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Classification of All Crops

The document provides comprehensive information on Black Gram, detailing its introduction, importance, geographical distribution, climatic and soil requirements, various cultivars, and management practices including sowing, fertilization, irrigation, weed control, harvesting, and pest and disease management. It highlights the nutritional benefits of Black Gram, its significant role in soil fertility, and its major production regions, particularly in India. Overall, it serves as a guide for effective cultivation and management of Black Gram.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)

81 views133 pages

Classification of All Crops

Uploaded by

suraj

We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.

Available Formats

Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

Supplementary notes on Black Gram

hello@[Link] 1 | Page [Link]

Contents

hello@[Link] 2 | Page [Link]

“The ultimate goal of farming is not the growing of crops, but the cultivation and
perfection of human beings.” – Unknown

1 Introduction
√ Black gram is also known as Urad or Urdbean.
√ Botanical name of Black gram is Vigna mungo.
√ The origin of Black gram is South Asia.
√ Family- Leguminosae (Papilionaceae)
√ It is a self pollinated crop.

2 Importance
√ It is consumed in the form of ‘Dal’.
√ It is the chief constituent of ‘papad, idli and dosa’
√ It is used as nutritive fodder for animals.
√ It is also used as a green manuring crop.
√ It controls soil erosion and competes with weeds effectively due to its deep root system and
foliage cover.
√ It contains protein (25%), carbohydrates (60%), fat (1.3%) and rich in phosphoric acid
√ It fixes atmospheric nitrogen into soil and improves the soil fertility.

3 Geographical distribution
√ The major producing countries like India, Myanmar and Thailand.
√ India contributes nearly 70 percent of world's production followed by Myanmar and Thailand.
√ The major Black gram producing States in India are Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh,
Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Uttarakhand and West Bengal.
√ It accounts for 13 % total pulses area and 10 % total pulses production in India.

4 Climatic requirements
√ It is generally grown in the kharif/rainy and summer season.
√ It grows best in hot and humid conditions with ideal temperature range between 25 to 35 °C.
√ It can be grown successfully from sea level up to an elevation of 1800 meters.
√ Heavy rains during flowering are harmful.
√ It is best suited to areas having an annual rainfall of 600 to 750 mm.
√ It is quite drought resistant but intolerant to frost and prolonged cloudiness.

5 Soil requirement
√ Black gram does well on heavier soils such as black cotton soils which retain moisture better.
√ It can be grown on all types of soils ranging from sandy loam to heavy clay, except the alkaline and
saline soils.
√ Loamy or slightly heavy soils with neutral pH are best suited for urdbean.
√ Soil should be drained and have good water holding capacity.
√ Waterlogged, saline and alkaline soil should be avoided.

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6 Varieties of Black gram
√ Varieties of Black gram with their attributes/characters

Sr. Varieties Duration Production Characters

No. (Days) (q/ha)

1. BDU-1 70-75 10-12 Bold seed

2. TAU-1 65-70 10-12 Bold seed, Fast growth

3. TPU-4 70-75 10-12 Bold black seed

4. TAU-2 70-75 10-12 Bold seed, suitable for

heavy soil

5. Pant U- 80-85 12-15 Medium black seed, high

35 yielding

6. Azad-1 80-90 12-14 Medium black seed

7. Naveen 90-95 10-12 Light yellowish green colour

seed

8. Pusa-1 80-90 12-15 Resistant to yellow mosaic

virus

9. Krishna 90-100 8-10 Bold seeds

10. Pant U- 68-75 12-15 Hairy and black pods

7 Seeds and sowing

√ Seed should be free from insects, pests and diseases.
√ It should be free from any inert matter i.e. dust particles, weed seeds etc.
√ Seeds should be viable and genetically pure.
√ Sowing should be done in line sowing/drilling method with tractor drawn ferti-cum-seed drill or by
bullock drawn ferti-cum-seed drill/tifan.

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√ Ferti-cum-seed drill should be used for the application of fertilizers and seed sowing at a time.
√ Seeds should not be sown more than 5 to 6 cm in depth.
√ Second fortnight of June (15 to 30 June) is the proper time of black gram sowing in the kharif season.
√ In summer, sowing should be done from the third week of February to First week of April.
√ Late sowing should be avoided
√ Seed should be treated with thiram @ 2.5 gm / kg seed.
√ It should be treated with rhizobium culture for atmospheric N fixation.
√ Seed rate and spacing

Sr. No. Season Seed rate Spacing

1 Kharif 12 to 15 kg / ha 30 X 10 cm

2 Summer 20 to 25 kg / ha 20-25 X 10 cm

8 Manure and Fertilizer management

√ 10 to 15 CL/ha well decomposed FYM should be incorporated into soil at the time of preparation of
the land.
√ The recommended fertilizer dose for black gram is [Link] kg NPK/ha .
√ Fertilizer dose should be applied as a basal dose at the time of sowing.

9 Water management
√ Irrigation is not needed in the rainy season, but in summer season irrigation should be given as per
critical stages and availability of irrigation water.
√ Number and frequency of irrigation depend upon the soil type and weather.
√ The crop should get irrigation at an interval of 10-15 days.
√ From flowering to pod development stage, there is need of sufficient moisture in the field.

10 Weed management
√ One or two hand weeding should be done up to 40 days of sowing depending upon the weed intensity.
√ Weeds can be controlled by the use of herbicides i.e. Fluchloralin (Basalin) 1 kg a.i. / ha in 800-1000
litres of water as a pre-planting application.

11 Harvesting and Threshing

√ Pods and plant dried, Grains become hard, and moisture percent in grain at harvesting should be 20-
22 %.
√ Pod shattering is a common problem in pulse. Therefore picking should be done as soon as pods
mature.
√ Harvesting should be done 2-3 pickings.
√ The pods or whole crop after complete drying should be threshed manually or by machine.

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12. Yield
√ The average yield up to 12-15 q per ha.

13. Pests of Black gram

Sr. No. Pest Control

1 Hairy caterpillar Dusting 2 % methyl parathion @25-30kg/ha

2 Leaf hopper Basal application of Phorate @10 kg/ha.

Spray monocrotophos @1ml/[Link].

3 Jassids Basal application of Phorate @10 kg/ha.

Spray monocrotophos @1ml/[Link].

14. Diseases of Black gram

Sr. No. Disease Control

1 YM virus Grow resistant varieties like Pusa-1, KM-2.

Spray Metasystox and Malathion

2 Leaf curl 2-3 sprays of Metasystox at 10 days interval

3 Seed/seedling rot Seed treatment with Thiram/carbendazim 2.5

gm/kg seed

4 Anthracnose Spray Mancozeb/zineb @2 kg in 1000 lit. of

water

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Supplementary notes on ChickPea

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Contents

Contents
1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................................... 3
2 Importance ............................................................................................................................................ 3
3 Geographical distribution ..................................................................................................................... 3
4 Climatic requirements........................................................................................................................... 4
5 Soil requirement ................................................................................................................................... 4
6 Varieties of Chickpea ............................................................................................................................ 4
6.1 Varieties by Indian Institute of Pulses Research, Kanpur................................................................... 4
6.2. Varieties by ICAR ............................................................................................................................... 5
6.3. Varieties by IARI ................................................................................................................................ 5
6.4. Desi Varieties..................................................................................................................................... 5
6.5. Kabuli Varieties .................................................................................................................................. 5
6.6. Drought Resistant Variety .................................................................................................................. 5
6.7. Wilt Resistant Varieties ...................................................................................................................... 5
6.8. Early Maturing Varieties .................................................................................................................... 5
7 Seeds and sowing .................................................................................................................................. 5
8 Fertilizer management .......................................................................................................................... 5
9 Water management .............................................................................................................................. 6
10 Weed management .......................................................................................................................... 6
11 Harvesting and Threshing ................................................................................................................. 6
12 Yield.......................................................................................................................................................... 6
13 Pests of Chickpea ..................................................................................................................................... 6
14 Diseases of Chickpea ............................................................................................................................ 7
15 Nipping ................................................................................................................................................. 7

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“The ultimate goal of farming is not the growing of crops, but the cultivation and
perfection of human beings.” – Unknown

1 Introduction
√ Chickpea is also known as Gram or Bengal gram.
√ Chickpea is a’King of Pulses’.
√ Botanical name of Chickpea is/are

Sr. No. Types of Chickpea Botanical Name

1 Desi/Kala/Brown Chickpea Cicer arietinum

2 Kabuli/White Chickpea Cicer kabulium

√ The origin of chickpea is South West Asia (Afghanistan).

√ Family- Leguminosae (Papilionaceae)
√ It is a self pollinated and long day plant.
√ It is considered as a dry land crop.
√ Desi chickpeas have small, darker seeds and rough coats.
√ Kabuli chickpea has lighter/white coloured, larger seeds and smoother coat.

2 Importance
√ It is used for human as well as animal consumption.
√ Chickpeas are a nutrient-dense food, containing 22-23 % protein.
√ It also contains Carbohydrates, Phosphorus, Zinc, Thiamine, Vitamin B6, Magnesium.
√ The sour taste in leaves is due to presence of Maleic acid and Oxalic acid.
√ Its leaves are recommended for intestired disorder patients, due to presence of Maleic acid and Oxalic
acid.
√ It is helpful for strong muscles, great for the heart, immunity, healthy bones and teeth, lowers blood
sugar, aids in weight loss and has anti-inflammatory properties.
√ Desi chickpeas have higher fiber content than kabuli chickpea and hence a very low glycemic index
which may make them suitable for diabetic patients.

3 Geographical distribution
√ Desi chickpeas are mostly cultivated in Indian subcontinent, Ethiopia, Mexico and Iran.
√ Kabuli chickpeas are cultivated in Southern Europe, Northern Africa, Afghanistan, Pakistan and Chile.
√ In 2018, India led production with 66% of the total global production, whilePakistan ,Iran, Australia,
United States, and Turkey were secondary producers.
√ Chickpea is the most widely produced pulse crop in India accounting to a share of 40% of the total
pulse crops produced in India.
√ In India, it is mainly grown in states of Bihar, Haryana, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Punjab,
Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh, etc.
√ Madhya Pradesh is the largest producer of chickpeas in India.

