you some real-world “data,” so to speak.
Barriers in Business Communication
For any kind of communication to be successful, it is essential that the receiver attributes the same
meaning to the message as intended by the sender of the message. But all acts of communication are
not perfect or successful. At times, some meaning is lost as the message encounters various barriers
along its passage between the sender and the receiver. Such barriers may arise at any of the stages
through which a message passes during the process of communication. This is also called
miscommunication.
Some of the common problems that lead to the failure of communication are: noise, cultural
differences, complexity of subject matter, personal biases, semantic problems, socio- psychological
barriers, filtering, information overload, poor retention, poor listening, goal conflicts, slanting,
inferring, etc.

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Types of barriers
Barriers to communication can be classified into the following broad categories: 1) Physical or
environmental barriers, 2) Physiological or biological barriers, 3) Semantic or language barriers, 4)
Personal barriers, 5) Emotional or perceptional barriers, 6) Socio-psychological barriers, 7) Cultural
barriers, and 8) Organizational barriers.
Physical or Environmental Barriers
Physical barriers are those barriers which are caused due to some technical defects in the media used
for communication and/or due to certain disturbances in the surrounding environment.
Often, the term ‘noise’ is used as a blanket term to refer to the physical barriers in general. But noise,
in its literal sense, is also one of the factors that give rise to the physical barriers during the process of
communication.
Besides noise, wrong selection of medium, lack of acoustics, poor lighting, frequent movements of
hands, fiddling with a pen, or even serving of tea during an important conversation- all of these are
also responsible for creating physical barriers in the communication process.
Noise
Noise is the first major barrier to communication. Communication is distorted by noise that crops up
at the transmission level.
The meaning attributed to the word ‘noise’ in the field of Communication is derived from the realm
of Physics. In Physics, noise refers to “a disturbance, especially a random and persistent disturbance,
which obscures or reduces the clarity of a signal”.
The modern-day connotation of the word ‘noise’ is “irrelevant or meaningless data” as is apparent
from its usage in the field of Computer Science.
For example, the noise of the traffic around a school obstructs the smooth flow of information
between the teacher and the students. It makes oral communication difficult. Similarly, poor signal or
static while talking over the cell phone or while using the public address system or while watching
TV also distorts the sound signals and disrupts communication. Bad weather conditions may also
sometimes interfere with the transmission of signals and may lead to breakdown of the
communication channels.
As discussed above, noise is not only the disruption of sound signals, but it also includes all the
barriers that may arise at any of the various stages of communication. In a broad sense, it denotes
semantic barriers, perceptional barriers as well as psychological barriers.
Time and Distance
Time and distance may also obstruct the smooth flow of information. Today, because of
technological advancements, we have faster means of communication available to us and this in turn
has made the world a smaller place. But at times, these means of communication may not be easily
accessible because of unavailability or due to technical/technological problems. This may lead not
only to a physical but also a communication gap between the transmitter and the receiver.

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 Time differences between people living in two different countries may affect communication
between them. Even people working in different shifts in the same organization may also face
problems in communicating effectively.
Improper seating arrangement in a classroom or in a conference hall may also act as a barrier to
effective communication as it is difficult to maintain eye contact with one’s audience.
Wrong Choice of Medium
This can also create a barrier to effective communication. For example, if an expert uses charts or
graphs or PowerPoint presentations to orient the illiterate workers or volunteers to a new method of
working, they are bound to be ill-equipped to infer any information or instructions from such
sophisticated presentations.
Surroundings
Adverse weather conditions affect not only the means of communication, but also have an impact on
the sender and the receiver of the message. When two people have to communicate with each other
under extreme weather conditions, whether too hot or too cold, their surroundings does have a direct
repercussion on the effectiveness of the exchange that takes place between them.
Thus, environmental factors determine people’s mood and also influence their mental agility and
thereby their capacity to communicate effectively. Extreme heat and humidity make people either
hyper or listless and thus cause immense stress which in turn affects clear thinking and the attitude of
the communicator; whereas, extreme cold weather induces laziness and also impedes the ability to
think clearly and respond sharply, thereby causing communication failure.
Physiological Barriers
Physiological barriers are related to a person’s health and fitness. These may arise due to disabilities
that may affect the physical capability of the sender or the receiver. For example, poor eyesight,
deafness, uncontrolled body movements, etc.
Physical defects in one’s body may also disrupt communication. While communicating, a person
uses–
 his vocal (speech) organs to produce sound/speech
 his hand and fingers to write
 his ears to take in the spoken words
 his eyes to absorb the written words
Flawless functioning of these body organs is inevitable for effective communication to take place. In
case of any defect in any of these organs, the successful completion of communication will be
difficult to accomplish.
Speaking can be adversely affected by stammering, fumbling, utterance of improper sounds due to
defective vocal organ/s, etc.
Semantic or Language Barriers
Semantics is the systematic study of the meaning of words. Thus, the semantic barriers are barriers
related to language. Such barriers are problems that arise during the process of encoding and/or
decoding the message into words and ideas respectively.

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 Both the oral and the written communication are based on words/symbols which are ambiguous in
nature. Words/symbols may be used in several ways and may have several meanings. Unless the
receiver knows the context, he may interpret the words/symbols according to his own level of
understanding and may thus misinterpret the message.
The most common semantic barriers are listed as under:
a. Misinterpretation of Words
Semantic problems often arise because of the gap between the meaning as intended by the sender
and that as understood by the receiver. This happens when the receiver does not assign the same
meaning to the word/symbol as the transmitter had intended.
Words are capable of expressing a variety of meanings depending upon their usage, i.e. in the
context in which they are used. The association between the word/symbol and the meaning assigned
to it is of arbitrary nature.
For example, the word 'yellow' when used as an adjective can have multiple connotations depending
upon its usage. Words have two levels of meaning- literal (descriptive) and metaphorical
(qualitative). ‘Yellow’, besides being a primary colour, also stands for ‘freshness’, ‘beauty’,
‘sickness’, ‘decay’, etc. Hence, the receiver is free to interpret it in any of these ways based on his
own imagination and experience.
But for communication to be perfect, it is essential that the receiver must assign to it the same
meaning which the sender had in his mind while encoding the message. Therefore, there is always a
possibility of misinterpretation of the messages. Mostly, such problems arise when the sender does
not use simple and clear words that can convey the exact meaning to the receiver.
b. Use of Technical Language
Technical or specialized language which is used by people or professionals who work in the same
field is known as jargon. Such technical language can be a barrier to communication if the receiver
of the message is not familiar with it. For example, in the computer jargon, 'to burn a CD' means 'to
copy the data on a CD'. To a layman, the word 'burn' may have a very different connotation.
c. Ambiguity
Ambiguity arises when the sender and the receiver of the message attribute different meanings to the
same words or use different words to convey the same meaning. Sometimes, wrong and speculative
assumptions also lead to ambiguity. A sender often assumes that his audience would perceive the
situation as he does or have the same opinion about an issue or understand the message as he
understands it, and so on. All such assumptions may turn out to be wrong and cause communication
failure.
Personal Barriers
Communication is interpersonal in nature. Thus, there are certain barriers that are directly linked to
the persons involved in the communication process, i.e. the sender and the receiver, which influence
the accurate transfer of the message. These are called personal barriers.
Personal barriers have to do with the age, education, interests and needs or intentions that differ
from person to person.

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 In any business organization, the attitude of the superiors and the subordinates play a vital role in
determining the success of communication. If the superiors have a hostile attitude, then there are
chances that they may filter the information or manipulate the message, sometimes intentionally, in
order to achieve certain selfish motives. Many superiors are not open to suggestions and feedback as
they presume that their subordinates are not capable of advising them. Also, they often tend to keep
too busy with work and do not pay much attention to communication. Due to this, the downward
flow of information within the organization is badly affected and this in turn leads to poor
performance.
Emotional or Perceptional Barriers
Emotional or perceptional barriers are closely associated with personal barriers. Personal barriers
arise from motives and attitudes whereas emotional or perceptional barriers have an added dimension
that includes sentiments and emotions as well.
If the receiver does not evaluate the information with an open mind, i.e. objectively, his
judgment/evaluation would be colored with his biases and/or his emotions, thus inducing him to read
too much into a message. This would interfere with the exact transfer of information and cause
misinterpretation.
Such a barrier may also emerge at the time of encoding the message. Over enthusiasm on the part of
the sender may lead him to invest his message with meaning/s which he may actually not have
intended to.
Indolence, apathy, or the tendency to procrastinate, either on the part of the sender or the receiver,
also lead to withholding of important information thus creating a barrier. Extreme emotions like
euphoria, excitement, anger, stress, depression, etc. also get in the way of effective communication.
All these factors may create biases in the mind of the sender or the receiver.
Socio-Psychological Barriers
Socio-psychological barriers can also be considered as one of the offshoots of the personal barriers,
akin to the perceptional barriers. We need to study it as a subcategory of personal barriers because a
person’s attitude is shaped not only by his instincts and emotions, but also by his approach towards
and his interaction with the people around him, and hence the need for this fine distinction between
the personal, the perceptional and the socio-psychological barriers.
Difference in Perception
Moreover, in a communication situation, the communicators have to deal with two aspects of the
reality- the one as they see it and the other as they perceive it. The mind filters the message i.e. the
words/symbols/ signs and attributes meaning to them, according to individual perception.
Each individual has his own distinctive filter, formed by his/her experiences, emotional makeup,
knowledge, and mindset which s/he has attained over a period of time. Because of this difference in
perceptions, different individuals respond to the same word/symbol/sign based on their own
understanding of the situation and ascribe meaning to it on the basis of their unique filter.
At times, this difference in perception causes communication gap, i.e. distortion, in the message. In
face-to-face communication, this gap can be easily eliminated as there is immediate feedback. But in
written communication, the semantic gap between the intended meaning and the interpreted meaning
remains unidentified, as the feedback is delayed or sometimes there is no feedback at all.

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 Prejudices
Besides, a person with deeply ingrained prejudices is very difficult to communicate with. He is not
responsive to discussion or to new ideas, information, viewpoints and opinions. He has a closed mind
and tends to react antagonistically, thus ruling out all possibilities of communication. An unreceptive
mind can, hence, be a great barrier in communication. To overcome this barrier, people should be
receptive of new ideas and must learn to listen considerately with an open mind.
Information Overload
Furthermore, information overload leads to poor retention and causes information loss. So,
whenever there is some important information to be conveyed, the communicators must use the
written channel of communication. On the basis of the above discussion, we may thus conclude that
the socio-psychological factors do have a profound impact on the effectiveness of communication.
Cultural Barriers
Cultural differences give rise to a great deal of complexity in the encoding and the decoding of
messages not only because of the difference in languages, but also because of plenty of culture-
specific assumptions at work in the mind of the sender as well as the receiver. People belonging to
different cultures may attach different meanings to words, symbols, gestures, and behavior or they
may perceive each other’s’ social values, body language, attitude to space distancing and time, social
behaviour and manners, etc., i.e. the entire culture in general, very differently depending upon their
own standards, attitudes, customs, prejudices, opinions, behavioral norms, etc., i.e. their own distinct
culture.
Thus, cultural barriers arise when people belonging to different cultures insist on preserving their
cultural identities and at times, judge the other cultures as inferior to their own.
Organizational Barriers
Organizational structure greatly influences the flow of information within an organization. Some
major organizational barriers are as follows:
a. Goal Conflicts
There may be goal conflicts within the organization between the superiors and the subordinates,
among people working in the different departments, among the colleagues, etc. This may create a
hostile atmosphere within the organization and can lead to serious communication breakdown.
b. Organizational Policies
These are also to a great extent responsible for determining the kind of rapport that people working
in the same organization share with each other. If the organizational policy is such that it restricts the
free flow of information in all directions then communication would not be successful. In some
organizations, there may be rules to restrict the flow of certain messages and this may deter
employees from conveying those messages, however important they may be.
If an organization favours the open door policy, the subordinates would not feel shy or reluctant to
approach their superiors directly. But in the organizations where the formal channels of
communication have to be strictly adhered to, the superiors and the subordinates share an awkward

24
relationship. They experience a lot of discomfiture while interacting with each other. Because of this,
the objective of communication may never be accomplished.
c. Organizational Hierarchy
The hierarchical structure of the organization may also impede the flow of information and this can
cause delay in taking decisions. When the message passes along the chain of command in an
organization, there are chances of filtering and distortion of the message at almost every level before
it reaches the intended receiver. Thus, the hierarchical structure of the organization is also one of the
important factors that may create a barrier to effective communication.
Filters in Business Communication
What is Filtering?
Filtering is altering the interpretation of the message by applying certain influences or biases. The
receiver will filter the message according to their experience and as a result the interpretation of the
message can be very different from what was intended. The consequence of filtering is that there can
be misunderstanding which can lead to an unexpected response.
For example, the project manager may ask a team member if the document has been completed. The
team member may interpret this as asking whether it has been written, and not whether it has also
been reviewed and signed off.
Causes of Filtering
Some of the common areas that cause filtering are:
• Language: the receiver interprets the message based on their translation of the language to
thoughts and ideas.
• Culture: of the recipient and their understanding of the culture of the environment they are in (the
workplace, the organisation, the industry, the local area and country).
• Semantics: the receiver interprets the message based on their understanding of the meaning of the
words used.
• Knowledge base: the receiver utilises a different knowledge base on which to interpret the
message.
• Implication: the interpretation of the message may be based on assumptions. An extreme example
of implication is sarcasm, where the opposite of what is meant to be interpreted is said

5 types of filters:
1. Distractions.
2. Emotional states.
3. Beliefs and expectations.
4. Differences in style.