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4 Climatic requirements
√ Chickpea is a rabi (winter) season crop.
√ Crop duration is 120 to 130 days. Desi varieties are shorter in duration than kabuli varieties.
√ It is best suited to areas having low to moderate rainfall (600 mm to 900 mm) and mild cold weather.
√ Excessive rain after sowing or at the time of flowering is harmful to crop.
√ It is highly susceptible to frost at the flowering stage.
√ Optimum temperature required for growth is 24-30 °C.

5 Soil requirement
√ Chickpea has a tap root system.
√ Very fine and compact seedbeds are not good for chickpea.
√ It requires a loose and well aerated rough seedbed.
√ It can be grown on a wide variety of soil but Sandy loam to clay loam soil is best for cultivation of
chickpea with an efficient drainage and free from soluble salts preferably having 5.5 to 7.0 pH.
√ Saline-alkaline soils are not suitable for chickpea cultivation.

6 Varieties of Chickpea
6.1 Varieties by Indian Institute of Pulses Research, Kanpur
Variety Yield (q/ha) Character

DCP 92-3 22-25 Tolerant to lodging, wilt resistant, yellowish small seeds

IPC 97-67 (SCS-3) 17-18 Early maturing, resistant to wilt and tolerant to terminal
moisture stress

IPCK 2002-29 20-22 Kabuli chickpea variety, large seeds (34 g/100-seed wt.),
(Shubhra) moderately resistant to wilt

IPCK 2004-29 (Ujjawal) 20-22 Moderately resistant to fusarium wilt

IPC 2006-77 22-25 Medium tall, semi-erect growth habit, small leaves with
dark foliage, medium small size (16.5 g / 100 seed weight)
and attractive light yellow seed dry root rot and higher
grain protein content. Suitable for late sown conditions
colour, Resistant against wilt, stunt and collar rot

IPC 2004-98 18-20 Medium tall, semi-erect growth habit, green foliage, large
seed size (25.8 g/100 seed weight) and attractive seed
shape & colour. Suitable for normal sown conditions

IPC 2005-62 15-18 Medium and semi-erect growth habit, green foliage, small
seeded (15.2 g/100 seed weight) with yellow cotyledons

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and resistant to wilt disease. Suitable for late sown
conditions

IPC 2004-01 15-18 Medium tall and semi-erect growth habit, medium green
foliage, medium seed size (20.2 g/100 seed weight) with
light brownish seed and moderately resistant to wilt.
Suitable for normal sown conditions

6.2. Varieties by ICAR

Pusa-209, Pusa-1003, DG-203

6.3. Varieties by IARI

PDM-11, BG-2024

6.4. Desi Varieties

JG-11, Co-3, RS-10, GCP-11

6.5. Kabuli Varieties

Pusa-1003, K-551

6.6. Drought Resistant Variety

NP-58

6.7. Wilt Resistant Varieties

JG-74, JG-315, BG-256, Awarodhi

6.8. Early Maturing Varieties

Chaffa, Vikas

7 Seeds and sowing

√ Chickpea is mainly sown in October to November.
√ Second fortnight of October is found to be the best sowing time but it may be delayed by the first
week of November for higher yields.
√ Seed rate is 75 to 100 kg/ha.
√ Spacing- Desi Chickpea 30 cm X 10 cm and Kabuli chickpea 45 cm X 15 cm.
√ Seeds are treated with 0.25% thiram.

8 Fertilizer management
√ Chickpea is a leguminous crop.
√ The general recommended dose of chickpea is 15-20 kg N/ha, 50-60 kg P/ha. If soils are low in K, an
application of 17-20 kg potassium is recommended.
√ The total quantity of N,P,K should be given as a basal dose.
√ Foliar spray of 2% urea found beneficial at the time of flowering stage.

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9 Water management
√ Chickpea is mostly sown as a rainfed crop.

√ For higher yields light irrigation is recommended.

√ There should be sufficient moisture in the soil while sowing the crop.

√ One light irrigation at flowering and one light irrigation at grain development stage are required for

good crop.

10 Weed management
√ Chickpea responds well to hand weeding and hoeing as it improves aeration.
√ The best time for weeding and hoeing is between 25-30 days after sowing and if the weeds are still
present in the field, the second weeding should be done about 60 days after sowing.
√ Weeds may be controlled by herbicides also for which Basalin at the rate of 1 kg a.i. per hectare should
be used as preplant well incorporated in the soil or Tribunil at the rate of 2.5 kg/ha may be sprayed
as pre-emergence.
√ Fluchloralin @ 1 kg/ha or Oxidiazen @ 0.75 kg/ha may be sprayed as pre-emergence.

11 Harvesting and Threshing

√ The crop matures within 120-130 days.
√ After maturity the plants are pulled out or when cut with a sickle leaves become reddish brown , dry
up and start shedding.
√ Crop harvested when moisture reaches 15%.
√ The harvested plants are carted to the threshing-floor, dried for about a week and threshed by
trampling them under the feet of bullocks or by beating them with sticks.
√ The threshed seed should be sun dried for 3-4 days to bring their moisture content at 9-10%.

12 Yield
√ A good pure crop of chickpea gives about 15-20 quintals yield/ha in case of desi varieties but the
Kabuli varieties give about 25-30 quintals/ha yield.

13 Pests of Chickpea
√ Cutworm and pod borers are the major pests of chickpea crop.
√ The cutworms cut the tender stems, branches or damage the leaves by cutting the top, edge or
midribs, etc.
√ Cutworms may be controlled by soil treatment with 5% BHC dust or 3% Heptachlor at the rate of 25
kg and 35 kg/ha, respectively.
√ Aldrin dust should be a good substitute for these chemicals, if they are not available.
√ The pod borers used to bore the pods and eat the grains inside.
√ They may be controlled by spraying 35 EC Endosulfan in the concentration of 2 ml/litre at 15 days
interval and about two or three applications are required.
√ Endosulfan also controls aphids and cutworms if present in the field.

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14 Diseases of Chickpea
√ The crop is prone to wilt, blight and rust diseases which have practically no cure except using resistant
varieties like BG-212, Pusa 109 and C-235 for wilt prone areas and G-543 and C-235 for blight.
√ Apart from using resistant varieties seed treatment with Benlate and Thiram (1:1) at 2 g/kg seed; for
seed wilt, soil treatment with Brassicol and Captan at 10 kg/ha rate: and adoption of proper crop
rotation should be followed: Awarodhi, JG 315, ICCC 32, BG 244, GNG 146, CG 588 and BG 266 have
resistance to both wilt and blight diseases.

15 Nipping
√ It is a special cultivation practice of plucking the apical buds of the crop at about 30-40 days after
sowing.
√ Nipping stops the apical growth and promotes lateral branching, thus the plants become more
vigorous and produce more flowers and pods and yield per plant is increased.

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Supplementary notes on Green Gram

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Contents

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“The ultimate goal of farming is not the growing of crops, but the cultivation and
perfection of human beings.” – Unknown

1 Introduction
√ Green gram is also known as Moong.
√ Botanical name of Green gram is Phaseolus aureus (Old name-Vigna radiata).
√ The origin of Green gram is India and Central Asia.
√ Family- Leguminosae (Papilionaceae)
√ It is a self pollinated crop.

2 Importance
√ Green Gram is an excellent source of high quality protein (25%) having high digestibility.
√ It is consumed as whole grains as well as "Dal" in a variety of ways in our food.
√ Sprouted green gram is used in the preparation of curry or a savory dish (South India).
√ It is supposed to be easily digestible and hence the patients prefer it.
√ It is also a good source of Riboflavin, Thiamine and Vitamin C (Ascorbic acid).
√ When green gram is sprouted, seeds synthesize a remarkable quantity of ascorbic acid (Vitamin C).
√ Green gram is also used as a green manure crop.
√ It being a leguminous crop has capacity to fix the atmospheric nitrogen (30-40 kg N/ha).
√ It also helps in preventing soil erosion.
√ Being a short duration crop, it fits well in many intensive crop rotations.
√ Green gram can be used as feed for cattle.
√ After harvesting the pods, green plants are uprooted or cut from the ground level and chopped into
small pieces and fed to the cattle.
√ The husk of the seed can be soaked in water and used as cattle feed.

3 Geographical distribution
√ Green gram is cultivated in the countries of India, Burma, Srilanka, Pakistan, China, Fiji and Africa.
√ India is the major producer of green gram in the world and grown in almost all the States.
√ The important green gram growing States in the country are Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya
Pradesh, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Odisha and Bihar.

4 Climatic requirements
√ It is grown in all the three seasons in the country.
√ Green gram is best suited to areas having an annual rainfall of 600 to 750 mm.
√ It requires a hot and warm climate.
√ Green Gram is considered to be hardiest among all pulse crops and can tolerate drought to a great
extent.
√ Hence, it is successfully grown in any adverse conditions and particularly in drought prone areas
during the kharif season.
√ However, water logging and cloudy weather are harmful for the crop.

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5 Soil requirement
√ Green gram can be grown on a variety of soils ranging from sandy loam to black cotton soils having
good drainage capacity.
√ pH requirement for green gram is 6 to 7.
√ Saline and alkaline soils are not suitable for green gram cultivation.
√ Green gram is very sensitive to water logging conditions.

6 Varieties of Green gram

√ 6.1. Mutant varieties-Pant Mung 2, MUM 2, CO 4, Dhulia
√ 6.2. Early maturing varieties-Pusa Baisakhi, PS 16, K 851
√ 6.3. Varieties for Summer and Spring season-Pusa Baisakhi, PS 16
√ 6.4. First Green gram variety- T 1
√ 6.5. Yellow vein mosaic virus resistant varieties- Pant Mung 3, Samrat, Basanti.

7 Seeds and sowing

√ The kharif crop is sown in June to July.
√ The rabi crop is sown in September or October.
√ The summer crop is sown by the second fortnight of February to the first fortnight of March.
√ The seed-rate varies from 12-15 kg per hectare when sown alone and for mixed crop 2-6 kg per
hectare.
√ Spacing- 40 cm X 10 cm (for kharif season) and 30 cm X 10 cm ( for rabi and summer season)
√ Before sowing, seeds should be treated with Thiram or Captan @ 2 to 3 g/kg of seeds.
√ It is also desirable to treat seeds with suitable rhizobium strain if crop is taken in the field first time.

8 Manure and Fertilizer management

√ Green gram is a leguminous crop.
√ 10 to 15 CL/ha well decomposed FYM should be incorporated into soil at the time of preparation of
the land.
√ Fertilizer application for irrigated conditions is 25 kg N + 50 kg P+ 20 kg S /ha and for rainfed condition
is 12.5 kg N + 25 kg P+ 10 kg S /ha.

9 Water management
√ For rainfed crops, irrigation is not needed but drainage is very important because this crop is very
much sensitive to water logging.
√ For summer season crops, five to six irrigations may be given.
√ First irrigation should be given at 20-25 DAS and subsequent irrigations should be given at an interval
of 12-15 days.
√ Irrigation should not be given at the full bloom stage of the crop.
√ Flowering and Pod filling stages are critical stages for irrigation.

10 Weed management
√ One or two interculturing and one to two weeding should be carried out at 20 and 45 days after
sowing.

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√ Fluchloralin or Pendimethalin @ 0.5 kg/ha or oxadiazon @ 0.25 kg/ha as pre-emergence should be
applied when hand weeding is not possible due to continuous rains during the kharif season.

11 Harvesting and Threshing

√ The best time to harvest crop, when 85% of the pods are fully matured.
√ To avoid loss because of the shattering of pods, the crop is harvested before it is dead ripe.
√ One or two rounds of the picking of pods are also recommended to avoid losses because of the
shattering.
√ The plants are uprooted or cut with a sickle, are dried on the threshing-floor for a week or ten days
and threshed by beating with sticks, and are winnowed with baskets.

12 Yield
√ The average yield up to 12-15 q per ha.

13 Pests of Green gram

Sr. Pests of Nature of Damage Control Measures
No. Green gram

1 Aphids The nymphs and adults suck the sap. The Spraying with 0.05% Endosulfan,
affected leaves turn yellow, get wrinkled and 0.02% Phosphamidon, 0.03%
distorted. The insect also exudes honeydew Dimethoate, Methyl demeton or
on which fungus develops, rapidly covering Thiometon control the pest
the plant with sooty mould that interferes effectively.
with the photosynthetic activity of the plant.

2 Thrips The adults and nymphs feed on leaves. They Spraying with 0.05% Endosulfan,
scrape the epidermis and such the oozing sap. 0.02% Phosphamidon, 0.03%
As a result, light brown patches appear on Dimethoate, Methyl demeton or
infested leaves. The affected leaves curl and Thiometon control the pest
become dry. effectively.

3 Pod Caterpillars feed on tender foliage and young In the early stage of attack,
borers pods. They make holes in the pods and feed handpicking of the caterpillars and
on developing seeds by inserting anterior half their destruction. Ploughing fields
portion of their body inside the pods. after the harvest of crops would
expose the pupae, which would be
destroyed by birds. Spraying the
crop with 0.05% Quinalphos or
Fenitrothion can successfully
control the pest. Spray with HaNPV
@ 250 LE/ha.

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14 Diseases of Green gram
Sr. No. Diseases of Symptoms Control Measures
Green gram

1 Leaf Spot Angular brown or red spots, with Spray with Bordeaux mixture
grey or brown centre and reddish- ([Link]) or 0.2% Ziram
purple border on leave, stalk and
pods

2 Powdery White powdery patches on leaves Dust the crop with finely
Mildew and other green parts, later powdered sulphur (200-mesh) @
becoming dull coloured and are 20kg/ha.
studded with black dots.

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Supplementary notes on Groundnut

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Contents

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“The ultimate goal of farming is not the growing of crops, but the cultivation and
perfection of human beings.” – Unknown

1 Introduction
√ Groundnut is also called monkeynut/earthnut/peanut.
√ Botanical name of Groundnut is Arachis hypogea .
√ The origin of Groundnut is Brazil.
√ Family- Leguminosae (Papilionaceae)
√ It is a self pollinated and day neutral crop.
√ Groundnut is a modified fruit.
√ Gynophore of groundnut is known as peg (intercalary meristem from fertilized ovule)

2 Importance
√ Groundnut is an important oilseed crop and oil content of the seed varies from 44-50%, depending
on the varieties and agronomic conditions.
√ It is also used in soap making, and in manufacturing cosmetics and lubricants, olein, stearin and their
salts.
√ Kernels are also eaten raw, roasted or sweetened.
√ The cake can be used for manufacturing artificial fibre.
√ The haulms are fed (green, dried or silaged) to livestock.
√ Groundnut shells are used as fuel for manufacturing coarse boards, cork substitutes etc.
√ Groundnut is also of value as a rotation crop.
√ Bitterness of kernel is due to Aflatoxin (toxic substance) developed 2 reasons- when pod moisture
is > 8% and fungus namely Aspergillus niger & Aspergillus flavus.

3 Geographical distribution
√ China, India, Nigeria, Sudan, Senegal and the USA are the leading groundnut producing countries in
the world.
√ China is major producer of groundnut in the world
√ The major groundnut growing states are Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka,
Maharashtra and Rajasthan.
√ Gujarat is the largest producing state accounting for 40% of the total groundnut produced in the
country.

4 Climatic requirements
√ Groundnut is essentially a tropical plant.
√ It requires a long and warm growing season but it adapted to a wide range of climates.
√ However plants get affected when low light intensity during early growth and flowering, cloudy
weather at flowering.
√ Average temperature range of 25-30°C. Temperature < 20°C and > 35°C growth gets retarded.
√ Once established, it can tolerate drought, also flood for a week if drained properly.
√ A rainfall of 500-1000 mm is fair but can produce a good crop with 300-400 mm well distribution.
√ The groundnut cannot stand frost, long and severe drought or water stagnation.

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5 Soil requirement
√ Groundnut plants need well drained sandy loam or clay loam soil for better growth.
√ Light colored loose, friable soil is essential for groundnut crop.
√ Soil with well supplied calcium and moderate amount of organic matter
√ The soil should be deep and the pH of the soil should be around 5.5 to 7 with a high fertility index.
√ It is observed that heavy soil is unsuitable for cultivation because of difficulty in harvesting and pod
loss.

6 Varieties of Groundnut
√ Varieties of groundnut according to types

Sr. No. Type of Groundnut Varieties

1 Bunch Type Girnar-1, Girnar-3,RSHY-1,Mankya (DRG-12),ICGS-1, ICGS-11,

ICGS-37, 10 ICGS-44, ICGV-86590

2 Semi Spreading Type TMV-6, TMV-8, Kopargaon-1, C-501, Girnar-2, DRG-17

3 Spreading Type Kadiri 71-1, TMV-1, TMV 3, S-230, Karad 4-11

7 Seeds and sowing

√ Seed should be free from insects, pests and diseases.
√ It should be free from any inert matter i.e. dust particles, weed seeds etc.
√ Seeds should be viable and genetically pure.
√ Seeds are treated with rhizobium culture.
√ Groundnut is raised mostly as a rainfed kharif crop, being sown from May to June, depending on the
monsoon rains.
√ As an irrigated crop it is grown to limited extent between January and March
√ Well-filled kernels should be selected and treated with 5 gm of Thiram or 3 gm of Captan per kg of
kernels.
√ The quantity of well-developed seeds required per hectare is about 80-100 kg for semi spreading and
spreading varieties and 100-120 kg for the bunch varieties.
√ The groundnut crop is sown with a seed drill or with a suitable planter at a depth of 8-10 cm for semi
spreading and spreading varieties, the spacing between at the adjacent rows varies for 30 cm and
within the row from 10 cm.
8 Manure and Fertilizer management
√ Apply 10-12 tonnes of farmyard manure and 25 kg nitrogen (N), 60 kg phosphorus (P2O5) and 60 kg
potash (K2O) per hectare.
√ The application of nitrogen (N) in two equal splits doses, one before sowing and the other 30 days
after sowing.
√ The application of a culture of Rhizobium as seed treatment is beneficial in increasing nodulation and
nitrogen fixation.
√ The application of gypsum at 500 kg per ha at the pegging stage will enhance pod formation.
√ Also apply 25-50 kg ZnSO4 and FeSO4 for higher yield of groundnut.

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9 Water management
√ Kharif groundnut do not require any irrigation, rabi groundnut require 5-6 irrigation and summer
groundnut require 10-12 irrigation.
√ Groundnut is relatively tolerant to drought as far as survival is concerned but its pod yield reduction
is very high if proper soil moisture is not maintained especially during critical growth stages (flowering,
pegging of pod development)
√ The amount of water used by the crop is determined by the potential evapo-transpiration during the
crop period and the degree of soil cover.
√ The water requirement reaches a maximum during flowering and continues up to pod formation.
√ Total water requirement for groundnut crop is 400-600 mm.
√ Check basin irrigation is the most suitable irrigation method for groundnut.
√ IW/CPE ratio of groundnut is 0.6
√ Critical growth stages of groundnut crop are

Critical Growth stages DAS

Establishment stage 10-20

Vegetative stage 25-35

Flowering and Peg initiation stage 35-50

Pod formation stage 50-75

Pod/seed development stage 75-90

10 Weed management
√ Amaranthus viridis, Boerhaavia diffusa, Celosia argentena, Chloris barbata, Cynodon dactylon,
Cyperus rotundus, Portulaca oleracea and Trichodesma indicum are the major weed found in
groundnut field.
√ Groundnut (Irrigated)
√ Pre-sowing: Fluchloralin at 2.0 l/ha soil applied and incorporated followed by light irrigation.
√ Pre-emergence: Fluchloralin 2.0 l/ha or Pendimethalin @ 3.3l/ha applied on the third day after sowing
through a flat fan nozzle with 500 l of water/ha followed by irrigation. After 35 - 40 days one hand
weeding may be given.
√ Spray Imazethapyr @ 750 ml/ha at 20-30 days after sowing based on weed density as post emergence
spray
√ If no herbicide is applied two hand hoeing and weeding are given on 20th and 40th day after sowing.
√ Apply, PE Oxyfluorfen @ 200 gm/ha on 3rd DAS and followed by one hand weeding on 40-45 DAS
√ Apply, PE Oxadiazon @ 0.8 kg ha-1 followed by one earthing up using hoes (or) working star type
weeder
√ Apply, PE Metolachlor @ 1.0 kg ha-1 followed by one hand weeding on 40 DAS.
√ Groundnut (Rainfed)
√ Pre-sowing: Fluchloralin at 2.0 l/ha soil applied and incorporated.
√ Pre-emergence: Fluchloralin 2.0 l/ha applied through a flat fan nozzle with 900 l of water/ha followed
by irrigation. After 35 - 40 days one hand weeding may be given.