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 5. Self-protection.
Distractions:
 When you say something to your partner do you have his/her attention?
 External things like noisy kids, a hearing problem, or background noise can be a problem.
 Internal factors are such things as preoccupation, feeling tired, planning what else is to be
done that day, etc.
 Make it easier to pay attention to your partner. Ask for their attention.
Emotional states:
 Moods greatly affect communication.
 Studies have shown that we tend to give people more benefit of the doubt when we’re in a good
mood and less when we’re in a bad mood.
 When we’re in a bad mood we are more likely to perceive whatever our partner says or does
more negatively no matter how positive he/she is trying to be.
 Don’t use a filter such as a bad mood as a reason to treat your partner badly.
 Talking about how you feel may be the best first step in starting a conversation, especially if is
about important matters.
Beliefs and expectations:
 Many studies have shown that we tend to see what we expect to see in others and in situations.
 It takes humility to recognize and admit that you do this.
 It has been shown that expectations not only affect what we perceive but can influence the actual
behavior of those around us. For example, if you believe that someone is an extrovert, he is more
likely to sound like an extrovert when talking with you, even if that person is normally
introverted. We “pull” behavior from others consistent with what we expect.
 This is one reason why old habits and feelings and patterns of communication come back with
full force during holidays when we are with the family we grew up in.
 We can easily get into “mind reading”, thinking that we know what someone else means or
wants.
Differences in style:
 One person may be more expressive and one more reserved.
 Styles are determined by many influences including culture, gender, and upbringing. For
example, in one family it may be very normal to raise one’s voice when making a point and in
another raising one’s voice was never done. When people from these two varied backgrounds
marry, for one to raise his/her voice may be perceived by the other as threatening.
 In other families there may have been many conversations going on at once around the dinner
table while in other families to talk while someone else is talking is considered rude.
 All families develop spoken as well as unspoken rules for conversing, caring, making decisions,
and otherwise relating to each other. The key is to become aware of the unspoken and therefore
assumed rules that you have grown up with and learn to adapt them to living in your current
family.

Self-protection:

26
  This filter comes from the fear of rejection we struggle with in marriage.
 Fear is the big enemy of secure and warm attachment. It will stop us from saying what we truly
feel or want. Even simple statements such as, “Would you like to go see that new movie?” can
reflect a fear of rejection. Instead of saying it directly, “I want to go see that new movie; want to
go?” we often hide our desire because speaking of it reveals more of who we are and increases
the risk of rejection.
 Movies may not matter so much as do feelings, desires, expectations.

Listening Skills
A good listener will listen not only to what is being said, but also to what is left unsaid or only partially
said. Effective listening involves observing body language and noticing inconsistencies between verbal
and non-verbal messages. For example, if someone tells you that they are happy with their life but
through gritted teeth or with tears filling their eyes, you should consider that the verbal and non-verbal
messages are in conflict, they maybe don't mean what they say.
Listening is the ability to accurately receive and interpret messages in the communication process.
Listening is key to all effective communication, without the ability to listen effectively messages are
easily misunderstood – communication breaks down and the sender of the message can easily become
frustrated or irritated. Listening is so important that many top employers provide listening skills training
for their employees. This is not surprising when you consider that good listening skills can lead to: better
customer satisfaction, greater productivity with fewer mistakes, increased sharing of information that in
turn can lead to more creative and innovative work. Many successful leaders and entrepreneurs credit
their success to effective listening skills. Richard Branson frequently quotes listening as one of the main
factors behind the success of Virgin. Effective listening is a skill that underpins all positive human
relationships, spend some time thinking about and developing your listening skills – they are the building
blocks of success.
Listening is Not the Same as Hearing
Hearing refers to the sounds that you hear, whereas listening requires more than that: it requires focus.
Listening means paying attention not only to the story, but how it is told, the use of language and voice,
and how the other person uses his or her body. In other words, it means being aware of both verbal and
non-verbal messages. Your ability to listen effectively depends on the degree to which you perceive and
understand these messages.
Types of Listening
Active Listening
Active listening is a skill that can be acquired and developed with practice. However, active listening can
be difficult to master and will, therefore, take time and patience. ‘Active listening' means, as its name
suggests, actively listening. That is fully concentrating on what is being said rather than just passively
‘hearing’ the message of the speaker. Active listening involves listening with all senses. As well as giving
full attention to the speaker, it is important that the ‘active listener’ is also ‘seen’ to be listening -
otherwise the speaker may conclude that what they are talking about is uninteresting to the listener.
Interest can be conveyed to the speaker by using both verbal and non-verbal messages such as
maintaining eye contact, nodding your head and smiling, agreeing by saying ‘Yes’ or simply ‘Mmm

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hmm’ to encourage them to continue. By providing this 'feedback' the person speaking will usually feel
more at ease and therefore communicate more easily, openly and honestly.
 Listening is the most fundamental component of interpersonal communication skills.
Listening is not something that just happens (that is hearing), listening is an active process in
which a conscious decision is made to listen to and understand the messages of the speaker.
Listeners should remain neutral and non-judgmental, this means trying not to take sides or form
opinions, especially early in the conversation. Active listening is also about patience - pauses and
short periods of silence should be accepted. Listeners should not be tempted to jump in with
questions or comments every time there are a few seconds of silence. Active listening involves
giving the other person time to explore their thoughts and feelings, they should, therefore, be
given adequate time for that.
 Active listening not only means focusing fully on the speaker but also actively showing
verbal and non-verbal signs of listening. Generally speakers want listeners to demonstrate
‘active listening’ by responding appropriately to what they are saying. Appropriate responses to
 listening can be both verbal and non-verbal:
Passive Listening
Passive Listening occurs when a listener does not verbally respond to the speaker. The listener may
deliberately or unintentionally send non-verbal messages through eye contact, smiles, yawns or nods.
Sometimes passive listening is appropriate. If the speaker wants to vent frustration or express an opinion
he may listen passively. Passive listening is mechanical and effortless. It does not require any special
effort. You hear what your teacher says and you might be able to tell the difference between major and
minor points of the lecture, but that is about it. Lack of enthusiasm and a "careless" attitude during class
characterize a student who is a passive listener. Active listeners on the other hand really concentrate on
the content of the lecture and not on the lecturer or any random distractions in the room or their mind.
They do more than focus on facts, figures, and ideas and actively associate the material presented with
their own experiences. The content heard at every lecture is converted to something useful and
meaningful for the student. You must pay special attention in class because, unlike when reading a
textbook, you only get one chance to hear and understand the information presented to you.
Barriers to Listening
There are many things that get in the way of listening and you should be aware of these barriers, many of
which are bad habits, in order to become a more effective listener. Barriers and bad habits to effective
listening can include:
Excessive Talking
Good conversational skills are an asset, and a person with this skill is more likely to achieve professional
success. However, talking more than is necessary is a barrier to effective communication. People hesitate
to interact with a person who talks excessively without listening to them. They may also get bored, and
excessive talking may be perceived as aggression.
Prejudice
Prejudice is a preconceived opinion of feeling, which is usually irrational. Prejudice is very dangerous
and has the potential to bring animosity into the team and to break team spirit. The reason for a prejudice
may be the speaker's race, religion, age or appearance. A prejudiced person will not make any effort to
listen and understand.

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Distractions
The four main types of distractions are physical, mental, auditory and visual. Here's how to avoid this
common barrier:
It is fine to have personal beliefs and values, but an excessive attachment to them will have a negative
impact on your ability to communicate effectively with others. Learn to appreciate the fact that each and
every person has his or her own set of beliefs and values.
Misunderstanding
Inability to hear correctly is one of the many reasons for misunderstanding of what the speaker is trying
to communicate. This inability to hear is often the result of prejudice. To avoid misunderstanding, always
clarify with the speaker to ensure that you have understood correctly.
Interrupting
Interrupting a conversation with improper body language or inappropriate words will have a negative
impact in effective communication.
Bringing in Emotions
Emotions erect barriers to effective communication. A listener's senses are not likely to be functioning at
their optimum level when he or she is angry. Likewise, it is not possible to understand or appreciate what
the speaker is saying if the listener is excessively sad.
Noise
Noise is "any unwanted sound. It is a great impediment to clear communication. It is impossible to listen
in a noisy environment. It becomes a frustrating experience for both the speaker and the listener.
Previous experiences
We are all influenced by previous experiences in life. We respond to people based on personal
appearances, how initial introductions or welcomes were received and/or previous interpersonal
encounters. If we stereotype a person we become less objective and therefore less likely to listen
effectively.
Having a Closed Mind
We all have ideals and values that we believe to be correct and it can be difficult to listen to the views of
others that contradict our own opinions. The key to effective listening and interpersonal skills more
generally is the ability to have a truly open mind - to understand why others think about things differently
to you and use this information to gain a better understanding of the speaker.

Traits of a good Listener

The following attributes of good listening are suggestive of the skills needed.

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Concentration: Good listening is normally hard work. At every moment we are receiving literally
millions of sensory messages. Our ears are hearing the buzzing of the computer fan, street sounds, music
in the background and dozens of other sounds and thousands more signals are knocking at the doors of
our senses. We have to repress almost all of these and concentrate on the verbal sounds (and visual clues)
from one source - the speaker. And this concentration, if something that most of us have not been
thoroughly trained in how to do. You should focus your attention on the words, ideas and feeling related
to the subject. Concentrate on the main ideas or points. Don't let examples or fringe comments detract
you. All of this takes a conscious effort.
Attention. Attention may be defined as the visual portion of concentration on the speaker. Through eye
contact and other body language, we communicate to the speaker that we are paying close attention to
his/her messages. All the time we are reading the verbal and nonverbal cues from the speaker, the speaker
is reading ours. What messages are we sending out? If we lean forward a little and focus our eyes on the
person, the message is we are paying close attention.
Eye contact. Good eye contact is essential for several reasons: First, by maintaining eye contact, some of
the competing visual inputs are eliminated. You are not as likely to be distracted from the person talking
to you. Second, most of us have learned to read lips, often unconsciously, and the lip reading helps us to
Understand verbal messages. Third, much of many messages are in non-verbal form and by watching the
eyes and face of a person we pick up clues as to the content. A squinting of the eyes may indicate close
attention. A slight nod indicates understanding or agreement. Most English language messages can have
several meanings depending upon voice inflection, voice modulation, facial expression, etc. Finally, our
eye contact with the speaker is feedback concerning the message.
Receptive Body Language. Certain body postures and movements are culturally interpreted with specific
meanings. The crossing of arms and legs is perceived to mean a closing of the mind and attention. The
nodding of the head vertically is interpreted as agreement or assent. If seated, the leaning forward with the
upper body communicates attention. Standing or seated, the maintenance of an appropriate distance is
important. Too close and we appear to be pushy or aggressive and too far and we are seen as cold.
Objective: We should be open to the message the other person is sending. It is very difficult to be
completely open because each of us is strongly biased by the weight of our past experiences. We give
meaning to the messages based upon what we have been taught the words and symbols mean by our
parents, our peers and our teachers. Talk to someone from a different culture and watch how they give
meaning to words. Or another listening challenge is to listen open and objectively to a person with very
different political or religious beliefs. Relatively a few people can listen, understand and appreciate such
messages which are very different from their own.
Questioning/Clarifying. Questions can serve the same purpose as restating the message. If you are
unclear about the intent of the message, ask for more information after allowing sufficient time for
explanations. Don't ask questions that will hurt, embarrass or show up the other person. Only part of the
responsibility is with the speaker. You have an important and active role to play also. If the message does
not get through, two people have failed the speaker and you as an active listener.
Leave the Channel Open. A good listener always leaves open the possibility of additional messages. A
brief question or a nod will often encourage additional communications

Speaking Skills

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Your voice can reveal as much about your personal history as your appearance. The sound of a voice and
the content of speech can provide clues to an individual's emotional state and a dialect can indicate their
geographic roots. The voice is unique to the person to whom it belongs. For instance, if self-esteem is
low, it may be reflected by hesitancy in the voice, a shy person may have a quiet voice, but someone who
is confident in themselves will be more likely to have command of their voice and clarity of speech.
Effective speaking is being able to speak in a public context with confidence and clarity, whilst at the
same time reflecting on your own personality.
Confidence
Confidence is not something that can be learned like a set of rules; confidence is a state of rules;
confidence is a state of mind. Positive thinking, practice, training, knowledge and talking to other people
are all useful ways to help improve or boost your confidence levels. Confidence comes from feelings of
well-being, acceptance of your body, mind and belief in your own ability, skills and experience. Low-
confidence can be a result of many factors including: fear of the unknown, criticism, being unhappy with
personal appearance, feeling unprepared, poor timemanagement, lack of knowledge and previous failures.
Confidence is not a static measure, our confidence to perform roles and tasks can increase and decrease.

Paralinguistic features
Rate
Rate refers to the number of words we utter per minute. Speaking too fast is related to lack of comfort.
Recall those speeches of your friends which they rapidly delivered in the class; remember how some of
them just wanted to finish their speech and rush back to their seats of safety! A speaker who does not feel
sure of himself/herself generally feels intimidated by the challenge of speaking in professional situations.
This leads to a feeling of nervousness, and the best solution seems to speak as fast as one can and be
finished with the frightening prospect of standing in front of the audience as the breakneck speed of
delivery not only reveals the speaker’s lack of confidence but also makes it difficult for the audience to
comprehend, assimilate, and digest what is being said by the speaker.
Just as too fast a pace causes inconvenience to the audience, so does a pace far too slow. In fact, too slow
a pace of your speech is likely to cause monotony and boredom to such an extent that the audience start
feeling sleepy and lose interest in the speech. Moreover, too slow a rate suggests lack of preparedness on
the part of the speaker.
Pauses
Pauses are an essential part of all human interactions. We pause between different thought units in our
day-to-day interactions with others. Therefore, if we do not pause while we speak in professional
situations, it only makes our speech appear unnatural and hasty. Pauses lend credibility to the text of the
speech. The speakers who pause suggest that they are quite accomplished, poised, and composed, and are
not really worried about not being able to locate an idea once they have paused. Thus, if we pause, we
display a sense of security and feeling of assurance that we know how to go further in our speech after a
pause. On the contrary, those who do not pause seem to be in a hurry. Moreover, those who rush through
their speeches and presentations are nervous about using pauses, as once they stop, they feel they would
not know how to resume or reconnect. But then, such speakers are far from being impressive and
accomplished. By all means, we must use pause while speaking in professional situations. They make our

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speech sound natural. Moreover, pauses are also required for the audiences to comprehend what you say,
relate it to your earlier statement, and critically participate in the act of communication.
The most crucial thing about pause is their timing. A rightly timed pause is as important as a rightly
placed word. Since a pause has to indicate either the emphasis or the conclusion of a thought unit, it is
important not to put them at wrong places. Therefore, whenever you pause, pause at the conclusion of a
certain thought unit and not in between. Remember, a timed pause adds to the value of what you say and
makes it adequately natural and emphatic. A wrongly placed pause, however, distracts the audience. Also
remember that though a pause is always a natural breather, both to the speaker and the listeners, silence—
a longer pause— makes the audience fell impatient.
Volume
A speaker’s volume often decides how he/she is likely to be received by the audience. The speaker who
speaks at a low volume is likely to be seen as someone who lacks his/her lack of conviction of ideas. Such
a speaker can never appear or emerge to be the master of the situation. Low volume is essentially
associated with diffidence, and once you reveal that you lack confidence, you cannot gain control of your
audience or command their respect as a speaker. At the other extreme is the speaker who speaks so loudly
that the people in the front rows start dreading him/her. A speaker of this type is also likely to be rejected
by the audience, simply because it suggests his/her arrogance.
Pitch/Intonation/Voice Modulation
Pitch refers to the rise and fall in human voice. Just like the other aspects of voice, pitch too plays a
crucial role in communicating your ideas to others. In fact, it is the pitch—the rise and fall—in your voice
which can express all the emotions that are to be conveyed. So that do not confuse volume and pitch, let
us understand the difference between the two. Since pitch can express and convey all our moods,
emotions, and sentiments, it becomes really important for us to carefully employ the desired pitch
patterns. Quite often, we find the speech of a person quite boring because he/she does not use the variety
of pitch patterns as per the requirement of the situation. In order to understand this, listen carefully to
those songs in which the singer keeps singing in a solemn way until he/she reaches the climax. The
change in the initial note and the later part is the change in the pitch patterns. The changes and varieties of
pitch patterns can be observed even while we continue to listen to the song at the same volume. It is,
therefore, suggested that you employ the variegated pitch patterns quite judiciously in order to keep your
listeners engaged and interested in your expression.
Pronunciation and Articulation
Pronunciation plays an important role in expressing our ideas. As discussed earlier, English is not our
native language and hence the pronunciation of Indian speakers of English is different from that of the
native speaker. An effort should constantly be made to make our speech as close to standard English as
possible. In terms of pronunciation, we should stick to RP (Received Pronunciation)English as it is
recognized as the standard pronunciation of English worldwide. The chapter on phonetics discusses the
different RP sounds of English and also gives you sufficient information regarding word stress, weak
forms, and intonation patterns following which you can make your spoken English intelligible to a native
listener. Articulation refers to our ability to speak different sounds distinctly. If we are able to speak and
enunciate different sounds in a distinct and crisp manner, our articulation is considered appropriate and
impressive. On the other hand, if we mix or mumble words, it is regarded as sloppy and inelegant.
Persuasive speaking

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 A persuasive speech is a specific type of speech in which the speaker has a goal of convincing the
audience to accept his or her point of view. The speech is arranged in such a way as to hopefully cause
the audience to accept all or part of the expressed view. Though the overarching goal of a persuasive
speech is to convince the audience to accept a perspective, not all audiences can be convinced by a single
speech and not all perspectives can persuade the audience.
An example of a persuasive speech is a sales pitch. During a sales pitch, the speaker is trying to convince
the audience to buy his or her product or service. If the salesperson is successful, the audience (the person
being sold to) will choose to purchase the product or service. However, salespeople understand that just
because someone does not make a purchase after the first sales pitch does not mean the pitch failed.
Persuasion is often a process. People may need multiple persuasive pitches and a lot of outside
information before they are ready to accept a new view.
Persuasive speeches are composed of both logical and emotional appeal. Logic appeals are arguments that
present a set of information and show why a conclusion must rationally be true. For example, arguments
heard in court are logical arguments. Emotional appeals are appeals that seek to make the audience feel a
certain way so that they will accept a conclusion. Negative political ads, for example, often incorporate
emotional appeals by juxtaposing an opponent with a negative emotion such as fear.
Public Speaking
Public speaking is speaking to a group of people in a structured, deliberate e manner intended to inform,
influence, or entertain the listeners. The purpose of public speaking can range from simply transmitting
information, to motivating people to act, to simply telling a story. A good orator should be able to change
the emotions of their listener, not just inform them. In public speaking, as in any form of communication,
there are five basic elements, often expressed as "who is saying what to whom utilizing what medium with
what effects”
Feeling some nervousness before giving a speech is natural and even beneficial, but too much
nervousness can be detrimental. Here are some proven tips on how to control your butterflies and give
better presentations during public speaking:
1. Know your material. Pick a topic you are interested in. Know more about it than you include in your
speech. Use humor, personal stories and conversational language – that way you won’t easily forget what
to say.
2. Practice. Practice! Rehearse out loud with all equipment you plan on using. Revise as necessary.
Work to control filler words; Practice, pause and breathe. Practice with a timer and allow time for the
unexpected.
3. Know the audience. Greet some of the audience members as they arrive. It’s easier to speak to a
group of friends than to strangers.
4. Know the room. Arrive early, walk around the speaking area and practice using the microphone and
any visual aids.
5. Relax. Begin by addressing the audience. It buys you time and calms your nerves. Pause, smile and
count to three before saying anything. ("One one-thousand, two one-thousand, three one-thousand. Pause.
Begin.) Transform nervous energy into enthusiasm.
6. Visualize yourself giving your speech. Imagine yourself speaking, your voice loud, clear and
confident. Visualize the audience clapping – it will boost your confidence.

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7. Realize that people want you to succeed. Audiences want you to be interesting, stimulating,
informative and entertaining. They’re rooting for you.
8. Don’t apologize for any nervousness or problem – the audience probably never noticed it.
9. Concentrate on the message – not the medium. Focus your attention away from your own anxieties
and concentrate on your message and your audience.
10. Gain experience. Mainly, your speech should represent you — as an authority and as a person.
Experience builds confidence, which is the key to effective speaking.
Reading Skills
Purpose of Reading
Reading is purposeful. The way you read something will depend on your purpose. You read different
texts in different ways. In everyday life, you usually know why you are reading, you have a question and
you read to find the answer. You usually know your way around your favourite newspaper, so if you want
to know the sports results, you go straight to the correct page, or if you want to know what is on television
tonight, you go straight to the television page. You do not start on the first page. When you read a novel,
it is different. You start at the beginning and slowly move towards the end. In academic reading, you need
to be flexible when you read - you may need to read quickly to find relevant sections, then read carefully
when you have found what you want. General efficient reading strategies such as scanning to find the
book or chapter, skimming to get the gist and careful reading of important passages are necessary as well
as learning about how texts are structured in your subject.
Techniques for good comprehension
Skimming and Scanning
Skimming is used to quickly identify the main ideas of a text. When you read the newspaper, you're
probably not reading it word-by-word; instead you're scanning the text. Skimming is done at a speed three
to four times faster than normal reading. People often skim when they have lots of material to read in a
limited amount of time. Use skimming when you want to see if an article may be of interest in your
research.
There are many strategies that can be used when skimming. Some people read the first and last
paragraphs using headings, summarizes and other organizers as they move down the page or screen. You
might read the title, subtitles, subheading, and illustrations. Consider reading the first sentence of each
paragraph. This technique is useful when you're seeking specific information rather than reading for
comprehension. Skimming works well to find dates, names, and places. It might be used to review graphs,
tables, and charts. Scanning is a technique you often use when looking up a word in the telephone book or
dictionary. You search for key words or ideas. In most cases, you know what you're looking for, so you're
concentrating on finding a particular answer.
Scanning involves moving your eyes quickly down the page seeking specific words and phrases.
Scanning is also used when you first find a resource to determine whether it will answer your questions.
Once you've scanned the document, you might go back and skim it. When scanning, look for the author's
use of organizers such as numbers, letters, steps, or the words, first, second, or next. Look for words that
are bold faced, italics, or in a different font size, style, or color. Sometimes the author will put key ideas
in the margin.

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 Structure of Text The term “text structure” refers to how information is organized in a passage. The
structure of a text can change multiple times in a work and even within a paragraph. Readers are often
required to identify text structures on state reading tests. Therefore, it is important that they are given
exposure to the various patterns of organization. There are seven commonly used patterns of organization
involved in the structure of text. They are Cause and Effect, Chronological, Compare and Contrast, Order
of Importance, Problem and Solution, Sequence and Process and Descriptive.
Structure of Paragraph
A paragraph consists of several sentences that are grouped together. This group of sentences together
discusses one main subject. Paragraphs have three principal parts. These three parts are the topic
sentence, body sentences, and the concluding sentence. We will also talk briefly about details in
paragraphs.
A topic sentence usually comes at the beginning of a paragraph. It is usually the first sentence in a formal
academic paragraph. Not only is a topic sentence the first sentence of a paragraph, but, more importantly,
it is the most general sentence in a paragraph. What does "most general" mean? It means that there are not
many details in the sentence, but that the sentence introduces an overall idea that you want to discuss later
in the paragraph. The second and third sentences are called supporting sentences. They are called
"supporting" because they "support," or explain, the idea expressed in the topic sentence. Of course,
paragraphs often have more than two supporting ideas. In formal paragraphs you will sometimes see a
sentence at the end of the paragraph which summarizes the information that has been presented. This is
the concluding sentence. You can think of a concluding sentence as a sort of topic sentence in reverse.
Essentials of effective Reading
Reading is an astoundingly complex cognitive process. While we often think of reading as one singular
act, our brains are actually engaging in a number of tasks simultaneously each time we sit down with a
book. There are five aspects to the process of reading: phonics, phonemic awareness, vocabulary, reading
comprehension and fluency. These five aspects work together to create the reading experience.
Phonics
Phonics is the connection between sounds and letter symbols. It is also the combination of these sound-
symbol connections to create words. If you think about it, letters are arbitrary. There is nothing innately
bed-like about the written word “bed”. It is simply the collection of letters and corresponding sounds that
we agree constitute the word “bed”.
Awareness Phonemic
Phonemic awareness is closely related to phonics because both involve the connection between sounds
and words. While phonics is the connection between sounds and letters, phonemic awareness is the
understanding that words are created from phonemes (small units of sound in language). These may seem
like the same thing, but there is a subtle difference in the two. Phonics is used only in written language
because it involves letters. Phonemes are sounds only. While they can be represented using letters, they
can also be simply the auditory sounds of words. Phonemes are most often learned before a child begins
to read because they are centered on the sounds of language rather than written words.
Vocabulary
In order to read words we must first know them. Imagine how frustrating and fruitless it would be to read
this article if all of the words were unfamiliar to you. Vocabulary development is an ongoing process that

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continues throughout one’s “reading life”. Knowing the exact meaning of the word in a text always helps
to understand the entire paragraph easily. Context clues provide another method for discovering new
words. Context clues are the “hints” contained in a text that help a reader figure out the meaning of an
unfamiliar word. Context clues are basically any item in the text that points to the definition of a new
word.
Fluency
Fluency is a reader’s ability to read with speed, accuracy and expression. Thus it requires the reader to
combine and use multiple reading skills at the same time. While fluency is most often measured through
oral readings, good readers also exhibit this skill when they are reading silently. Fluency is intimately tied
to comprehension. A reader must be able to move quickly enough through a text to develop meaning. If
he is bogged down reading each individual word, he is not able to create an overall picture in his mind of
what the text is saying. Even if the reader is able to move rapidly through a text, if he cannot master the
expression associated with the words, the meaning of it will be lost.
Reading Comprehension
Comprehension is what most people think reading is. This is because comprehension is the main reason
why we read. It is the aspect of reading that all of the others serve to create. Reading comprehension
understands what a text is all about. It is more than just understanding words in isolation. It is putting
them together and using prior knowledge to develop meaning. Reading comprehension is the most
complex aspect of reading. It not only involves all of the other four aspects of reading, it also requires the
reader to draw upon general thinking skills. When a reader is actively engaged with a text, he is asking
and answering questions about the story and summarizing what he has read.

Writing Skills
Writing skills are an important part of communication. Good writing skills allow you to communicate
your message with clarity and ease to a far larger audience than through facets-face or telephone
conversations. You might be called upon to write a report, plan or strategy at work; write a grant
application or press release within a volunteering role; or you may fancy communicating your ideas
online via a blog. And, of course, a well written CV with no spelling or grammatical mistakes is essential
if you want a new job.
Types of Writing
There are four types of writing or four writing styles that are generally used. Knowing all these four
different types of writing and their usages are important for any writer. A writer’s style is a reflection of
his personality, his unique style, his voice and his way to approach his audience and readers.
Expository Writing:
Expository writing is a subject-oriented writing style, in which the main focus of the author is to tell you
about a given topic or subject, and leave out his personal opinions. He furnishes you with relevant facts
and figures and does not include his opinions. This is one of the most common type of writing styles,
which you always see in text books and usually “How – to” articles, in which the author tells you about a
given subject, as how to do something. Examples of expository writing include encyclopedia entries,
news reports, instruction manuals, informative essays, and research papers.