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√ If no herbicide is applied two hand weeding and hoeing are given on 20th and 40th day after sowing.

11 Harvesting and Threshing

√ Groundnut plants have an indeterminate growth habit. Flowering extends over 2 months in bunch
types and over 3 months in spreading types.
√ It takes about 60 days for the pod to develop fully after the flower appears. It is therefore usual to
find pods in different stages of maturity at harvest.
√ Therefore, it is essential to fix the proper time for harvesting when maximum yield of best quality
pods and haulms with high shelling out-turn, test weight of kernels and oil content can be obtained.
√ When a good percentage of pods is well developed and fairly intact on the plant, the plant turns yellow
and leaf shedding starts.
√ The maturity of pods is determined by their attaining normal size of the genotypes, veins becoming
conspicuous, the inside of the shell turning dark, the kernel reaching maximum development and
testa having normal colour of the genotype.
√ The duration of the crop is influenced by the soil type, weather condition, cultural practices followed
and the genotypes.
√ The proper stage for harvesting is determined by pulling out a few plants at random and examining
for the maturity of pods.
√ This should be done at intervals of a few days when the maturity period specified for the genotype is
approaching.
√ When a high percentage of pods (about 75%) matures, harvesting has to be commenced.
√ Manual method of removing groundnut pods from groundnut plants is a labour intensive operation.
√ The power operated throw-in type groundnut thresher suitable for freshly harvested groundnut crop
will be of immense use to the groundnut growers.

12 Yield
√ The average yield of the bunch types variety is 15-20 qt/ha.
√ The average yield of the spreading types variety is up to 20-30 qt/ha.

13. Pests of Groundnut

Name of Nature of damage Control
the pests

Bihar ● Young larvae feed ● Pre-monsoon deep ploughing (two/three

hairy gregariously mostly on times) will expose the hibernating pupae to
caterpillar the under surface of the sunlight and predatory birds
Spilosoma leaves ● Removal and destruction of alternate wild
obliqua ● Feed on leaves and hosts and weeds which harbour the hairy
causes defoliation caterpillars
● In severe cases only ● Mass collection and destruction of eggs and
stems are left behind just emerged caterpillars
● Place the twigs and leaves of calotropis,
jatropha and papaya around the field to trap
grown up caterpillars and destruction
● Grow trap crops like cowpea, castor and

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jatropha on field bunds to attract the
caterpillars
● Conserve the bio control population of
spiders, long horned grasshoppers, praying
mantids, robber fly, ants, green lacewing,
damselflies/dragonflies, flower bugs, shield
bugs, lady bird beetles, ground beetle,
predatory cricket, braconids,
trichogrammatidae, NPV, green muscardine
fungus
● Use of NPV (nuclear polyhedrosis virus) on
cloudy days at 500 LE/ha will be effective
● Apply safe chemical insecticides at
recommended doses only if the insect
population crosses the ETL
● Spraying of quinalphos 25 EC (2 ml/lit) or
chlorpyriphos 20 EC (2.5 ml/lit) or Dichlorvos
76% EC (2.0 ml/lit) recommended when the
caterpillars are younger

Gram pod ● Larvae feed on the ● Deep summer ploughing

borer foliage, prefers flowers ● Intercrop one rows of red gram for every 5 or
Helicoverp and buds 6 rows
a ● When tender leaf buds ● Install pheromone trap @ 5/ha
armigera are eaten symmetrical ● Use Trichogramma chilonis @ 1 lakh/ha or
holes or cuttings can be Chrysoperla carnea @ 50000/ha at 40 and 50
seen upon unfolding of days after sowing of groundnut can
leaflets effectively check the pest
● Apply HaNPV @ 250 LE/ha or B.t (Bacillus
thuringiensis) 1 kg/ha or 5% NSKE for
monitoring eggs and early instar larvae
● Conserve the bio control population of
spiders, long horned grasshoppers, praying
mantids, robber fly, ants, green lacewing,
damselflies/dragonflies, flower bugs, shield
bugs, lady bird beetles, ground beetle,
predatory cricket, braconids,
trichogrammatidae, NPV, green muscardine
fungus
● Spray any one of the following insecticide
○ Quinalphos 2ml/lit of water
○ Chlorpyrifos 3ml/lit of water
○ Imidacloprid 2ml/lit of water

Tobacco ● Grow castor as border or intercrop in

caterpillar ● Freshly hatched larvae groundnut fields to serve as indicator or trap

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Spodopter feed gregariously, crop
a litura scraping the chlorophyll, ● Monitor the emergence of adult moths by
soon disperse setting up light and pheromone traps
● Sometimes the feeding is ● Collect egg masses and destroy
so heavy that only ● Apply anyone of the following insecticides to
petioles and branches control the early instar (1st to 3rd instar)
are left behind larvae
○ Carbaryl 50 WP 2.0 kg/ha
○ Quinalphos 25 EC 750 ml/ha
○ Dichlorvos 76 WSC 750 ml/ha
○ Diflubenzuron 25 WP 300-400g/ha
● Neem oil (2%) 20 lit /ha
● Prepare a bait with the following materials to
cover one ha. Rice bran 12.5 kg, Molasses or
brown sugar 1.25 kg or carbaryl 50 WP 1.25 kg.
Mix the ingredients to obtain a homogeneous
mixture, Sprinkle water (7 lit.) gradually and
bring the bait to a dough consistency.
Distribute the above bait on the soil, around
the field and inside in the evening
hours immediately after preparation
● Apply Nuclear Polyhedrosis Virus 3 x 1012
POBs/ha
● Intercrop lab lab with groundnut 1:4 ratio
● Spray any one of the following insecticides:
○ Imidacloprid 17.8% SL 100 -125 ml/ha
○ Quinalphos 25% EC 1400 ml/ha

Groundnu
t leaf ● Young larvae initially ● Set up light traps @12/ha
miner mine into the leaflets, ● Apply anyone of the following insecticides
Aproaere feed on the mesophyll ○ Dimethoate 30 EC 660 ml/ha
ma and form small brown ○ Malathion 50 EC 1.25 l/ha
modicella blotches on the leaf ○ Methyl demeton 25% EC 1000 ml/ha
● Later stages larvae web
the leaflets together and
feed on them, remaining
within the folds
● Severely attacked field
looks "burnt" from a
distance

Aphids
Aphis ● Wilting of tender shoots ● Apply anyone of the following insecticides
craccivora during hot weather ○ Chlorpyrifos 20%EC 1000 ml/ha
● Stunting and distortion ○ Imidacloprid 17.8% SL 100-125 ml/ha
of the foliage and stems ○ Methyl demeton 25% EC 1000 ml/ha
● They excrete honeydew
on which sooty molds

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flow forming a black
coating
● Act as vector for peanut
stripe virus and
groundnut rosette virus
complex

White
● The grubs feed roots ● Apply anyone of the following insecticides
grubs
and damage pods. ○ Carbofuran 3%CG 33.3 kg/ha
Holotrichi
● Grubs feed on fine ○ Chlorpyrifos 20%EC 1125 ml/ha
a
rootlets, resulting in ○ Phorate 10%CG 25 kg/ha
consangui
pale wilted plants, dying
nea,
in patches.
Holotrichi
a serrata

14. Diseases of Groundnut

Name of Symptoms Control
the
diseases

Bud ● Chlorotic spots appear on ● Adopt a close spacing of 15 x 15 cm.

necrosis young leaflets and Remove infected plants up to 6 weeks
Peanut bud necrotic rings and streaks after sowing and spray Monocrotophos 36
necrosis are developed. WSC 500 ml/ha, 30 days after sowing
virus ● Terminal bud necrosis either alone or in combination with
(PBNV) occurs when temperature antiviral principles. Antiviral principles
is relatively high. from sorghum or coconut leaves.
● As the plant matures it ● AVP are extracted as follows: Sorghum or
becomes stunted with coconut leaves collected, dried, cut into
short internodes and small bits and powdered to one kg of leaf
proliferation of axillary powder two litres of water are added and
shoots. heated to 60°C for one hour. It is then
● The virus is mainly filtered through muslin cloth and diluted
transmitted by thrips. to 10 litres and sprayed. To cover one ha
500 litre of fluid will be required. Two
sprays at 10 and 20 days after sowing will
be needed.

Rust ● Pustules appear first on Spray any one of the following:

Puccinia the lower surface and in
highly susceptible cultivars ● Mancozeb 1000g /ha
arachidis
the original pustules may ● Chlorothalonil 1000g /ha
● Wettable sulphur 2500g /ha
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be surrounded by colonies ● Tridemorph 500 ml/ha
of secondary pustules. ● If necessary, repeat the spray 15 days
● Pustules may also appear later.
on the upper surface of
the leaflet.
● They may be formed on all
aerial plant parts apart
from flower and pegs.
Severely infected leaves
turn necrotic and
desiccate but are attached
to the plant.

Stem rot ● Pustules appear first on

Sclerotium the lower surface and in ● Deep ploughing to bury surface litter,
rolfsii highly susceptible cultivars cultivation of groundnut in flat or slightly
the original pustules may raised beds.
be surrounded by colonies ● Seed treatment with Trichoderma viride @
of secondary pustules. 4 g/kg seed and soil application of
● Pustules may also appear Trichoderma viride @2.5 kg/ha, mixed with
on the upper surface of 50 kg FYM or in conjunction with organic
the leaflet. amendments such as castor cake or neem
● They may be formed on all cake or mustard cake @ 500 kg/ ha.
aerial plant parts apart ● Seed treatment with 3 g Thiram +
from flower and pegs. Carbendazim is recommended.
Severely infected leaves
turn necrotic and
desiccate but are attached
to the plant.