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Descriptive writing:
Descriptive writing is a style of writing which focuses on describing a character, an event or a place in
great details. It is sometimes poetic in nature in which the author is specifying the details of the event
rather than just the information of that event happened. It is often poetic in nature and it describes places,
people, events, situations or locations in a highly-detailed manner.
Persuasive Writing:
Persuasive writing, unlike ‘Expository Writing’, contains the opinions, biasness and justification of the
author. Persuasive writing is a type of writing which contains justifications and reasons to make someone
believe on the point the writer is talking about. Persuasive writing is for persuading and convincing on
your point of view. It is often used in complain letters, when you provide reasons and justifications for
your complaint; other copywriting texts, T.V commercials, affiliate marketing pitches etc. are all different
types of persuasive writing, where author is persuading and convincing you on something he wants you to
do and/or believe. Persuasive writing is equipped with reasons, arguments and justifications. Here the
author takes a stand and asks you to believe his point of view. It often asks for a call or an action from the
readers.
Narrative Writing:
Narrative writing is a type of writing in which the author places himself as the character and narrates you
to the story. Novels, short stories, novellas, poetry, biographies can all fall in the narrative writing style.
Simply, narrative writing is an art to describe a story. In narrative writing, a person, being a narrative,
tells a story or event. It has characters and dialogues in it and based on definite and logical beginnings,
intervals and endings. Narrative writing often has situations like disputes, conflicts, actions, motivational
events, problems and their solutions. Narratives usually progress chronologically, and must have a clear
beginning, middle and end. Short stories, novels, personal narratives, anecdotes, and biographies are all
examples of narrative writing.
Importance of writing
Writing is the primary basis upon which your work, your learning, and your intellect will be judged—in
college, in the workplace, and in the community. It expresses who you are as a person. Writing is portable
and permanent. It makes your thinking visible. This skill helps you move easily among facts, inferences,
and opinions without getting confused and without confusing your reader. It also fosters your ability to
explain a complex position to readers, and to yourself. Writing helps you refine your ideas when you give
others feedback. Writing requires that you anticipate your readers’ needs and also demonstrates your
intellectual flexibility and maturity. You can evaluate the adequacy of your argument through this. It
stimulates you to extend a line of thought beyond your first impressions or gut responses. Writing equips
you with the communication and thinking skills you need to participate effectively in democracy. Finally
it is an essential job skill.
Style of Writing
There are many characteristics of good writing. Five of the most important are parallel structure,
conciseness, sentence variety, correct spelling and grammar, and effective paragraphing.
 Parallel Structure
Use parallel or consistent structure when writing sentences and paragraphs. For example, avoid mixing
forms of verbs in the same sentence. If you use the -ing form of a verb in a list, use the -ing form for all

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verbs in the list. Similarly, avoid switching from active to passive voice in a series of clauses. When you
read your sentences out loud, you should hear a rhythm being repeated--if something breaks the rhythm,
check to see if you need to improve the sentence's parallel structure. The following sentences illustrate
this concept:
Poor example: Mrs. Jones is trustworthy, dependable, and she pays close attention to details.
Improved: Mrs. Jones is trustworthy, dependable, and detail-oriented.
Poor example: Please keep track of your hours, turn in your timesheet, and keeping a copy for your
records is also important.
Improved: Please keep track of your hours, turn in your timesheet, and keep a copy for your records.
 Conciseness
Sentences should be written concisely, since needless words and fillers distract readers from your
message.
1. Eliminate opening fillers such as there are, I would like to bring to your attention, and this is
to inform you that.
Too wordy sentence: This is to inform you that health insurance rates will increase effective next
month.
Improved: Health insurance rates will increase effective next month.
2. Eliminate wordy phrases from your writing.
Wordy Phrases Concise Substitutes
due to the fact that because
Regardless of the fact that although
in regard to about
in the near future soon

3. Don't turn verbs into wordy phrases.

Wordy Phrases Concise Verbs
give consideration to consider
give a recommendation recommend
conduct a discussion discuss
4. Eliminate redundancies. The two words in the left column have the same meaning, so only one
word is needed.
Redundancies Concise Substitutes
perfectly clear clear
exactly identical identical
dollar amount amount

38
 Sentence Variety
Effective writers add interest to their writing by using all four types of sentences-simple, compound,
complex, and compound-complex. A sentence is classified according to the number of independent
and/or dependent clauses it contains. An independent clause is a group of words with a subject and
verb that could stand alone as a complete sentence. Dependent clauses can't stand on their own as
complete sentences, because their meaning depends upon the independent clause in the sentence.
A simple sentence such as John loaded the software contains just one independent clause.
A compound sentence contains two independent clauses: John loaded the software, and Mary
installed the hard drive.
A complex sentence contains both an independent clause and a dependent clause. For example, After
the installation was complete, the computer was rebooted is an example of a compound sentence
Finally, a compound-complex sentence contains at least two independent clauses and one dependent
clause. Because they are so long, compound-complex sentences should be used sparingly. After the
installation was complete, the computer was rebooted, and the IT department successfully completed
the upgrade is an example of a compound-complex sentence.
John loaded the software, and Mary installed the hard drive. John went to lunch after finishing the
job, but Mary skipped lunch to keep working. John started a new project after lunch, and Mary
finished installing the hard drive later that afternoon.
Notice how much more interesting the paragraph becomes when we vary the sentence types:
John loaded the software, while Mary installed the hard drive. John finished and went to lunch, but
Mary kept working, finally finishing the hard drive installation later that afternoon. John started a
new project after lunch.
 Correct Spelling and Grammar
Strong grammatical skills lend credibility to your writing. They also enhance the readability of your
documents, since misspelled words and grammatical errors distract readers from your message.
Run-On Sentences are independent clauses joined together without punctuation or a coordinating
conjunction. The manager hired Rahul for the position Ashok was transferred to the main office is an
example of a run-on sentence.
Sentence Fragments are incomplete sentences. To be complete, a sentence must have a subject and a
verb, and it must make sense. Because Human Resources hired twenty people is an example of a
sentence fragment. Although it contains a subject and a verb, the sentence doesn't make sense since
the word because indicates the sentence is dependent on another clause to complete its meaning. The
following sentence would be considered complete: Because Human Resources hired twenty people;
new office furniture had to be ordered.
Read your document twice-once for grammar, and once for word meanings, comprehension, and
flow. Reading the document out loud can also help you to identify errors and evaluate the tone of
your document.
Effective Paragraphing

39
 1. Cover one subject per paragraph, and begin each paragraph with a topic sentence stating what
the subject is about. Focusing on just one clearly stated subject in each paragraph helps readers
understand your message.
2. Link ideas together by repeating words in sentences. For example, look at both of these
paragraphs, and see how repeating the words campaign and cost in the second paragraph makes the
paragraph more coherent by linking ideas together.
Example:
Without repeating words: John suggested an aggressive marketing campaign for the new product.
Direct mailings will be sent to all households in the target market, and this will be very costly.
Additional funds were set aside for marketing this year by the corporate office.
With repeating words: John suggested an aggressive marketing campaign for the new product. The
campaign will involve direct mailings to all households in the target market, and will be very costly.
The high cost will be partially offset by the additional funds set aside for marketing this year by the
corporate office.
Writing Process
Writing is a process that is made up of several different elements: Pre-Writing, Organization,
Writing, Revising, and Editing. However, these different elements overlap with one another; they
aren’t separate stages. Successful writers are constantly going through these different elements.
Skillful writers continually remind themselves of this process, and they constantly monitor their
writing, re-engaging themselves with their work. Every writer follows his or her own writing process.
Often the process is a routine that comes naturally and is not a step-bystep guide to which writers
refer. Being conscious of your own writing process is especially helpful when you find yourself
struggling with a particularly tricky piece. Here are five steps towards creating or identifying your
personal writing process.

Prewriting
Find Your Idea
Ideas are all around you. You might draw inspiration from a routine, an everyday situation or a
childhood memory. Alternatively, keep a notebook specifically devoted to catching your ideas as
they come to you. Your own imagination is the only limit to finding your source of inspiration.
Build on Your Idea
Two of the most popular methods of fleshing out your idea are free writing and brainstorming. Free
writing means writing every idea that comes into your head. Do not stop to edit your mistakes, just
let the ideas flow. Or, try brainstorming. If you're on a computer, try a manual process first to help
you visualize your narrative: write your idea in the center of the page and work outwards in all of the
different directions you can take your story.

Plan and Structure

40
 Piecingthe puzzle together comes next. It's time to sort through your ideas and choose which ones
you will use to form your story. Make sure you keep your notes even after your book is published –
there may be the seeds for your next story as well.
 Writing
Now you have your plan and you’re ready to start writing. Remember, this is your first rough draft.
Forget about word count and grammar. Don’t worry if you stray off topic in places; even the greatest
writers produce multiple drafts before they produce their finished manuscript. Think of this stage as a
free writing exercise, just with more direction. Identify the best time and location to write and
eliminate potential distractions. Make writing a regular part of your day.

 Revision
Your story can change a great deal during this stage. When revising their work, many writers
naturally adopt the A.R.R.R. approach:
Add: Have you given your readers all the information they need to make sense of your topic? If not,
go back to your draft that you kept for additional information and any additional details.
Rearrange: Consider the flow, pacing and sequencing of your topic. Would the sequence be better
served if some of the events occur in a different order?
Remove: After making additions to your topic, how is your word count now? Are your readers
experiencing information overload? You may need to eliminate passages that don’t quite fit.
Replace: The most effective way to revise your work is to ask for a second opinion. Do you need
more vivid details to help clarify your work? Is one scene contradicting another? Ask friends or
fellow writers to take a look and give you feedback, and if something isn’t working rewrite it and
replace it.
 Editing
It’s time to fine tune your manuscript line by line. Check for repetition, clarity, grammar, spelling
and punctuation. Editing is an extremely detailed process and its best when performed by a
professional.
Review questions:
1. What does the term ‘communication’ imply? Why is effective communication vital in today’s
world?
2. Counseling, instructing, giving orders, persuasion are some of the purposes of communication .
Discuss.
3. What are barriers to communication? Do you remember any case of poor communication? Specify
what went wrong in the case that resulted in poor communication.
4. How does a receiver influence the sender’s communication skills? Substantiate your answer with
appropriate examples. Whether an organization is small or large , it is communication that binds the
organization together. Discuss in detail the formal flow of communication in an organization in the
light of the above statement.

41
APPLYING BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE SKILLS
Letter Writing
Before the advent of modern technology made communication so easy, the art of writing a letter was
considered an important requirement. Even today a letter is an important means of communication in both
the workspace as well as our personal lives. So let us educate ourselves with the nuances of letter writing.
6*Letter Writing
A letter is a written message that can be handwritten or printed on paper. It is usually sent to the recipient
via mail or post in an envelope, although this is not a requirement as such. Any such message that is
transferred via post is a letter, a written conversation between two parties.
Now that E-mails (Advantages and disadvantages) and texts and other such forms have become the norm
for communication, the art of letter writing has taken a backseat. However, even today a lot of our
communication, especially the formal kind, is done via letters. Whether it is a cover letter for a job, or the
bank sending you a reminder or a college acceptance letter, letters are still an important mode of
communication. Which is why it is important that we know the intricacies of letter writing.
Types of Letters
Let us first understand that there are broadly two types of letter, namely Formal Letters, and Informal
Letters. But then there are also a few types of letters based on their contents, formalities, the purpose of
letter writing etc. Let us have a look at the few types of letters.
 Formal Letter: These letters follow a certain pattern and formality. They are strictly kept
professional in nature, and directly address the issues concerned. Any type of business letter or
letter to authorities falls within this given category.
 Informal Letter: These are personal letters. They need not follow any set pattern or adhere to
any formalities. They contain personal information or are a written conversation. Informal letters
are generally written to friends, acquaintances, relatives etc.
 Business Letter: This letter is written among business correspondents, generally contains
commercial information such as quotations, orders, complaints, claims, letters for collections etc.
Such letters are always strictly formal and follow a structure and pattern of formalities
 Official Letter: This type of letter is written to inform offices, branches, subordinates of official
information. It usually relays official information like rules, regulations, procedures, events, or
any other such information. Official letters are also forma
 l in nature and follow certain structure and decorum.
 Social Letter: A personal letter written on the occasion of a special event is known as a social
letter. Congratulatory letter, condolence letter, invitation letter etc are all social letters.
 Circular Letter: A letter that announces information to a large number of people is a circular
letter. The same letter is circulated to a large group of people to correspond some important
information like a change of address, change in management, the retirement of a partner etc.
 Employment Letters: Any letters with respect to the employment process, like joining letter,
promotion letter, application letter etc.
Letter Writing Tips

42
 Now that we have learned the basics of communicating via letters and the types of letters as well, let us
focus on some tips for the actual letter writing.
1] Identify the type of letter
This obviously is the first step of the letter writing process. You must be able to identify the type of letter
you are to be writing. This will be dictated by the person the letter is addressed to and the information that
will be conveyed through the letter. Suppose you were writing to the principal of your college to ask for
leave, this would be a formal letter (Types of formal letters with samples). But say you were writing to
your old college professor catching up after a long time. Then this would be a personal (informal) letter.
2] Make sure you open and close the letter correctly
Opening a letter in the correct manner is of utmost importance. Formal letters open with a particular
structure and greeting that is formal in nature. Informal letters can be addressed to the person’s name or
any informal greeting as the writer wishes. Even when closing the letter, it must be kept in mind what
type of letter is being written. Formal letters end respectfully and impersonally, whereas informal letters
may end with a more personal touch.
3] Establish the main intent of the letter
Once you start writing, make sure to get to the point as soon as possible. Especially in formal letters, it is
important to immediately make clear the purpose of the letter.
4] Be careful of the language
A letter is always supposed to be polite and considerate. Even if it is a complaint letter, the point must be
made in a careful and courteous manner. So it is necessary to use polite expressions and civil language in
all types of letters.
5] Length of the letter
And the other important factor to be considered is the length of the letter you are writing. It should be
kept in mind that formal letters are generally to the point, precise and short. Lengthy formal letters tend to
not have the desired effect on the reader. The length of an informal letter is determined by the message in
the letter and the relation to the recipient.
Solved Example for You
Q: Alex was to write a letter to her class teacher asking permission to remain absent from school for 2
days on account of some personal matter. What type of letter will he be writing?
a. Personal Letter
b. Business Letter
c. Formal Letter
d. Any of the above
Ans: The correct option is C. While the teacher is a personal acquaintance of Alex, the situation demands
a formal letter and not a personal letter. Formal Letter Format A formal letter has a format which needs to
be followed.

43
A typical formal letter format is
1. Sender’s address
2. Date
3. Name / Designation of Addressee
4. Address of the Addressee
5. Salutation
6. Subject
7. Body – Introduction, Content, Conclusion
8. Complimentary Close
9. Signature / Name of the Sender
10. Designation of the Sender

FORMAL LETTER
Address of the sender
Date
Name of the Addressee
Salutation
Subject
Introduction
Body
Conclusion
Closing
Name of the sender

Types of Formal Letters and Formal Letter Format

A. Letter of Enquiry
As the name suggests this type of letter is the source of collecting information. People usually use
a letter of inquiry as one of the most used business letter or formal letter. A letter of inquiry helps

44
 a person to have information like some course or job inquiry, prices of services and products,
terms and orders or working agreements etc. One must always keep in mind
 Give a brief introduction about yourself
 Include the name of the organization (if possible)
 Provide clear details about the area of inquiry
 Present your queries and doubt in a clear and understandable form
 Mention the deadlines by which you need the information
Learn more about the Business Letters here with examples in detail.
The format of this letter is the same as the formal letter format.
Sample
16 Chainama Road
Kabwe
23rd August, 2019
The Director
Kabwe Trade institute
PO Box 8046
Kabwe.
Dear Sir,
Sub.: Enquiry about Coaching Classes.
This is with reference to your advertisement in the ‘The Times of Zambia’ for Coaching classes. I have
passes the B.Sc. degree examination with Statistics as the main subject. I am keen on joining your
institute for the coaching classes.
Kindly let me know about the procedure of applying for the qualifying test and its date. I would also like
to know the duration of the coaching programme, the duration and the number of classes per week along
with the available mode of classes. Information about the fees payable and the study materials is highly
appreciated. Could you please send me a copy of your prospectus?
I would like to enroll as soon as possible. Your early response will enable me to decide fast.
Thanking you.
With kind regards

B. Order Letter

45
When a buyer needs to order some goods, he writes an order letter to the seller. The three main parts of
this letter are
 The details of the items or the goods being ordered must be clearly stated. It must have complete
information like the quantity of the goods, model number (if possible), etc.
 The information related to the shipping must also be clearly given. The mode of shipping,
shipping location and the desired date for the goods to be shipped must be clearly stated.
 The inquiry related payment whether it is the mode of payment, date of payment or terms and
conditions regarding payment should be clearly mentioned.
What is Letter?
According to Oxford Dictionary, “A letter is a message that is written down or printed on paper and
usually put in an envelope and sent to somebody.”
From the above discussion, it can be said that a letter is a written message, printed or hand written, that is
sent to someone by other through post or mail or in some other way. Business Communication
Types of Letter
Letter is an important symbol of human civilization. It has been used as a media of exchanging
information from the primitive age. Letter can be categorized into different types based on formalities
maintained, information contained, purpose of use etc.
Formal Letter: The letter which is written according to the formal rules and regulations of an
organization is called formal letter. This type of letter always maintains the formalities of the office
strictly. Institutional and business letter fall in this category.
Informal or Personal Letter: The letter which does not follow any formal rule and contains personal
information is known as informal or personal letter. This type of letter is written to relatives and friends
for exchanging news or feelings or to seek favors. The basis of writing personal letter is personal
relationship.
Business Letter: The letter which contains commercial information and is written among business
people is called business letter or commercial letter. Business letters are formal, structured and non-
personal. Commercial letter contains information relating to trade inquiry, circular, order, complaint,
claims, adjustment, collection relating to trade inquiry, circular, order, complaint, claims, adjustment,
collection etc.
Official Letter: When letter is written containing the official information like rules, regulations, facts and
figures, activities, system, procedure etc. it is called official letter. In other word, when a letter is written
following the official decorum, it is known as official letter. Officials use this type of letter to send
official message to other branches and offices. Official letter strictly follows the prescribed rules,
regulations, structure and style of the office.
Social Letter: Letter that is written on any social occasion or purpose is called social letter. Invitation
letters for different programs, thanks letter, condolence letter, congratulation letter etc. fall in the category
of social letter. It is actually one kind of personal letter.
Report Letter: Letter that is prepared in the form of report or investigation and is sent to the person,
who has assigned it, is called report letter. In real sense, it is a short report in the form of letter. The letter
sent to the sales manager by the sales man on every day’s sales volume in an example of report letter.

46
 Notice Letter: Notice letter is a letter that is sent to a person notifying or informing him about any
special topic.
Circular Letter: A letter that circulates or announces the same information or message to a large number
of people at a time is called a circular letter or a circular. Announce of new product, change of business
address, retirement or admission of partner etc. requires circulating the certain message. For this purpose,
circular letter is written.
Order Letter: When the quotation of the seller satisfies the queries of the prospective buyer, he places
order through an order letter. So, after granting the quotation, the letter which the buyer writes to the
supplier or seller, requesting him to deliver the prescribed amount of goods is called an order letter.
Complaint Letter: However efficient an organization may be in running a business, everything does not
go all the time according to plan. There will be some mistakes and some accidents. Letters written to
bring these mistakes to the notice of those who must own the responsibility for them are called claim or
complaint letters.
Employment Letter: Letters which are written in case of employment are considered as employment
letter. Job application letter, appointment letter, joining letter, promotion letter etc are examples of
employment letters.
Beyond the above-mentioned categories there are some other letters also such as bank letter, public
letter, level letter, increment letter, permission letter etc.
Internal memorandum
Memorandum writing
Memorandum is normally shortened to “ Memo”. The plural of memorandum is memoranda. A memo is
an internal letter sent by one person to another in the same organization, institution or company. It is
never meant for use by persons outside a particular organization. A manager may write to department
heads in a company. Also, a department may write to another department in the same company.
The uses of a memo
 To convey information
 To make enquires
 To demand action or explanation

The Format

 Name of the institution

 The words ‘Internal Memo’
 Reference Number
 Name of sender
 Name of Persons to whom the memo is sent
 The date
 Subject(heading): the information to be communicated

47
  The body
 Sender’s signature or name and initials
Please note
 A memo should be brief. It should contain all necessary information without necessarily
marking it wordy
 It should not have a salutation or any form of greetings
 Avoid using the ‘Re’ for the heading
 The letter ending of yours faithfully or sincerely’ must never be used
 No address is needed

Study the following

Zambia Institute of Business Studies & Industrial Practice

Internal Memo
Ref.No: 20/08/2019/02
To : All Coaches
Cc : The Principal
From : Mr. Banda – Sports Master
Date : 23/08/19
Subject: Preparation of second term
Teams please note that the district ball and racquet games shall be held from 27th to 29th August, 2019.
You are hereby remained to prepare your team in advance and place orders for game kits and equipment
by 5th September, 2019. List of team members should be forwarded to this office at least one week before
the competitions.
Chama C.M.

What is circular letter? | Importance or advantages of circular letter

Circular letter is one of the oldest types letter. This kind of letter originated in ancient time when people
felt the necessity of circulating any message to a large number of people at a time in the same way.
Generally, the letter that is used to circulate any special message to a huge member of audiences at the
same time is known as circular letter. It is one of the cost-effective means of circulating information or
introducing new products to mass people. However, circular letters are not only used in business, but also
in social, political and personal affairs.

48
Prof. W. J. Weston said, “A circular letter is one which is meant to be read by a number of
correspondents. It is of the nature of an advertisement and is usually a business announcement or an
attempt to advance business.”
From the above discussion we can say that circular letter is a kind of written announcement that is
distributed to a large number of people to convey any commercial or non-commercial message at
minimum time, costs and efforts. Drafting circular letter is purely an art. It should be drafted in such a
way that can attract readers’ attention and can serve its purpose.
IMPORTANCE OR ADVANTAGES OF CIRCULAR LETTER
Circular letter circulates information relating to a company, its products and services etc. to a large
number of people at a time. It plays an important role in the growth and development of business. Its
importance is briefly discussed below:
1. Easy method of conveying information: Circular letter is the most easy, simple and effective way to
convey any information to a huge number of people.
2. Achieving economy: Circular letter can be used for wide publicity of products. As a result,
organizations can save cost of sending letters to different parties separately and can gain economy.
3. Saving time: Circular letter transmits information to a large number of people at a time. It does not
require reaching each individual separately. Thus, it saves time.
4. Less effort: Circulating information to each individual separately is a time consuming and laborious
job. Circular letter helps to overcome this problem. Through circular letter, we can communicate with
large number of people at a minimum effort.
5. Creating market: Through circular letter, a company can inform the potential customers about its
products and services. In this way, new market can be created.
6. Increasing consumer’s confidence: Convincing and attractive circular letter can easily touch the
reader’s heart and thus helps to enhance consumer’s confidence on the company’s products.
7. Creating public consciousness: In circular letter, information like price, quality, utility, place of
availability etc. are mentioned in details that make people more conscious about the product.
Notice
One important aspect of communication is business communication, also known as formal
communication. Formal letters, memos, circulars etc are all forms of business communication. Another
important tool of the same is a notice. Let us learn the meaning of notices and details of notice-writing.
Notice
Notices are a means of formal communication targetted at a particular person or a group of persons. It is
like a news item informing such person or persons of some important event. This can be an invitation to a
meeting, an announcement of any event, to issue certain instructions, make appeals etc.
It is generally written and then displayed at a public place, where it is accessible to all. They can be
pasted on notice boards. If it is meant for a wider audience it can even be published in a newspaper. The
government when it issues notices must publish it in national and local papers.
Format

49
 Since notices are a formal document it should follow a structure or a format. Keep in mind there is no
one correct rigid format. Different formats used by different people/organizations can show some
variations. But it is ideal to follow a somewhat similar format for ease of understanding and uniformity.
Let us look at the most used format of notices.
1. Name of Issuing Organization/Authority: Right at the very top, you print the name of the person or
company that is issuing the said notices. This will help the reader identify the notices as important or
unimportant to him.
2. Title: When writing notices we mention a title “NOTICE” at the top. This helps draw attention to the
document. Notices are generally posted at a public place or published in newspapers. It is important that
they do not get lost in a sea of information. So a bold title clearly mentioned helps draw the attention.
3. Date: After the tile to the left-hand side we print the date on which the notices have been published.
Since this is a formal document date is an important aspect of it since these documents stay on record.
4. Heading: Then we move on to an appropriate heading to the notices. This heading should make
abundantly clear the purpose of the notices.
5. Body: After the heading, we write the brief and to the point body of the notice. The main content of the
notice features in the body.
6. Writer’s Name: At the end of the notices we write the name and designation of the notice-writer. The
notices have to also be signed by the same person to lend it authority and validity.
Content
Notices should cover some important points that are to be communicated to the readers. Let us
summarize the five points that the content of the notice will cover, the five W’s
1. What: What is the notice about? The notice should be clear about what is going to happen (event), or
what has already happened (occasion). This is the crux of the message and should be written clearly.
There should not be any ambiguity.
2. Where: If the notice is about an event, then the location of such an event must be written clearly. The
venue or the locations are important details, so make sure to include this in the notice.
3. When: This is the time and the date of the event or meeting. If possible the duration of the event should
also be mentioned to people can schedule their time accordingly.
4. Who: This will be who the notice is addressed to. Who all are supposed to adhere to the notice should
be clearly mentioned to avoid confusion.
5. Whom: And final detail should be whom to contact or get in touch with. This mentions who the
appropriate authority is to contact.
Learn more about Letter writing here in detail.
Tips to Remember regarding Notice Writing
 Be precise and to the point. The ideal length of notice is 50 words, so precise language is
appreciated.
 It is a formal form of communication so the language used should be formal as well. No flowery
text.

50
  Keep the sentences short and use simple words. Since notices are fairly brief it is best to keep it
simple.
 Use passive voice as far as possible.
 Present your notices in a proper format in a box. The presentation should be neat and thus be
appealing to the eye.
Solved Example for You
Q: On the occasion of AGM your PTA has planned a feast for all its members. As the chairman of your
committee writes a notice inviting all the members of the society to this gathering. Provide all the
necessary details.
Ans:
PTA Co-operative Housing Society
NOTICE
25th October 2017.
AGM Gathering On the auspicious occasion of AGM, the PTA has organized a gathering followed by
dinner. All members of the PTA are requested to attend the event in the clubhouse of the society at 20:00
hours on the 30th of October.

The notice
The notice can also be sent to those not attending the meeting to enable them ‘ brief their representatives.
Many people especially executives are busy so the secretary should courtesy to give them ample time if
they were to attending the meeting. The notice should reach members At least two weeks before the
event.
Reminders should be dispatched to members if the dates and time were fixed at a previous meeting. Some
meet are held on schedule, e.g. every week on Monday to plan for the week, or every month on the first
Friday or annually on an appointed date and time. In such situations, written notice may not be necessary.
Content of a formal notice
a) Name of the organization
b) Place of the meeting
c) Date and time of meeting
d) Date of notice
e) Signature of person convening the meeting
f) Types of meeting, if applicable, e.g. committee, AGM.
Purpose of notice

51
a. Informs people when and where the meeting will take place
b. People who are attending but need to send representatives need to be
c. Informed
d. Statutory requirements may provide for notice. Give people” ample time of at least two weeks
e. Content of formal notice; subject, place, date and time,
f. Notice of formal meeting

NOTICE

DEPARTMENTAL MEETING FOR SENIOR OFFICERS

Please, be informed that there will be a heads of department meeting on the 30th of April, 2017, in the
conference room, on Thursday, at 09:00hrs. All the heads must prepare their departmental reports to be
presented during the meeting.
From the public relations Manager
Signature: C. Bwalya

Memorandum: It is a brief, but detailed internal communication in an organization. For example

To: The Chair – District Education Officer, Kabwe

From: Batanga Water and Sewerage Company Ltd Engineer
Date: 31st March 2021
Planning committee
Be informed that the next planning committee meeting will take at 16:00 hours, on the 19th of April,
2021, in the committee room 4. Please be seated by the stipulated time.