Alternaria ● Lesions produced by A. ● Foliar application of Mancozeb (0.3%) or

leaf disease arachidis are brown in Copper oxychloride (0.3%) or
Alternaria colour and irregular in Carbendazim(0.1%)
arachidis shape surrounded by
and A. yellowish halos.
tenuissima ● Symptoms produced by A.
tenuissima are
characterized by blighting
of apical portions of
leaflets which turn light to
dark brown colour.
● In the later stages of
infection, blighted leaves
curl inward and become
brittle.
● Lesions produced by A.
alternata are small,

Early leaf ● Infection starts about a Spray any one of the following:
spot month after sowing.
● Small chlorotic spots ● Carbendazim 500 g/ha
Cercospora
appear on leaflets, with ● Mancozeb 1000 g/ha
arachidicol
time they enlarge and turn ● Chlorothalonil 1000 g/ha
a
brown to black and
If necessary give the second round 15 days later.
assume sub circular shape
Combined infection of rust and Leaf spot
on the upper leaf surface.
● On the lower surface of Spray any one of the following:
leaves light brown
colouration is seen. ● Spray 10% Calotropis leaf extract
● Lesions also appear on ● Spray Carbendazim 250 g + Mancozeb
petioles, stems, stipules. 1000g/ha
● In severe cases several ● Chlorothalonil 1000g/ha. If necessary give
lesions coalesce and result the 171 second round 15 days later.
in premature senescence.

Late leaf
spot ● Infection starts around 55- ● Intercropping pearl millet or sorghum with
Phaeoisario 57 days after sowing in groundnut (1 : 3) is useful in reducing the
psis Kharif and 42-46 days intensity of late leaf spot.
personatu after sowing in Rabi. ● Crop rotation with non-host crops
m ● Black & nearly circular preferably cereals.
spots appear on the lower ● Deep burying of crop residues in the soil,
surface of the leaflets. removal of volunteer groundnut plants are
● Lesions are rough in important measures in reducing the

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appearance. In extreme primary source of infection.
cases many lesions ● Spray Carbendazim 0.1% or Mancozeb
coalesce resulting in 0.2% or Chlorothalonil 0.2%.
premature senescence
and shedding of the
leaflets.

15. Earthing up
√ It is done in groundnut crop at 35-45 days after sowing to facilitate proper development of pegs
beneath soil and increases the number of seeds per pod.

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Supplementary notes on Pigeon Pea

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Contents

Contents
1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................................... 3
2 Importance ............................................................................................................................................ 3
3 Geographical distribution ..................................................................................................................... 3
4 Climatic requirements........................................................................................................................... 4
5 Soil requirement ................................................................................................................................... 4
6 Varieties of Pigeon pea ......................................................................................................................... 4
6.1. Varieties recommended for specific regions with their attributes.................................................... 4
6.2. Extra Short duration varieties ............................................................................................................ 5
6.3. Short duration varieties ..................................................................................................................... 5
6.4. Medium duration varieties ................................................................................................................ 5
6.5. Late duration varieties ....................................................................................................................... 5
6.6. Drought tolerant variety .................................................................................................................... 5
6.7. Wilt resistant varieties ....................................................................................................................... 5
6.8. Sterility mosaic and wilt resistant varieties ....................................................................................... 5
7 Seeds and sowing .................................................................................................................................. 5
8 Fertilizer management .......................................................................................................................... 6
9 Water management .............................................................................................................................. 6
10 Weed management .......................................................................................................................... 6
11 Harvesting and Threshing ................................................................................................................. 7
12 Yield.......................................................................................................................................................... 7
13 Pests of Pigeon pea .................................................................................................................................. 7
14 Diseases of Pigeon pea............................................................................................................................. 9

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“The ultimate goal of farming is not the growing of crops, but the cultivation and
perfection of human beings.” – Unknown

1 Introduction
√ Pigeon pea is also known as Arhar or Tur or Red gram.
√ Botanical name of Pigeon pea is Cajanus cajan

Sr. No. Types of pigeon pea Botanical Name

1 Early maturing pigeon pea Cajanus cajan flavus

2 Late maturing pigeon pea Cajanus cajan bicolor

√ The origin of Pigeon pea is Africa.

√ Family- Leguminosae (Papilionaceae)
√ It is an often cross pollinated crop.
√ Cajanus cajan flavus-They have shorter duration and accordingly they fall in the early maturing
category of plants. Plants are shorter, bushy having flowers at several points along the branches. The
pods are also shorter which bear two to three seeds in them.
√ Cajanus cajan bicolor-They are late maturing, plants grow very tall or probably they are the tallest of
both the types which are freely branched and bear flowers at the end of the branches. The pods are
relatively longer and contain 4 to 5 seeds in them.

2 Importance
√ Pigeon pea is extensively used as dal; its green pods may be used as a vegetable.
√ It is mainly eaten in the form of split pulse as ‘dal’. Seeds of arhar are also rich in iron, iodine, essential
amino acids like lysine, threonine, cysteine and arginine etc.
√ It is rich source of Protein - 22.3 %, Fat - 1.7 %, Minerals - 3.5 %, Fiber - 1.5 %, Carbohydrate - 57.6 %,
Calcium - 73 mg/100 g, Phosphorus - 304 mg/100 gm, Iron - 5.8 mg/100 gm, Moisture - 13.4%, Calorific
value - 335 Kcal/100 gm.
√ The green leaves and tops of plants are fed to animals or are utilized as green manure. The husks of
pods or seeds with parts of the kernels.
√ Dry stalks are used for basket-making or as fuel or as thatching-material.

3 Geographical distribution
√ To the total world production, about 63% of production comes from India.
√ Africa is the secondary centre of diversity and at present it contributes about 21% of global
production.
√ Malawi, Tanzania, Kenya, Mozambique and Uganda are the major producers in Africa.
√ The Indian subcontinent, Eastern Africa and Central America, in that order, are the world's three main
pigeon pea-producing regions.
√ Pigeon peas are cultivated in more than 25 tropical and subtropical countries, either as a sole crop or
intermixed with cereals.

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√ In India, pigeon pea is mostly grown in the states of U.P, M.P, Maharashtra, Bihar and Andhra Pradesh,
Punjab, Haryana, West Bengal, Assam, Orissa, Rajasthan, H.P., Gujarat, Jammu and Kashmir,
Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, etc.
√ However, the major area is restricted to north Indian states.

4 Climatic requirements
√ Pigeonpea is predominantly a crop of tropical areas mainly cultivated in semi-arid regions of India.
√ Pigeonpea can be grown with a temperature ranging from 26 °C to 30 °C in the rainy season (June to
October) and 17 °C to 22 °C in the post rainy (November to March) season.
√ Pigeonpea is very sensitive to low radiation at pod development, therefore flowering during the
monsoon and cloudy weather, leads to poor pod formation.
√ Water logging, heavy rains, and frost are very harmful for the crop.
√ It is best suited to areas having average annual rainfall ranges from 600 to 1400 mm.
√ Hailstorm or rain at maturity damages the entire crop.

5 Soil requirement
√ Pigeon pea has a deep/tap root system.
√ The crop can be grown on almost all types of soils (not deficient in lime), ranging from the alluvial soils
to heavy black cotton soils.
√ However, it does best on light to medium soils, moist and deep enough to permit a free development
of roots with a pH ranging from 7.0 - 8.5.
√ Pigeonpea responds well to properly tilled and well drained seedbeds.
√ A deep ploughing with soil turning plough in fallow/waste lands, zero tillage sowing under intensive
cropping system and Broad Bed Furrow/Ridge - furrow planting in low lying as well as intercropping
areas is recommended.
√ Raised Bed method of planting by dibbling at 2 inches depth with Row to Row distance 4 to 5 feet also
15 feet gap (2 pairs of Tur on bed) under intercropping of soybean under transplanting (Dharwad
method/SPI), 5 X 3 and 3 X 1.5 feet spacing is recommended.

6 Varieties of Pigeon pea

6.1. Varieties recommended for specific regions with their attributes
Variety Yield Duration Character Recommended Region
(q/ha) (Days) for Sowing

ICPH-8 15-16 115-135 World’s first hybrid variety Maharashtra, Madhya

developed by ICRISAT, grains red, Pradesh, Gujarat
medium size

ICPL-87 15-16 120-125 Very early, suitable for ratooning, Maharashtra

(Pragati) grains red, medium size

BSMR- 15-16 185-190 Resistant to wilt, grains red and bold Maharashtra
736

ICPL-151 20-25 115-120 Very early, white grains medium size Maharashtra
(Jagriti)

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[Link]- 15-16 135-140 Grains red brown, Tolerant to wilt Vidarbha and
1 Marathwada region of
Maharashtra

BDN-1 16-18 155-165 Grains red-bold, Resistant to wilt, Maharashtra, Madhya

Suitable for intercropping Pradesh, Gujarat

BDN-2 16-18 155-165 Grains white, medium. Resistant to Maharashtra, Madhya

wilt and suitable for intercropping Pradesh, Gujarat

AKT-8811 15-16 140-150 Early, suitable for ratooning Central and South
India

C-11 16-18 185-190 Grains red brown, Tolerant to wilt Vidarbha and
Marathwada region of
Maharashtra

6.2. Extra Short duration varieties

UPAS 120, Pant A 3, Prabhat, ICPL 87, ICPL 151, CO 2, AL 15.

6.3. Short duration varieties

Pusa Ageti, T 21, HY 2, Pusa 84, CO 1

6.4. Medium duration varieties

HY 1, HY 3 A, HY 5, Mukta

6.5. Late duration varieties

C 11, Bahar, Laxmi, Gwalior 3

6.6. Drought tolerant variety

Manak

6.7. Wilt resistant varieties

Amar, Azad, Maruti, Pusa 9, Mukta

6.8. Sterility mosaic and wilt resistant varieties

Amar, Narendra, Azad, Arhar 1

7 Seeds and sowing

√ Pigeon pea sown according to types of varieties.
√ Early Maturing varieties - First fortnight of June, Medium and Late Maturing Varieties - Second
fortnight of June.
√ Line sowing by seed drill or desi plough or by dibbling on the ridge and beds, both are recommended
as per the area.