Writing a curriculum Vitae

Basic Factors
i) Personal details

52
 Name
Address Telephone number Date of birth
ii) Details of Education
Schools/ college/ university
Examination and qualifications

iii) Experience

Name of company, job title, dates

iv) Any other relevant information

4. References
1.
2.
3.
3. Application
i) Reference to the advertisement and statement of application;
ii) Reference to the enclosed curriculum Vitae
iii) Application of details of curriculum Vitae complementary close.
v) Your own address and the address to whom you are writing
vi) The date – must be complete

WRITING REPORTS
REPORT WRITING SKILLS
A report is a logical presentation of facts and information. It provides feedback to the managers on
various aspects of the organization. A report presents information needed for reviewing and evaluating
progress, for planning future course of action and for taking decisions. Every organization has a system of
routine periodical reporting on the progress and the status of different activities. Besides, management
assigns some special studies for the purpose of taking decisions. Special Reports may be written by an
individual or by a group of persons to whom the task has been assigned. The report is submitted to the
authority that assigned it.
Role of Reports
a) To review performance of a unit in an organization

53
b) To keep a check on a continuing activity in an organization
c) To plan for the future needs of the organization
d) To survey the market needs for products or services of an organization
e) To submit standardized information to the management of an organization etc.
Types of Reports
Oral report
Written report
Management reports
Operation procedures
Production schedules
Maintenance, breakdown and accident reports
Entrepreneurship and trade reports
Internal memos
Format/Structure of a Report (Parts of a Report)
A report has several sections which enable the writer(s) to lay out all the complex information in an easy-
to-read form. All reports do not require all the sections but long reports need to include all the parts.
A report generally includes the following sections. The essential sections marked with an asterisk (*); the
other sections may be included depending on the type, length and purpose of the report.
• Letter of transmittal
• Title page*
• Table of contents
• List of abbreviations and/or glossary
• Executive summary/abstract
• Introduction *
• Body*
• Conclusion*
• Recommendations
• References
• Appendices
1. Letter of Transmittal

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This is typed on the organization’s letterhead. This is a letter addressed to the person who commissioned
the report; in this letter, you effectively hand over your report to that person. The letter includes:
• A salutation (e.g., Dear Ms Bhatia)
• The purpose of the letter (e.g., "Here is the final version of the report on 'Underwater Welding' which
was commissioned by your company.")
• The main findings of the report
• Any important considerations
• An acknowledgement of any significant help
• An expression of pleasure or thanks (e.g., "Thank you for giving us the opportunity to work on this
report." )
Example:
Dear Mr. Pitt, Please accept the accompanying Work Term Report entitled "Colour Sonar Imaging Tool
for Fish Stock Assessment."
This report is the result of work completed at the Institute of Marine Biology,' Department of Fisheries,
Government of Karnataka. During my second work term as a University of Osmania student, I was
engaged to assist in field sonar data collection, and the subsequent computer processing of this data, for
the purpose of herring stock assessment. In the course of this work I developed innovative colour sonar
imaging software in an effort to process the data more efficiently and accurately. This new method of
processing sonar data is the subject of this report.
During the course of the term, I had the opportunity to learn much about electronics repair, digital signal
processing, computerized data acquisition, and sonar. I feel that this knowledge will be helpful in future
work terms, and in my career.
I would like to thank my manager, Sup Ervisor, for his patience and good judgement, as well as the
technologists who were always willing to help.
Yours sincerely,
Signature
Student
2. Title page
This must include:
• Report title which clearly states the purpose of the report
• Full details of the person(s) for whom the report was prepared
• Full details of the person(s) who prepared the report
• The date of the presentation of the report
A short report of two to three pages does not need a title page, but it must have a title. It must indicate the
subject of the study and the purpose of the study. The title appears at the top of the first page, before the

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text of the report, as follows: Report of Committee appointed to investigate the Decline in Sale of Cycles
in Tamil Nadu between January and June, 2007. In an individual letter form report, the title is in the
form of subject line, indicating the topic, for example: Subject: Decline in Sale of Cycles in Tamil Nadu
between January and June, 2004
3. Table of Contents
This is given after the title page. It is used only if the report is long, say ten pages. It is a list of the
headings and appendices of the report with the page number on which each begins. If the report is long
and complex, you can give a list of the tables, and a list of illustrations (or figures), separately. The
correct page numbers must be shown opposite the contents. Word processing packages can generate a
table of contents.
4. Abbreviations and Glossary
If the report includes abbreviations which may not be known to all readers of the report, an alphabetical
list of them is provided. If there are many technical terms, a glossary is also provided. A glossary is an
alphabetical list of the terms, with brief explanations of their meanings.
5. Acknowledgements
This is a list of names of persons who helped the writer of the report with information, collection of -
data, references, discussion, and so on. It can be written in one paragraph or a few short paragraphs.
6. Abstract or Summary or Executive Summary
An abstract is a summary used for a scholarly, academic work and an executive summary is used for a
business report. An Executive summary is written for an executive who most likely does not have the
time to read the original. It is not longer than 10% of the full report (usually one paragraph, and not
longer than a page).
An executive summary:
• Gives readers the essential contents of the report document in 1-10 pages depending on the length of the
report.
• Previews the main points of the report enabling readers to build a mental framework for organizing and
understanding the detailed information in the report.
• Helps readers determine the key results and recommendations reported in your document. The
summary includes one or two sentences for every main section of the report. For example, it may include:
• The context of the research
• The purpose of the report
• The major findings (you may need several sentences for this)
• The conclusions
• The main recommendations

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The summary is written after the report is completed. It should be the last thing you write even though it
is usually the first thing read by others. Its concise length and summary format enable the reader to
quickly understand the main points of the issue.
7. Terms of Reference or Introduction
This is the first section of the report. It gives
(a) details of the assignment and, (b) the purpose and scope of the study. In some reports this section is
given the roman number (I).
(a) Details of assignment Include: who assigned the report and/or appointed the committee, on what
date and how the appointment was made (that is, by a resolution at a meeting, or by letter or office order).
In the case of a committee, the names of the members of the committee are included. It also states what
the assignment is, what the date for submitting the report is, and whether the report is expected to make
recommendations.
Example:
The committee was appointed by the following resolution adopted at the meeting of the Board of
Directors, held on 8 July, 2003: Resolved that a committee consisting of Mr. A.(Convener), Mr. B. and
Mr. C, be, and is hereby, appointed to investigate the decline in the sale of cycle in Tamil Nadu between
January and June, 2003, and to report with recommendations in one month's time.
If the assignment is made by letter by the CEO or any other authority, the terms of reference must give the
number and date of the letter, the name and title of the appointing authority, the purpose of the report,
and the time allowed. According to the DIO letter no. xxx, dated xxx from Ms Zarine Chowna, M.D., a
committee consisting of Ms ABC, Mr DEF and Ms PQR was formed to examine the complaints of
customers in xxx region. The committee was asked to report with recommendations in three weeks.
An individual writing a letter form report includes the authorization in the first paragraph of the letter.
• In accordance with your letter no xxx dated xxx, I have examined xxxx and am presenting the report
below.
• As you requested, I have investigated xxx and am happy to present my findings as follows.
(b) Purpose and Scope This includes information about the area surveyed or the problem examined, and
the limitations imposed on the study by constraints like time, finance, or non-availability of data.
• Owing to constraints of time, the committee limited its study to five most populous cities in Tamil
Nadu.
• As data related to xxx was not available, this study is limited to yyy only.
8. Procedure
This is the second section of the body of the report and may be numbered II. Methods used for collecting
information are stated in this section. It begins with the meetings held by the committee, for example: The
committee met three times, on 26 July, and 12 and 20 August, 2007.
Other methods of collecting information depend on the nature of the study. There are several methods.

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(i) Records of the organisation can provide data on production, sales, recruitment, marketing,
expenditure, etc. A comparison of figures for different periods may suggest useful conclusions.
(ii) Observation consists of watching certain phenomena involved in a problem, and recording what
is systematically observed. This method is useful for problems like wastage of time in movement
of material in a factory, or the circulation of traffic during certain hours or buyers' behaviour at
the point of purchase.
(iii) Interrogation is the method of asking questions. It may be done by
(a) Interviewing, if the number of persons to be questioned is small,
(b) Getting questionnaires filled in, if the number is large,
(c) Meeting experts and asking for their opinion,
(d) Informal talks with randomly selected concerned persons can be used for collecting
information, provided that questions are asked skilfully.
(iv) Reference to books, directories, standard publications.
(iv) Visits and personal inspection are necessary when suitable sites are being surveyed or when there
is need to observe the procedures or working.
(v) Experimentation is done by various kinds of tests for different kinds of inquiries.
The committee's work of investigation is recorded in passive voice, for example,

• meetings were held with the members of the sales department.

• All the three sites were visited by the committee.
• Buyers' choice decisions were observed for three days.

The value of the findings, conclusions and recommendations depends on the thoroughness of the
investigation, and the methods used. Therefore, a report must indicate the methods used for collecting
information.
9. Findings
This is the most important section. It may be numbered III in a report that numbers the sections.
Presentation of findings is the main part of the report. The collected facts and information have to be
organized into a presentable form, with headings and sub-headings. The mass of collected information is
analyzed and divided for easy and readable presentation. The units are joined by a numbering system.
The basis for division into units may be time periods, or geographical location, or causeand-effect,
objectives or any factors which enable classification of the data. Details may be in the form of numbered
statements. This section may end with a brief summary of the most important findings or some
conclusions which emerge from the findings. If the conclusions are very important and significant, there
may be a separate section.
Use of illustrations in giving the findings makes a report much more readable, clear and effective Such
as use diagrams, graphs, charts, plans or maps.
There are several advantages in using illustrations.

• They clarify and support the verbal analysis.

• They can present a large amount of complex data in a compact form and with precision.·
• Comparisons of data can be seen at a glance in a graph or chart.
• Pictorial representation is more attractive and interesting to most people.

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 Every illustration should have a number and a title and should be mentioned in the text of the report. A
table has a number and title placed above it i.e. Table 3.5: Sales volumes, means table number 5.
Illustration should be placed as near as possible to the point where it is mentioned for the first time in the
text. Complicated illustrations are given as Appendices. All diagrams, graphs, charts, maps etc. used as
illustrations must have:

• proper labels to show what information is being represented

• the scale used
• the key to colour/shading/symbols used
• the date of the information it contains

10. Conclusions.
The conclusions are drawn from the major findings. Example: The study concludes that the reducing sales
figures are as a result of:
(a) Poor marketing strategies
(b) Competition from similar products
11. Recommendations
This is the last section of the body of the report. Recommendations are proposals for action suggested by
the report writer(s) to the appointing authority. This section is included only if the assignment has asked
for it. Recommendations should be written in the same order as the problems are stated in the findings, as
far as possible. They may be numbered, and must be in the same grammatical form. Recommendations
may be introduced with a sentence like,
• The committee makes the following recommendations.
• The sub-committee recommends the following steps:
• The following steps are recommended:
12. Signature, Place, Date
A committee report must be signed by all members of the committee. The signing involves Name,
Responsibility, Signature and Date.
13. References
References mean the list of books and articles used by the report writer. It is arranged in alphabetical
order of the surnames of the authors. Publication details are usually included. APA 6 th edition is the
most common referencing style.
14. Appendix (plural: appendices or appendixes)
This is supplementary material given at the end of the report. This may be a copy of a questionnaire used,
or plans of buildings, maps or other material which is referred to in the body of the report, but need not
appear in the body. Any interested reader can refer to it since it is mentioned in the report. If there is more
than one appendix, they are numbered, i.e.
APPENDIX IV: MAP OF KIBERA

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Preparation for report writing
a) Audience analysis
b) Reading skills
c) Data collection
d) Data analysis
Referencing styles
(a) American Psychological Association
(b) Chicago Preparation of PowerPoint slides

Applying interpersonal skills in a consulting organization

Interpersonal skills are the qualities and behaviors a person uses to interact with others properly. In the
business domain, the term refers to an employee's ability to work well with others while performing their
job. ... Strong interpersonal skills are a prerequisite for many positions in an organization.
Examples of intra-personal skills include such things as self-esteem, open mindedness, being aware of
your own thinking, the ability to learn, being able to understand and manage your own emotions, self-
confidence, self-discipline, self-motivation, being able to overcome boredom, being patient, being a self
starter,
Regardless of your industry, interpersonal skills (such as being able to effectively communicate) are
important because they: Help employees develop and foster strong working relationships with each other
and with their clients, Contribute to increasing team and organizational productivity
Some examples of interpersonal skills include:
Career Information for People with Good Interpersonal Skills
 Customer Service Representative. Customer service representatives deal with people
throughout their work day. ...
 Receptionist. Receptionists are the face of companies. ...
 Coach. ...
 Registered Nurse. ...
 High School Teacher. ...
 Mental Health Counselor. ...
 Waiter.
Interpersonal skills
 Active listening.
 Teamwork
 Responsibility.
 Dependability.

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  Leadership.
 Motivation.
 Flexibility.
 Patience.
Unlike hard skills, these are interpersonal.
 Self-confidence. How confident are you that you are the best person for this job? ...
 POSITIVE ATTITUDE. “The largest part to your overall health is from your mental health. ...
 Communication. ...
 Team player. .
 Critical thinking. ..
 Time skills. ...
 Coping with. ..
 Flexibility.
Skills
 The ability to work as part of a team.
 Interpersonal and communication skills, both oral and written.
 Creativity and innovation.
 Problem-solving and strategic planning ability.
 Analytical skills.
 Flexibility.
 The ability to cope with pressure and challenges.
PREPARING FOR MEETINGS
Definition
Meetings are formal or informal gathering of members of an organisation or office with a purpose of
discussing specific issues in an organisation.
Terminologies used in meetings
(i) Agenda: a summary of business to be transacted at the meeting and are usually sent to members
in a notification of meeting.
(ii) Quorum: the minimum number of members stipulated in the constitution or rules of an
organization to be enough to transact business of committee or group on behalf of others
(iii) Quorum hitch: A situation where there aren’t enough members to transact business as required
by the group standing order.
(iv) Standing orders: rules or constitution guiding meeting and conduct of business in an
organization.
(v) In-attendance: Non-members of the organization or committee who are attending a particular
meeting.
(vi) Resolution: a decision made by the group meeting after discussing an agenda.
(vii) Adjournment: official ending of the meeting.
(viii) Amendment: any changes made to the minutes of the previous meeting especially at the stage
of matters arising from the previous minutes.

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(ix) Preliminaries: Activities preceding discussion of the day’s agenda, such as the chairperson
opening the meeting and communication from the chair.
(x) Communication from the chair: the chairperson’s opening remarks such as welcoming
members, introducing the in-attendance if any, giving any reports that there may be and setting
the tone of the meeting for discussion of the day’s agenda.

Role/Purpose of meetings
(i) To arrive at a consensus: deliberate and brainstorm on issues affecting an organisation.
(ii) To collect ideas: involve all members or concerned members in management, decision making
and policy formulation in an organisation.
(iii) To solve a problem: pass decisions and policies on issues affecting an organisation
(iv) To inform and explain: for the management to communicate decisions and policies to members
of an organisation such as in briefs.
(v) For team building and consultations towards achieving objectives of an organisation.
(vi) To elect executive office holders in case AGM or select committees for special assignments.
(vii) To get feedback: receive reports from department and committees on special assignments.
(viii) To understand the situation and suggest solutions such as in conferences.
(ix) To learn and train such as in workshops and seminars.
(x) The alert participant finds that a meeting is an opportunity for continuing education in business
management; by gather much knowledge in your own field from the other participants, who
present different points of view.
(xi) The meeting also enables participants to learn about the total function of the department or the
organisation, and get an over-all company view.
(xii) The meeting forces the active participant to think carefully.
(xiii) Besides, it offers you the opportunity to develop your own skills of presenting your point of
view before a roomful of critics who will review your thinking.
(xiv) Active participation serves to demonstrate your talents to superiors. The ability to think clearly,
to discuss rationally, to make positive contribution and to maintain courteous conduct is sure to
be noticed in a meeting.
(xv) A person who has learnt to be a good participant generally becomes a good leader of a meeting.