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√ The seed rate of pigeon pea depends on the desired plant density for a genotype (early, medium or
late), cropping system (pure crop, mixed crop, or inter crop), germination rate of seed and mass of
seed.
√ Early Maturing Varieties- 20 - 25 k g/ha (Row to Row: 45 - 60 cm and Plant to Plant:10 - 15 cm)
√ Medium/Late Maturing Varieties- 15 - 20 k g/ha (Row to Row:60 - 75 and Plant to Plant:15 - 20 cm).
√ Seed treated with Thiram (2gm) + Carbendazim (1gm) or Thiram @ 3 gm or Trichoderma viride 5 - 7 g
/ k g of seed.
√ Also seed treatment with biofertilizer Rhizobium and PSB culture 25 gm / kg seed.

8 Fertilizer management
√ Pigeon pea is a leguminous crop.
√ The general recommended dose is 25 - 30 kg N, 40 - 50 k g P 2 O 5 , 30 kg K 2 O per ha area as basal
dose at the time of sowing.
√ Sulphur : In medium black soils and sandy loam soils apply 20 kg S/ha (equivalent to 154 kg
gypsum/phospho-gypsum or 22 kg bentonite sulphur) as basal to each crop. If S deficiency is
diagnosed red sandy loam soils, apply 40 kg S/ha (equivalent to 300 kg gypsum/phospho -
gypsum/or 44 kg bentonite sulphur) per hectare. This quantity is sufficient for one crop cycle.
√ Zinc : In sandy soil, apply 3 kg Zn/ha (15 kg zinc sulphate hepta hydrate/ 9 kg zinc sulphate
monohydrate) as basal. If Zinc deficiency found in the standing crop can then spraying 5 kg Zinc
sulphate + Lime 2.5 k g dissolved in 800-1000 liter water per hectare.
√ Iron : In light textured soils, foliar application of 0.5% FeSO4 at 60, 90 and 120 DAS is recommended.

9 Water management
√ It is a deep rooted crop, it can tolerate drought. But in case of prolonged drought there is need of

three irrigation.
√ Critical growth stages of irrigation for Pigeon pea crop

Sr. No. Critical Growth Stages DAS

1 Branching stage 30

2 Flowering stage 70

3 Pod development stage 110

√ A prerequisite for the success of pigeonpea is proper drainage.

√ Ridge planting is effective in areas where subsurface drainage is poor.

√ This provides enough aeration for the roots during the period of excess rainfall.

10 Weed management
√ The first 60 days is very critical and harmful for the pigeon pea crop.
√ Two mechanical weedings one at 20 - 25 days and another at 45 - 50 days after sowing but before
flowering are required.

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√ The Pre-emergence application of Pendimethalin @ 0.75 - 1 Kg a.i. per ha in 400-600 liter of water
kills the germinating seedlings of weeds and keeps the field weed free for the first 50 days.
√ If weed found from a long time use Fluchloralin 50 % EC 1 kg of a.i per ha in 800-1000 liter well
incorporated in the soil before sowing or Alachlor 50 % EC (Laso) 2 - 2.5 kg a.i. per ha in 400-500 liter
of water as pre-emergence.

11 Harvesting and Threshing

√ With two third to three fourth pods at maturity judged by changing their colour to brown is the best
harvesting time.
√ The plants are usually cut with a sickle within 75 cm above the ground.
√ Harvested plants should be left in the field for sun drying for 3-6 days depending on season.
√ Threshing is done either by beating the pods with a stick or using Pullman thresher.
√ The proportion of seed to pods is generally 50 - 60%.
√ The clean seeds should be sun dried for 3-4 days to bring their moisture content at 9-10% to safely
store in appropriate bins.
√ To avoid further development of bruchids and other storage pests, it is recommended to fumigate the
storage material before onset of monsoon and again after the monsoon with ALP @ 1 - 2 tablets per
tonne.
√ The small quantity of the produce can also be protected by mixing inert material (soft stone, lime,
ash, etc) or by smearing edible/non-edible vegetable oils or by mixing plant products like neem leaf
powder at the rate of 1- 2% w/w basis.

12 Yield
√ With use of improved technology of agronomic practices pigeon pea may yield about 25-30 q/ha
from irrigated condition and 15-20 q/ha from un-irrigated condition. (depending upon maturity
group of variety and climate) and 50 - 60 q/ha of sticks for fuel, as well.

13 Pests of Pigeon pea

Sr. No. Pests of Pigeon pea Nature of Damage Control Measures

1 Pod borers -It is widely distributed and is the most -Use Helicoverpa armigera
injurious pest of early and medium pheromone trap @ 12/ha
maturing varieties. -The larvae, after -Spray the crop with
hatching, feed on tender leaves and twigs Emamectin benzoate 5% SG
but in a pod formation they puncture @ 220 g/ha. or Indoxacarb
pods and feed on developing grains. 15.8% SC @ 333 ml/ha

-It may be seen in vegetative & podding -The caterpillar should be

stage. picked by hand after shaking

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the plants and destroyed in
the early stages of attack.

2 Tur Pod fly -Stripes can be seen on the surface of the -Spraying Neem seed kernel
affected grains, while the attacked pods extract (NSKE) 5 percent at
are somewhat twisted or deformed. 50% flowering stage to
manage the insect’s
-In case of severe damage, as many as 80 populations
percent pods and 60 per cent grains may
be damaged. -Pest can be controlled by
spraying the crop with
Monocrotophos (Nuvacron)
36 SL 1 liter in 800 - 1000
litres of water per hectare.

3 Plume Moth -The larvae damaged seeds as well cause -Apply the Neem oil 2%
flowers, buds and pods to drop.
-Spray the crop with
-The caterpillar is greenish brown in color Azadirachtin 0.03 % WSP
and fringed with short hairs and spines. 2500 - 5000 g/ha or
Emamectin benzoate 5% SG
-It also enters into the pod and feeds on @ 220 g/ha or Indoxacarb
developing grains. 15.8% SC @ 333 ml/ha .

4 Pod-sucking -Damaged seeds become shriveled, and -Soil application of carbofuran

bugs develop dark patches. 3G @ 15 kg/ha at sowing -
Spray the crop with Ha NPV 3
- Shedding of green pods. x1012 POB/ha in 0.1% teepol

-Immature bugs can be

handpicked and destroyed

-The main natural enemies of

bugs are egg parasitoids, ants
and birds reported reduce
feeding by green shield bugs

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-Spraying with aromatic
plants (e.g. gums, lantana,
Neem-based pesticides).

14 Diseases of Pigeon pea

Sr. No. Diseases of Symptoms Control Measures
Pigeon pea

1 Wilt -Xylem gradually develops black -Seed Treatment with Trichoderma

streaks, dark purple bands appear viride @ 10 g/kg of seed or Thirum
on the stem surface plants (2 gm) + Carbendazim (1gm) / kg of
extending upwards from the base. seed

-Main stem of such plants is split -Soil application - T. viride – 2 .5 kg/

open, intensive blackening of the ha + 50 kg of well decomposed FYM
xylem can be seen. or sand at 30 days after sowing

-In humid weather, a pinkish -Mixed cropping with sorghum

mycelial growth is commonly
observed in the basal portions of the -Uproot wilted plants
wilted plants. It may be seen in the -Avoid over or under watering
seedling, flowering & vegetative plants
stage.
-Amendment of soil with oil cakes,
appliances of trace elements such
as boron, zinc and manganese and
heavy dose of green leaf manure
crops

-Grow resistant varieties like Amar,

Azad, Asha (IPCL - 87119), Maruthi,
C-11, BDN-1, BDN - 2, NP - 5, JKM -
189, C - 11, JKM - 7, BSMR - 853 &
BSMR - 736 etc.

2 Sterility mosaic -It is caused by mosaic virus & -Spray Fenazaquin 10 EC (Magister)
disease spread from plant to plant under @ 1 ml/liter of water on 45 and 60
field conditions through Eriophyid DAS;
mites.
-Rogue out the infected plants in
-Leaves become small and cluster

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near branch tips and are reduced in the early stages of growth;
size.
-Crop rotation with non host crop
-Plants are pale green and bushy in like tobacco, sorghum, pearl millet,
appearance, without flowers and cotton;
pods. Diseased plants are usually in
groups. -Grow resistant varieties like Pusa -
885, Asha, Sharad (DA11), Narendra
-It may be seen in Vegetative growth Arhar1, Bahar , BSMR - 853, BSMR
& Pre - flowers stage 736, Rajeev Lochan, BDN - 708.

3 Phytophthora - Foliage blight symptoms are -Seed treated with Metalaxyl 35 WS

blight circular or irregular water soaked @ 3 g/ kg of seed
lesions on leaves.
-Good drainage in the fields and the
-The lesions on stems and branches plants should be protected from
increase rapidly, girdles, cracks and stem injury
dries the stem.
-Crop rotation should be followed
-Infected stems and branches break
easily in the wind. -Grow resistant varieties like ICPL
7916/ 12055/12114/12161, JKM -
189, JA - 4 etc.

4 Alternaria blight -Symptoms appear on all aerial parts -Spray the crop with Mancozeb 75
of plants are small, circular, necrotic WP @ 2 g/liter or Carbendazim 50
spots that develop quickly, forming WP @ 1g/liter of water;
typical concentric rings.
-Cultivation of pigeonpea on ridges
-The spots are initially light brown with proper drainage system and
and later turn dark brown. avoiding the sowing in heavy soil
helpful in disease management;
-In severe infection, defoliation and
drying of infected leaves, branches -Grow resistant varieties like DA - 2,
and flower buds. MA 128 - 1, MA 128 - 2

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Supplementary notes on Soybean

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Contents

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“The ultimate goal of farming is not the growing of crops, but the cultivation and
perfection of human beings.” – Unknown

1 Introduction
√ Soybean is also called a wonder crop.
√ Botanical name of Soybean is Glycine max.
√ The origin of Soybean is Southeast Asia (China).
√ Family- Leguminosae (Papilionaceae)
√ It is a self pollinated crop.