Types of Meetings
Types of meeting Meetings can be classified on the basis of the purpose for which they are held.
a) Decision-making Meeting: Committees, boards of directors, and such specially appointed bodies
with powers to take decisions on behalf of the parent body or appointing authority, hold decision-making
meetings.
b) Executive Committee Meeting: Some committees like the board of directors or the executive
council have powers to implement decisions; they may review recommendations of other bodies, or take
decisions on their own. They hold meetings at which they pass policies and give instructions for carrying
out certain work. Committee meeting: is a meeting attended by the committee members. Most
committees consist of:
 The chairperson who conducts the meeting according to the agreed set of rules called standing
orders; makes initial communication; selects speakers; wraps up each agenda with the decision

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 evident from members contribution; makes a ruling when there are divergent opinions;
maintains order in the meeting.
 The secretary who drafts the agenda for the meeting and issues this to the members, takes notes
of the deliberations and prepares minutes of meeting for record (filing), reading the minutes for
approval and adoption at the next committee meeting;
 The treasurer who is responsible for the financial affairs of the organisation;
 Members: One or several other members duly appointed.
c) Consultation Meeting: An advisory body, which may consist of experts, holds meetings to discuss
and advise other bodies. They do not have powers to take any decisions or action. Joint consultations
between different departments, sections, or other related bodies/groups are an example of consultation
meetings.
d) General meeting: General meetings may be attended by all members of an organisation such as
monthly meetings, quarterly meetings and Annual General Meeting (AGM). AGM are called to elect
new officials and committee members, and to receive reports and present financial accounts and
estimates.
e) Extra-ordinary general meeting: is an additional meeting which is called to address a particular
purpose at times other than when it is stipulated in the constitution or rules of that organisation. It
addresses issues which cannot wait until the specified date of the next general meeting.
f) Problem-solving Meeting: A meeting of all those concerned with a particular activity where the
problem is found may be called for the specific purpose of solving the particular problem. Everyone
contributes by looking at the problem from his/her point of view and task. Any snags and blocks can be
dealt with in co-ordination.
g) Briefing Meeting: Giving information is the main function of a briefing session. A prepared note of
briefing may be read out, and questions or requests for clarification are answered; but there is no
discussion at briefing meetings. Companies may hold a briefing meeting to inform the press/media.
Within a company, seniors at every level hold briefing meetings for their subordinates. These briefing
sessions are an addition to the formal information system of the company.
h) Negotiation Meeting: This is characterized by the presence of two clearly competing sides. When
parties with competing interests like buyer-and-seller, or two separate organisations which want to
collaborate, or employer-and-employee, need to settle their differences, they meet to discuss and arrive
at an agreement. Various other meetings of management with the staff, like interviews for selection,
reprimand, appraisal and exit interviews and meetings for discussion of grievances also have an element
of negotiation.
i) Group Discussion: This type of meeting is usually informal. It can be a very stimulating and useful
activity in organisations. It helps in understanding a situation, in exploring possibilities and in solving
problems as it generates a multiple point of view. It gives a sense of participation to all those who
participate in it. It is used as a tool for selecting candidates by observing the behaviour and abilities of
the individuals taking part in it.
j) Conference: A conference is a meeting of a large group of persons assembled for the purpose of
discussing common problems or activities. The number of participants may be anything from 10 to 500
or more; a large conference is divided into small groups for the purpose of discussions. The participants
may not be from the same organisation. The conference is a tool of learning and training and

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development; members pool together and share their knowledge and experience, and discuss their
problems. It is an enriching activity. It does not have a task to complete; any conclusions that are arrived
at during the discussions are included in a report of the conference. Copies of the report are given to the
participants and their organisations. A conference does not have any authority but it may make
recommendations since the participants are persons who have experience and are engaged in the activity
and are directly affected by the state of affairs in the field. Meetings can also be classified on the basis of
whether they are convened form
Meetings can also be classified on the basis of whether they are convened formally or informally.
(a) Informal meetings: meetings called at short notice either by means of telephone, by memorandum or
by word of mouth to discuss matters which arise suddenly. They normally don’t have an agenda
communicated prior to the meeting.
(b) Formal meetings: meetings held after the people concerned have been notified in writing earlier.
Notification of meeting is normally contains agenda for the meeting.
Responsibilities of Participants (members)
a) Contributing to the discussion of the agenda,
b) Putting the executive to task to explain issues pertaining to the agenda,
c) Passing resolutions on policies and decisions,
d) Implementing decision of meetings as are assigned or required.
Preparation for a meeting
(i) The secretary in consultation with the chairperson prepares a notice and gives to all members
entitled to attend. The notification states the date, venue and time and a list of the agenda.
(ii) The secretary ensures the venue is prepared for the meeting such as providing enough seats and
organising the sitting arrangement.
(iii) The secretary ensures availability of enough writing material for all members.
(iv) The secretary ensures availability of refreshments such as water, juice or soda.
(v) The secretary ensures the following have been brought to the meeting: minutes of previous
meeting, relevant files and papers, a short-hand notebook for taking notes, attendance record and
standing orders.
(vi) Sound equipment to be tested, projection equipment plugged in, tested, and focussed and
properly leveled
(vii) Facilities for display availed and checked.
(viii) Extension cords placed properly so that no one will trip over them
(ix) Provision for darkening the room if necessary
(x) Exhibits, projection material, arranged in required sequence

How to facilitate groups to make a decision

 Create and convey goals and outcomes for agenda topic that require decisions.
 Seek out or present alternatives supported by the data

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  Assist participants getting through a block or impasse by restating the initial questions and regaining
focus
Advantages of meetings
(i) Help to involve all members or concerned members in management, decision making and
policy formulation in an organisation. Being involved in group activity and discussion provides
social and emotional support to the participants. Employees who have a chance to contribute
and take part in decisions are known to be more loyal.
(ii) Help to formulate and pass decisions and policies on issues affecting an organization
(iii) Provide opportunity for the management to communicate decisions and policies to members of
an organisation.
(iv) Help in team building and consultations towards achieving objectives of an organisation by
addressing grievances.
(v) Provide opportunity for members to elect executive office holders in case AGM or select
committees for special assignments.
(vi) Provide opportunity for members to receive reports from department and committees on
special assignments and corroborate/verify the same.
(vii) Meetings permit a multiple point of view; it enables an organisation to benefit from the
expertise of specialists in technology, law, taxation, personnel and so on.
(viii) Discussing ideas and problems in a meeting is a democratic way of functioning. It shows
respect for individuals and their opinions and views.

Disadvantages of meetings
(i) Meetings are unpopular because they take up time, usually that of many people (time-
consuming). This is usually brought about by digression from the main focus.
(ii) The decisions made are binding even if you did not agree to them, so long as they were passed
by the majority.
(iii) Meetings may be used by the management to rubberstamp unpopular decisions or policies
(iv) Meetings are expensive. A great deal of money and time has to be spent on making
preparations and on the actual conduct of a meeting.
(v) A meeting may end without any useful conclusion if there is much disagreement among the
participants.
(vi) There may not be any useful outcome. Several persons take meetings lightly and attend
without preparation, just for the sake of spending some time away from their work place or
because they are required to.
(vii) If the chairperson is not skilled in conducting a meeting, there may be a great deal of useless
talk from the Chair, causing others to feel frustrated if they do not get an opportunity to respond
or to express their views.
(viii) Recent research in group activity has shown that leaders and participants can be trained in
group activity and discussion. The disadvantages can be overcome with training of organisation
members.

Golden rules of meeting management

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 1. Select participants with care to ensure that all who need to be involved are, but that people
who are not required can be spared the time.
2. Be prepared and ensure participants can be prepared by providing relevant documents in
advance.
3. Stick to a schedule.
4. Stay on topic.
5. Don't hold unnecessary meetings.
6. Wrap-up meetings with a clear statement of the next steps and who is to take them.

Suggestions for effective participation in meetings

(i) Never fail to do homework. Study every item on the agenda, collect information and
gather points of view for each item. Any papers distributed with the agenda must be
read thoroughly.
(ii) Keep an open mind. However well-prepared you may be, there is a possibility that you
may be wrong. Be prepared to learn and correct any mistake in thinking or
information.
(iii) Do not disturb other participants or yourself by talking on the side or shuffling papers.
(iv) Have a sporting spirit. If your idea/suggestion is defeated in the discussion, be
graceful and thank others for helping you to clarify your ideas.
(v) Show interest in what others say. When someone makes a good point, show
appreciation even if it demolishes your point.
(vi) Never personalize a difference of opinion. If it is necessary to disagree with
something that is said, first re-state or summarize it and then explain why you disagree.
(vii) Speak up if you have something to say, especially on a topic on which you have
knowledge. Willingness to contribute and share is necessary. But keep your comments
short and precise. There is no need to make a lengthy speech to make an impression.
(viii) Do not be carried away or swayed by emotions. Problems cannot be solved by anger,
jealousy, revengefulness or spite. Willingness to examine the ideas presented will be
more useful.
(ix) Be a good listener. You will learn a great deal about matters and about human
behaviour if you listen carefully and intelligently.
(x) Be courteous at all times. Your meeting manners must be at least as good as your
social manners when you are the host, or a guest in someone's house.

Types of minute
 Action minutes record the decisions reached and the actions to be taken, though not recording the
discussion that went into making the decisions. This is the most common form of minutes used. They
include a report of actions taken since the last meeting as well as planned actions. It is important to note
who is responsible for upcoming actions. The secretary should save any handouts included with a
presentation.
 Discussion minutes are lengthy and may include information which is not essential to the focus of the
meeting. It may be necessary to keep discussion minutes in a situation where the process behind the
decisions may be in question later. Discussion minutes contain everything action minutes do as well as
the discussion which lead to the actions decided upon. Do not include discussion which does not pertain

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to the topic at hand. Be sure to record the speaker and the focus of the presentation as it concerns the
topic.
 Verbatim minutes, like transcripts, are a record of every single word said at a meeting. They are often
long and can be difficult to skim for a particular piece of information. With the exception of courtroom
proceedings and Congress, a verbatim record of a meeting is rarely necessary. Verbatim minutes will not
always follow the agenda.
Minute writing Structure of minutes
- Title - Attendance (present, absent, apologies)
- In-attendance - List of agenda – Preliminaries
- Confirmation - Business of the day
- A.O.B – Adjournment
- Provision for signing
Language and tone
- Past tense, reported speech, objective tone

Writing Minutes
Taking notes for minutes;
a) Summarize as you record what is said – only relevant material.
b) Keep your notes short
c) Use your copy of the agenda as the framework
d) Record the names of persons speaking.
e) Carefully list these present – pass around a sheet of paper for signature or record number
f) Distinguish between items under AOB
Use a device e.g. capital, or underline to differentiate between essential notes and records of decisions.

Interviewing as a Management Tool

An interview can be referred to as an exchange of relevant information; ideas, opinions and experience,
between two people or group of people. An interviewer is a person interviewing a candidate, who is also
referred to as an interviewee.
There are formal and informal interviews. Some interviews require careful preparations.
All managers are expected to be involved in some kind of interviews some interviews are conducted with;
a) Prospective employees

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b) Employees seeking promotion
c) Appraisal interviews with formal company, performance appraisal or management by objective system,
rewards, grievances and
d) Counseling.
Employment Interviews

Your primary goal in an employment interview is to sell yourself, your accomplishments, and your skills.
You will also be seeing if the organization will meet your goals and needs. During an employment
interview, you have only one chance to make a good impression, so the preparation and skill you bring
to the interview will determine your overall success. Preparing for the Interview Once you have been
asked for an interview, you can begin the third step in the interviewing process—preparing for the
interview.

Selection / interview

This kind of interview needs adequate preparations before conduction them so as to have prior
information about candidates or what to be done.

APPLYING FOR A JOB

Job specification
Draw up a job specification analyzing the job, requirements, skills, qualifications and experience; an
organization can have a job specification for all employees / positions. The management changes or
deletes or amends or adds new requirements before it can advertise.
The interview
Each firm or organization has its own way of conducting interviews; however, some organizations have
specialist personnel departments with members of staff especially trained in interviewing techniques. It is
advisable for employing managers also interview his prospective staff. Do not leave it to the personnel
department alone, but get involved to know your employee.
Preparations
Preparations for the interview are cardinal if one is to pick the right candidate. The main aim of any
selection interview is to gather mush information about each candidate in the shortest possible time. You
can only achieve this by making sure that a candidate is free with you – put her/him at case and friendly,
Eliciting information
To extract or elicit, use any or all three ways;
In depth – as an interview work out in advance main areas to be covered in questioning
 Standard – use comprehensive questionnaires and go through will the interviewee;

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  Under stress – as it last resort – try to put a candidate on defensive, to embarrass or annoy him
so as to discover how call fit in working under strain. This technical is applicable to a well-
trained interviewer and essential jobs – otherwise it is both unfair and counter procedures.
 Short list questions – go through them, do not leave out any important points
 The venue for the interview should be prepared in advance and necessary in advance and
necessary requesters – e.g. chairs, water, coffee or soft drinks.
Interview Techniques
Apply a seven – point plan adopted by the British, National Institute of Industrial Psychology. Elizabeth
Sidney and Margaret Brown have also accepted this plan. These Include:
 Personal data – age, sex, home circumstances, Marital status
 Physique – health, speech, manager and appearance.
 Education and technical qualification and experience.
 Work or other experience;

Business Ethics

What is a 'Business'?
A business is an organization or enterprising entity engaged in commercial, industrial or
professional activities. A company transacts business activities through the production of a good,
offering of a service or retailing of already manufactured products. A business can be a for-profit
entity or a nonprofit organization that operates to fulfill a charitable mission.

The term business has different meaning depending on the context.::

1. The commercial activities of an individual or a group engaging in some type of financial
transaction. Eg.: bargain between two individuals. You are buying something in exchange of
money.
2. An organization that is formed to operate some type of service or commercial activity.
a. For Profit organization. Eg: The organisation‘s sole purpose can be to earn profit and can
range from a sole proprietorship to a multinationals publically traded cooperation.
b. Not-For-Profit business. Eg. Farming.

3. The type of commerce in which someone engages. For eg:

a. Nike is in sports apparel and equipment business.
b.General Motors is in automobile business.

What is Business Ethics?

Business ethics is the study of proper business policies and practices regarding potentially
controversial issues, such as corporate governance, insider trading, bribery, discrimination,
corporate social responsibility and fiduciary responsibilities. Law often guides business ethics,
while other times business ethics provide a basic framework that businesses may choose to
follow to gain public acceptance.