2 Importance
√ Soybeans are high in protein
√ It contains 40% protein and 20% oil.
√ It contains poly-unsaturated fatty acid (linoleic acid and oleic acid)
√ It is used for human consumption and made into products including soy milk, soy flour, soy protein,
tofu and many food products.
√ It fixes atmospheric nitrogen into soil and improves the soil fertility.

3 Geographical distribution
√ U.S.A, Brazil, Argentina, China, India, Paraguay and Canada are the leading soybean producing
countries in the world.
√ Production of soybean in India is dominated by Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh which contribute
89 per cent of the total production.
√ Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Chhattisgarh and Gujarat contribute the remaining 11 per cent
production.
√ Madhya Pradesh is the top in Soybean production.

4 Climatic requirements
√ It is generally grown in the kharif season.
√ Soybean needs about 15 to 32 °C temperature for germination but for rapid growth the crop needs
higher temperature.
√ Low temperature affects the growth of soybean.
√ The crop requires about 600-650 mm annual rainfall.
√ Drought at flowering or just before flowering results in flower and pod drops, while rains during
maturity impairs the grain quality of soybean.

5 Soil requirement
√ Soybean requires well drained and fertile loamy soils with a pH range between 6.0 and 7.5.
√ Saline soils and sodic inhibit germination of Soybean seeds.
√ Water logging damages the crop, so it is mandatory to have good soil drainage in the rainy season.

6 Varieties of Soybean
√ Varieties and their characters

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Sr. No. Varieties Characters

1. JS 93-05, JS 95-60, JS 335, JS 80-21, High seed longevity

NRC 2, NRC 37, Punjab 1, Kalitur

2. MACS 58, NRC 37, Type 49, Durga, Suitable for mechanical harvesting having a
Punjab 1 high insertion point of the lowest pod.

3. PS 1024, PS 1029, Indira Soya 9, Rust tolerant varieties

MAUS 61, MAUS 61-2

6.1 State wise recommended improved varieties of soybean

Sr. No. Name of the State Varieties

1 Madhya Pradesh Ahilya 1 (NRC 2), Ahilya 3 (NRC 7), Ahilya 2 (NRC 12), Ahilya 4 (NRC 37), JS
71-05, JS 335, JS 80-21, JS 75-46, MACS 58, JS 90-41, Indira Soy 9, JS 93-05,
Kalitur, Parbhani Sona (MAUS 47), Pratishta (MAUS 61-2),Monetta,
Punjab-1, PK 472 and Shakti (MAUS 81)

2 Maharashtra Ahilya 1 (NRC 2), JS 335, JS 93-05, JS 80-21, MACS 58, Parbhani Sona
(MAUS 47), Pratishta (MAUS 61-2), Shakti (MAUS 81), MACS 13, Monetta,
Prasad (MAUS 32) PK 472, Shakti (MAUS 81), TAMS-38, Phule Kalyani (DS-
228),MACS 124, MACS 450, Pant Soybean 1029, Pooja (MAUS 2), Pratikar
(MAUS 61), Prasad (MAUS 32), MACS 13, Monetta

3 Rajasthan Pratap Soya (RAUS), Bragg, Punjab-1, PK 472, MACS 58, JS 80-21, JS 335,
Ahilya 4 (NRC 37), Parbhani Sona (MAUS 47), JS 93-05, Pratishta (MAUS
61-2) and Shakti (MAUS 81)

4 Punjab PK 416, Pusa 16, Pant Soybean 564, Pant Soybean 1024, Pant Soybean
1042, SL 295, Bragg,SL 525

5 Uttar Pradesh Pusa 16, Pant Soybean 1092, Pant Soybean 1042, Pant Soybean 1024, Pant
soybean 564, PK 472, PK 472, PK 416, Pratishta (MAUS 61-2), JS 93-05,
Ahilya 4 (NRC 37), JS 335, SL 525, PS 1241, PK 262 and PK 327

6 Haryana Punjab-1, Pk 416, Pusa 16, Pant Soybean 564, Pant Soybean 1024, Pant
Soybean 1042 and SL 525

7 Gujarat Gujarat Soybean 1, Gujarat Soybean 2, JS 93-05, JS 335, JS 80-21, JS 75-46,

MACS 58, Monetta, Parbhani Sona (MAUS 47), Pratishta (MAUS 61-2),
Shakti (MAUS 81) and PK 472

8 Chhattisgarh Ahilya 1 (NRC 2), Ahilya 3 (NRC 7), Ahilya 2 (NRC 12), Ahilya 4 (NRC 37), JS
71-05, JS 335, JS 80-21, JS 75-46, MACS 58, JS 9041, Indira Soya 9, JS 93-05,
Kalitur, Parbhani Sona (MACS 47), Pratishta (MAUS 61-2), Monetta,
Punjab-1, PK 472, Shakti (MAUS 81), Samrudhi (MAUS 71) and Pratap Soya

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(RAUS 5)

9 Andhra Pradesh LSb-1, Pratikar (MAUS 61), Pooja (MAUS 2), MACS 450, Pant Soybean
1029, MACS 124, Monetta and Bragg

10 Tamil Nadu Co 1, Co Soya 2, ADT-1, MACS 124, MACS, 450, Pooja (MAUS 2), Pratikar
(MAUS 61) Hardee, Pant Soybean 1029, and Bragg

11 Bihar PK 416, Pusa 16, Pusa, 24, Pant Soybean 564, Pant Soybean 1024, Pant
Soybean 1042, Bragg and SL 525

12 Uttarakhand Hara Soya, Palam Soya, Punjab-1, Pusa 16, PS 1241, VL Soya 1, VL Soya 2,
VL Soya 21, VL Soya 47, Shilajit and Pant Soybean 1092

13 Odisha JS 80-21, Pusa 24, Indira Soya 9, Ahilya 1 (NRC 2), Ahilya 2 (NRC 12), Ahilya
3 (NRC 7), Ahilya 4 (NRC 37) and Pusa 16

14 Delhi PK 416, Pusa 9712, Pant Soybean 564, Pant Soybean 1024, Pant Soybean
1042, Bragg and SL 525

15 Jharkhand Birsa Soybean 1, Ahilya 1 (NRC 2), JS 80-21, Samrudhi (MAUS 71), Pratap
Soya (RAUS 5) and Bragg

7 Seeds and sowing

√ Seed should be free from insects, pests and diseases.
√ It should be free from any inert matter i.e. dust particles, weed seeds etc.
√ Seeds should be viable and genetically pure.
√ Seeds are treated with rhizobium culture.
√ Treat the seeds with Carbendezim or Thiram @ 2g/kg of seed 24 hrs before sowing or with talc
formulation of Trichoderma viride @ 4 gm/kg seed (or) Pseudomonas fluorescens @ 10 gm/kg seed.
√ Line sowing with seed drill requires less seed rate.
√ Seed rate and spacing

Sr. No. Season Seed rate Spacing

1 Kharif 75-80 kg / ha 45-60 cm X 5 cm

8 Manure and Fertilizer management

√ Application of 10 to 12 CL/ha well decomposed FYM should be incorporated into soil at the time of
preparation of the land.
√ Soybean gives higher positive response to applied nitrogen over symbiotically fixed atmospheric
nitrogen through its roots alone which proves that nitrogen fixed by soybean roots is not enough for
its development.
√ Crop is supplied with 10-15% of total nitrogen requirement.
√ The recommended fertilizer dose is 40 Kg N + 60 Kg P2O5 + 40 kg K +20 kg sulphur per ha.

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√ Also 25 Kg Zinc sulphate and 10 Kg Borax should be applied.

9 Water management
√ The soybean crop generally does not require any irrigation during Kharif season.
√ But, if there were any long drought at the time of pod filling, one irrigation would be required.
√ During the rainy season, make sure crop soil has proper drainage to avoid water logging.
√ Spring crop would require about 5 to 6 irrigations.
√ Critical growth stages of irrigation are sprouting stage, flowering stage, pod filling stage and grain
development stage.

10 Weed management
√ Immediately after sowing and watering, Apply basalin weedicide by dissolving 2 ml in 1 liter of water.
√ This spraying of weedicide must be done within 3 days of sowing.
√ If done later, it can damage the soybean crop.
√ Spraying of weedicide will control the early growth of weeds, to control later emerging weeds in the
crop, manual weeding should be carried out after 2 weeks.
√ Sometimes, the 600 ml of Basalin can be mixed with 20kg of sand (4 iron chatties of sand) and evenly
spread on the field within 3 days of sowing. This can reduce the cost of spraying.

11 Harvesting and Threshing

√ The maturity of soybean depends upon the varieties used for cultivation.
√ The leaves turn yellow and soybean pods dry out very quickly.
√ There would be a rapid loss of moisture from the seed.
√ At harvesting time, the moisture content in the seeds should be about 15 %.
√ Harvesting should be done by breaking the stalks on the ground level or hand, or with sickle.
√ Threshing should be done with the mechanical soybean thresher.

12 Yield
√ The average yield is up to 20-25 qt/ha.

13 Pests of Soybean

Name of the Nature of damage Control

pests

Bihar hairy ● Young larvae feed ● Deep summer ploughing.

caterpillar gregariously on ● Avoid pre monsoon sowing.
Spilosoma chlorophyll mostly on the ● Use optimum seed rate.
obliqua under surface of the ● Adequate plant spacing should be
leaves, due to which the provided
leaves look brownish- ● Intercrop soybean either with (early
yellow in colour. maturing) pigeon pea or maize or
● In later stages the larvae sorghum in the sequence of 4:2
eat the leaves from the should be practiced.

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margin. ● Collect & destroy infested plant parts,
● The leaves of the plant egg masses and young larvae.
give an appearance of net ● Field Sanitation: Remove the infested
or web plant parts at least once in 10 days
and bury them in compost pits to
monitor and reduce the population.
● Light Trap: Install one light trap
(200W mercury vapour lamp) per
hectare to catch the adults of some
nocturnal pests such as hairy
caterpillars (positively phototropic).
● Apply chlorpyriphos 20 EC @ 1.5
lit/ha or triazophos 40 EC @ 0.8 Lit/ha
or quinalphos 25 EC @ 1.5 lit/ha.
● Dust Chlorpyriphos 1.5% DP
quinalphos 1.5% @ 25kg/ha when the
population is likely to reach 10/m row
length (ETL). Repeat it as needed.