Business Ethics:

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 The system of laws and guidelines by which business professionals and corporations operate in
a fair, legal,and moral fashion.
Business Ethics is a broad topic covering following:
1. Globalization
2. Executive Pay
3. Earnings Management
4. Political Contributions
5. Marketing practices
6. Bribery
7. Tax avoidance
8. Corporate governance
9. Fiduciary responsibilities
10. Corporate Social responsibility
11. Intellectual property
12. Insider trading
13. Unionization
14. Corruption
15. Discrimination
16. Health and Safety
17. Sales practices
18. Privacy
19. Human resource Management

The organization where ethics are followed, trust develops between employees and management
as well as between the public and cooperation. Thus, Business ethics lead to a more productive
workplace.

Importance of Business Ethics

Ethics concern an individual's moral judgments about right and wrong. Decisions taken within
an organization may be made by individuals or groups, but whoever makes them will be
influenced by the culture of the company. The decision to behave ethically is a moral one;
employees must decide what they think is the right course of action. This may involve rejecting
the route that would lead to the biggest short-term profit.

Businesses around the world are designing and implementing business ethics programs to
address the legal, ethical, social responsibility, and environmental issues they face. By
addressing these issues in a systematic way, enterprises can improve their own business
performance, expand opportunities for growth, and contribute to the development of social
capital in their markets. They can realize specific business benefits, such as:
1. Enhanced reputations and good will
2. Reduced risks and costs
3. Protection from their own employees and agents
4. Stronger competitive positions
5. Expanded access to capital, credit, and foreign investment
6. Increased profits

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 7. Sustained long-term growth
8. International respect for enterprises and emerging markets. Enterprises that excel in these
areas create a climate of excellence for their employees, shareholders, and communities, and
contribute to the economic wellbeing of their countries.

Ethical behavior and corporate social responsibility can bring significant benefits to a business.
For example, they may:
 Attract customers to the firm's products, thereby boosting sales and profits
 Make employees want to stay with the business, reduce labour turnover and therefore increase
productivity
 Attract more employees wanting to work for the business, reduce recruitment costs and enable
the company to get the most talented employees
 Attract investors and keep the company's share price high, thereby protecting the business
from takeover.

Unethical behavior or a lack of corporate social responsibility may damage a firm's reputation
and make it less appealing to stakeholders. Profits could fall as a result.

Several factors play a role in the success of a company that are beyond the scope of financial
statements alone. Organizational culture, management philosophy and ethics in business each
have an impact on how well a business performs in the long term. No matter the size, industry or
level of profitability of an organization, business ethics are one of the most important aspects of
long-term success.

Ethics in Leadership

The management team sets the tone for how the entire company runs on a day-to-day basis.
When the prevailing management philosophy is based on ethical practices and behavior, leaders
within an organization can direct employees by example and guide them in making decisions
that are not only beneficial to them as individuals, but also to the organization as a whole.
Building on a foundation of ethical behavior helps create long lasting positive effects for a
company, including the ability to attract and retain highly talented individuals and building and
maintaining a positive reputation within the community. Running a business in a ethical manner
from the top down builds a stronger bond between individuals on the management team, further
creating stability within the company.

Employee Ethics

When management is leading an organization in an ethical manner, employees follow in those

footsteps. Employees make better decisions in less time with business ethics as a guiding
principle; this increases productivity and overall employee morale. When employees complete
work in a way that is based on honesty and integrity, the whole organization benefits. Employees
who work for a corporation that demands a high standard of business ethics in all facets of
operations are more likely to perform their job duties at a higher level and are also more inclined
to stay loyal to that organization.

Business Ethics Benefits

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The importance of business ethics reaches far beyond employee loyalty and morale or the
strength of a management team bond. As with all business initiatives, the ethical operation of a
company is directly related to profitability in both the short and long term. The reputation of a
business from the surrounding community, other businesses and individual investors is
paramount in determining whether a company is a worthwhile investment. If a company's
reputation is less than perfect based on the perception that it does not operate ethically, investors
are less inclined to buy stock or otherwise support its operations.

With consistent ethical behavior comes increasingly positive public image, and there are few
other considerations as important to potential investors and current shareholders. To retain a
positive image, businesses must be committed to operating on an ethical foundation as it relates
to treatment of employees, respect to the surrounding environment and fair market practices in
terms of price and consumer treatment.

Personal integrity at the workplace

Integrity comes in many forms, but honesty and dependability are two traits that are expected in
most workplace situations. Without responsible behavior, distrust can make a work environment
tense and uncomfortable. A strong work ethic shows co-workers and clients that you're reliable
and take your responsibilities seriously. Polite communication, respectable behavior and fiscal
responsibility also help you stand out as a trustworthy employee.

1. Work When You're on the Clock Working diligently when you're on the clock is a clear
example of workplace integrity. Socializing, surfing the Internet, making personal phone calls,
texting and frequent snacking are activities that detract from work time. Saving those activities
for break time will show your boss, co-workers and customers that you work hard when you're
on the clock. The career website Calibrate Coaching recommends honoring your work hours by
not stealing time from your employer. Even if you don't actually clock in and out with a time
card, focusing on your work responsibilities while you're at your desk, work station or
production area will showcase your strong work habits.

2. Follow Company Policies Abiding by company policies is a powerful way to demonstrate

integrity. Cutting corners and neglecting to follow workplace regulations can lead to mistakes,
problems and even dangerous situations. Your willingness to properly record financial
transactions, safely dispense of hazardous or toxic materials, follow company protocol for
dealing with clients, perform clean-up or set-up procedures and properly maintain equipment
shows others that you're not just looking for the easy way out. Establishing yourself as a
trustworthy worker who submits to company policies shows your boss and co-workers that you'll
faithfully carry out your duties.

3. Respect Co-workers and Build Trust Respecting those you work with reveals your desire to
create a healthy work environment. Polite communication, appropriate interactions and respect
for co-workers' thoughts and ideas demonstrate your ability to look beyond your own interests to
pursue team-centered work goals. As you deal with co-workers honestly and respectfully, you
establish a level of trust with them. According to Amy Rees Anderson, a contributor to Forbes

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 magazine, those who trust you will spread the word of that trust to their associates, and word of
your character will spread like wildfire.

5. Exhibit Responsible Behavior Integrity in the workplace often stems from moral and ethical
behavior. Making sure there's no reason to question your conduct is one of the best ways to prove
that you are an honest and dependable employee. Avoid using company products or equipment
for personal use and submit exact receipts for travel or meal reimbursements. Don't overpromise
what you can't provide and strive to meet deadlines. Work productively and cooperate during
company meetings so you don't appear lazy or apathetic, and don't call in sick if you aren't. By
exhibiting responsible behavior, you don't give co-workers or clients the opportunity to question
your integrity.

Computer Ethics

The concept of computer ethics originated in 1950 with the publication of Nobert Wiener,s book
entitles ―The human use of human beings,. Computer ethics involves a set of moral principles
that regulate the use of computers.

The Ten Commandments are as follows:

 Do not use the computer in ways that may harm other people. Explanation: This commandment
says that it is unethical to use a computer to harm another user. It is not limited to physical injury.
It includes harming or corrupting other users' data or files. The commandment states that it is
wrong to use a computer to steal someone's personal information. Manipulating or destroying
files of other users is ethically wrong. It is unethical to write programs, which on execution lead
to stealing, copying or gaining unauthorized access to other users' data. Being involved in
practices like hacking, spamming, phishing or cyber bullying does not conform to computer
ethics.
 Do not use computer technology to cause interference in other users' work. Explanation:
Computer software can be used in ways that disturb other users or disrupt their work. Viruses, for
example, are programs meant to harm useful computer programs or interfere with the normal
functioning of a computer. Malicious software can disrupt the functioning of computers in more
ways than one. It may overload computer memory through excessive consumption of computer
resources, thus slowing its functioning. It may cause a computer to function wrongly or even stop
working. Using malicious software to attack a computer is unethical.
 Do not spy on another person's computer data. Explanation: We know it is wrong to read
someone's personal letters. On the same lines, it is wrong to read someone else's email messages
or files. Obtaining data from another person's private files is nothing less than breaking into
someone's room. Snooping around in another person's files or reading someone else's personal
messages is the invasion of his privacy. There are exceptions to this. For example, spying is
necessary and cannot be called unethical when it is done against illegitimate use of computers.
For example, intelligence agencies working on cybercrime cases need to spy on the internet
activity of suspects.
 Do not use computer technology to steal information. Explanation: Stealing sensitive
information or leaking confidential information is as good as robbery. It is wrong to acquire
personal information of employees from an employee database or patient history from a hospital
database or other such information that is meant to be confidential. Similarly, breaking into a

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bank account to collect information about the account or account holder is wrong. Illegal
electronic transfer of funds is a type of fraud. With the use of technology, stealing of information
is much easier. Computers can be used to store stolen information.
 Do not contribute to the spread of misinformation using computer technology. Explanation:
Spread of information has become viral today, because of the Internet. This also means that false
news or rumors can spread speedily through social networking sites or emails. Being involved in
the circulation of incorrect information is unethical. Mails and pop-ups are commonly used to
spread the wrong information or give false alerts with the only intent of selling products. Mails
from untrusted sources advertising certain products or spreading some hardto-believe
information, are not uncommon. Direct or indirect involvement in the circulation of false
information is ethically wrong. Giving wrong information can hurt other parties or organizations
that are affected on that particular theme.
 Refrain from copying software or buying pirated copies. Pay for software unless it is free.
Explanation: Like any other artistic or literary work, software is copyrighted. A piece of code is
the original work of the individual who created it. It is copyrighted in his/her name. In case of a
developer writing software for the organization she works for, the organization holds the
copyright for it. Copyright holds true unless its creators announce it is not. Obtaining illegal
copies of copyrighted software is unethical. It is not easy to do such things and in the end it will
just be copied illegally.
 Do not use someone else's computer resources unless authorized to. Explanation: Multi-user
systems have user specific passwords. Breaking into some other user's password, thus intruding
her private space is unethical. It is not ethical to hack passwords for gaining unauthorized access
to a password-protected computer system. Accessing data that you are not authorized to access or
gaining access to another user's computer without her permission is not ethical. Privacy will
always be applied to such resources and were not supposed to get exposed and hack in such ways
that is not yours.
 It is wrong to claim ownership on a work which is the output of someone else's intellect.
Explanation: Programs developed by a software developer are her property. If he is working with
an organization, they are the organization's property. Copying them and propagating them in
one's own name is unethical. This applies to any creative work, program or design. Establishing
ownership on a work which is not yours is ethically wrong. Originality of any software/programs
are to be keep safe and trying to claim ownership will cause a viral disputes.  Before developing
a software, think about the social impact it can have. Explanation: Looking at the social
consequences that a program can have, describes a broader perspective of looking at technology.
A computer software on release, reaches millions. Software like video games and animations or
educational software can have a social impact on their users. When working on animation films
or designing video games, for example, it is the programmer's responsibility to understand his
target audience/users and the effect it may have on them. For example, a computer game for kids
should not have content that can influence them negatively. Similarly, writing malicious software
is ethically wrong. A software developer/development firm should consider the influence their
code can have on the society at large.
 In using computers for communication, be respectful and courteous with the fellow members.
Explanation: The communication etiquette we follow in the real world applies to communication
over computers as well. While communicating over the Internet, one should treat others with
respect. One should not intrude others' private space, use abusive language, make false statements
or pass irresponsible remarks about others. One should be courteous while communicating over

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the web and should respect others' time and resources. Also, one should be considerate with a
novice computer user.

Business Ethics and Media:

Care must also be taken when making statements to the media that information given is correct
and not misleading. Information which, if made public would be likely to have material effect on
the share price or about certain transactions such as mergers, acquisitions or disposals or
transactions with related parties is subject to specific rules. Such matters should be referred to the
relevant Regional General Counsel. Enquiries from the media should be referred to company
media relations experts and statements should only be made by designated spokespersons.

Only authorized spokespersons are permitted to represent the company in media or investor
relations.

Social media and Business Ethics

Social media is an umbrella term used to describe social interaction through a suite of technology
based tools, many of which are internet based. This includes, but is not limited to, internet
forums, networking sites such as Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn and GooglePlus, webcasts, and
blogs. Social media exhibits unique characteristics when compared t traditional media forms. Its
speed and scope means that once content is publish edit is available instantaneously, to a
potentially global audience. Social media tools tend to be free or available at a very low cost
relative to other forms of media and do not require users to have much technical knowledge. This
allows larger numbers of individuals to access and publish material than with traditional media
forms.

Social media is usually interactive in a way that traditional media is not, so users can comment
on and edit published material, making it difficult to control content. Social media blurs
private/public boundaries when individuals
personalinformationandopinionsenterthepublicdomain.Theboundariesbetweenpersonala
ndworklifealsobecomeblurredascompaniesmakeuseofsocial media (originally designed for
personal use) for business purposes, and likewise employees access personalities while at work.
A 2011DLA Piper survey found social media is used for personal and work related activities by
95% of employees.

These unique characteristics of social media pose ethical challenges for business, through
employees use of social media on behalf of the company, as well as their personal use.

Corporate Social Responsibility

Corporate social responsibility (CSR) is a business approach that contributes to sustainable

development by delivering economics, social and environmental benefits for all stakeholders.

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 CSR is a concept with many definitions and practices. The way it is understood and implemented
differs greatly.

Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) is a business approach that contributes to sustainable

development by delivering economic, social and environmental benefits for all stakeholders.

CSR is a concept with many definitions and practices. The way it is understood and implemented
differs greatly for each company and country. Moreover, CSR is a very broad concept that
addresses many and various topics such as human rights, corporate governance, health and safety,
environmental effects, working conditions and contribution to economic development. Whatever
the definition is, the purpose of CSR is to drive change towards sustainability.

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Chinodya, S. (1995). Step Ahead New Syllabus: New Secondary English Student’s Book 3. Lusaka:
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Hefferman, J.A.W. and Lincoln, J.E. (1986).Writing a College Workbook. (2nded) London: W.W. Norton
and company
Narula, J.(2003).Mass Communication: Theory and Practice. New Delhi: Sterling Publishers
Janddt, F.E. (2004). An Introduction to Intercultural Communication. USA: SAGE Publication
Kaul, A. (2008). Effective Business Communication. New Delhi: PHI Learning Private Ltd Ministry of
Education (1996).Educating Our Future. Lusaka: CDC
Shirley, T. (2005).Communication for Business. A practical approach (Third Edition). Delhi: Pearson
Education

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