Gram pod borer ● The young larvae feed on ● Deep summer ploughing
Helicoverpa the chlorophyll of young ● Install pheromone traps at a distance
armigera leaves and skeletonize it. of 50 m @ 5 traps/ha for each insect
● They feed voraciously on pest.
the foliage in early stages, ● Erect bird perches @ 50/ha.
may defoliate the plant ● Clip terminal shoots on 100 days of
and later they feed on crop growth.
flowers and pods. ● Setting of light traps (1 light trap/5
acre) to kill moth population
● Dusting with Chlorpyriphos 1.5 % DP
or fenvalerate 0.4% or quinalphos
1.5% @ 25 to 30 kg/ha
● Spray with Chlorpyriphos 1.5 % DP
@1200 ml/ha or quinalphos 25 EC @
1.0 lit/ha.

Tobacco ● Larvae feed on the ● Deep summer ploughing.

caterpillar chlorophyll of the leaves. ● Avoid pre-monsoon sowing.
Spodoptera ● The eaten leaves give the ● Optimum seed rate (70-100 kg/ha)
litura appearance of a whitish should be used.
yellow web. ● Collect and destroy infested plant
parts, egg masses and larva.
● Install sex pheromone trap @ 10
traps/ha for early deduction of the
pest.
● Erection of bird perches @ 10-12/ha.
● Field Sanitation: Remove the infested
plant parts at least once in 10 days

White fly ● Due to the attack of the ● Dusting of cow dung ash and spraying
Bemisia tabaci insect the leaves turn of clay suspension as asphyxiants (in
yellow and become small area and low incidence of
curled. sucking insects)
● This insect spreads the ● Spray 0.05 % quinalphos 25 EC
mosaic disease in oxydemeton methyl 25 EC, or
soybeans. dimethoate 30 EC @ 2ml /lit at the
crop age of 35-40 days and repeat
after 15 days if needed.

Soybean Aphid ● They suck the plant sap ● Dusting of cow dung ash and spraying
Aphis spp. from the stem, leaves and of clay suspension as asphyxiants (in
pods which cause small area and low incidence of
reduction in yield. sucking insects)
● The infested leaves are ● Spray 0.05 % quinalphos 25 EC,
wilted or curled. oxydemeton methyl 25 EC, or
● Plant stunting, reduced dimethoate 30 EC @ 2ml /lit at the
pod and seed counts, crop age of 35-40 days and repeat
puckering and yellowing after 15 days if needed
of leaves.

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Jassids ● Infested leaves start ● Install one light trap (200W mercury
Aphelion yellowing from the vapour lamp) per hectare to catch the
maculosa margins. adults of some nocturnal pests such
● In case of severe attack, as jassid, (positively phototropic)
all the leaves become ● Spray 0.05 % quinalphos 25 EC,
yellow and eventually fall oxydemeton methyl 25 EC, or
off from the plants. dimethoate 30 EC @ 2ml /lit at the
crop age of 35-40 days and repeat
after 15 days if needed.

Girdle beetle ● Girdling of stems and ● Deep summer ploughing

Oberea petioles ● Planting time on the onset of
(Obereopsis) ● The inside of the stem is monsoon
brevis eaten by the larvae and a ● Optimum seed rate (70-100 kg/ha)
tunnel is formed inside should be used
the stem. ● Intercropping with maize or sorghum
● The leaves of the infected should be avoided
portion are unable to get ● Crop rotation should be followed
the nutrient and are dried ● Avoid excess nitrogenous fertilizers.
up. ● Remove the infested plant parts at
● In later stages the plant is least once in 10 days and bury them
cut at about 15 to 25 cm in compost pit to monitor and reduce
above the ground. the populations of girdle beetle
● Apply phorate 10 G @ 10 kg/ha or
carbofuran 3 G @ 30 kg/ha at the
time of sowing.
● One or two sprays of 0.03%
dimethoate 30 EC or 0.05%
quinalphos 25 EC or 0.05% methyl
demeton 25 EC or 0.04% can check
further damage.
● Spray quinalphos 25 EC triazophos 40
EC @ 2 ml/lit. at the crop age of 30-35
days and repeal after 15-20 days
(1000 l spray/ha)

Stem Fly ● The eggs are laid on ● Deep summer ploughing.

Melanagromyza leaves. ● Avoid pre monsoon sowing.
sojae ● After hatching from the ● Use optimum seed rate and plant
egg yellowish maggots spacing.
bore the nearest vein of ● Proper crop rotation with dissimilar
the leaf. crops should be followed.
● The maggot then reached ● Remove and destroy the damaged
the stem through petiole plant parts.
and bore down the stem. ● Soil application of phorate 10 G @ 10
● If the infected stem is kg/ha or carbofuran 3 G @ 30 kg/ha at
opened by splitting, a the time of sowing will prevent early
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distinct zig zag reddish infestation by stem fly.
tunnel can be seen with ● One or two sprays of 0.03%
maggot or pupae inside dimethoate 30 EC or 0.05% quinalphos
it. 25 EC can stop the damage.
● The maggots feed on
cortical layers of the
stem, and may extend to
tap roots, killing the
plant.

14. Diseases of Soybean

Name of the Symptoms Control

diseases

Alternaria leaf ● Seed becomes small and ● Use healthy/certified seeds

spot shriveled. Dark, irregular, ● Destroy crop residues from fields.
Alternaria spreading sunken areas ● Seed treatment with thiram +
tenuissima occur on the seed. carbendazim (2:1) @ 3gm/kg seed.
● Appearance of brown, ● Use Mancozeb or copper fungicide at
necrotic spots with 2.5gm/l or carbendazim 1 gm/lit.
concentric rings on
foliage, which coalesce
and form large necrotic
areas.
● Infected leaves later in
the season dry out and
drop prematurely.

Anthracnose/pod ● Infected seeds become ● Use healthy or certified seeds.

blight shriveled, mouldy and ● Rotate soybean with cereals.
Colletotrichum brown. ● Do not cultivate when the foliage is
truncatum ● Symptoms on cotyledons wet.
appear as dark brown ● Completely remove plant residue by
sunken cankers. clean ploughing the field soon after
● In early stage, irregular harvest.
brown lesions appear on ● Destroy last year's infected stubble.
leaves, stems and pods. ● Maintain a well drained field.
● In advanced stages, the ● Seed treatment with Thiram or
infected tissues are Captan or Carbendazim 3 g/kg and
covered with black ● Use Mancozeb @ 2.5g/l as spray or
fruiting bodies of fungus. Carbendazim 1g/L.
● Under high humidity,
symptoms on leaves are
veinal necrosis, leaf

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rolling, cankers on
petioles premature
defoliation

Bacterial blight
Pseudomonas ● Seeds may develop raised ● Deep summer ploughing.
syringae pv. or sunken lesions and ● Use healthy/certified seeds.
glycinea become shriveled and ● Destroy infected crop debris
discolored. ● Seed treatment with streptocycline @
● Small, angular, 250 ppm (2.5 g/10 kg seeds).
translucent, water- ● Application of any copper fungicides
soaked, yellow to light @ 2 g/lit along with streptocycline at
brown spots appear on the rate of 250 ppm (2.5 g/10 lit
leaves. water).
● Young leaves are most
infected and are
destroyed, stunted and
chlorotic.
● Angular lesions enlarge
and merge to produce
large, irregular dead
areas.
● Early defoliation of lower
leaves may occur.
● Large, black lesions
develop on stems and
petioles.

Cercospora leaf ● Infected leaves appear ● Use healthy/certified seeds.

blight, leaf spot leathery, dark, reddish ● Previous crop debris should be
and Purple seed purple. removed.
stain Cercospora ● Severe infection causes ● Seed treatment with Thiram +
kikuchii rapid chlorosis and Carbendazim (2:1) @ 3g/kg seed.
necrosis of leaf tissues, ● Use Mancozeb or copper oxychloride
resulting in defoliation. at 2.5g/l or Carbendazim 1 g/lit.
● Lesions on petioles and
stems are slightly sunken,
reddish purple; severe
cause defoliation.
● Later, blighting of young,
upper leaves over large
areas, even entire fields
occur.

Charcoal rot, ● This disease occurs when ● Deep ploughing in summer.

ashy or stem the plants are under ● Ensure balanced fertilization of the
blight or dry root moisture stress or under crop.

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rot nematode attack or ● Rotate soybean with cereals.
Macrophomina through soil compaction ● Maintain well drained field
phaseolina or may be through ● Destroy last year's infected stubble.
nutrient deficiencies. ● Seed treatment with T. viride @4g/kg
● It is the most common or P. fluorescens @ 10g/ kg of seed or
basal stem and root Carbendazim or Thiram 2g/kg of seed.
disease of the soybean ● Spot drenching with Carbendazim
plant. 1g/lit or P. fluorescens / T. viride 2.5
● Lower leaves become kg/ha with 50 kg FYM
chlorotic and wilting and
drying is apparent.
● The diseased tissues
generally develop grayish
discolouration.
● The sclerotia look like
black powdery mass
hence the disease is
known as charcoal rot.
● Blacking and cracking of
roots is the most
common symptom.
● The fungus survives in soil
and crop debris in dry
conditions.
● Dry conditions, relatively
low soil moisture and
nutrient and temperature
ranging from 25o C to
35o C are favourable for
the disease.

Collar rot / ● Infection usually occurs at ● Deep ploughing in summer.

Sclerotial blight or just below the soil ● Crop rotation with maize or sorghum.
Sclerotium rolfsii surface. ● Destroy infected stubble.
● Sudden yellowing or ● Seed treatment with T. viride @4g/kg
wilting of plants is the or P. fluorescens @ 10g/ kg of seed or
first symptom. Carbendazim or Thiram 2g/kg of seed.
● Light brown lesions, ● Spot drenching with Carbendazim
which quickly darken, 1g/lit or P. fluorescens / T. viride 2.5
enlarge until the kg/ha with 50 kg FYM.
hypocotyl or stem is
girdled.
● Leaves turn brown, dry
and often cling to dead
stems.
● Numerous tan to brown,
spherical sclerotia form
on infected plant

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material.

Frog eye leaf ● Light to dark gray or ● Use healthy or certified seeds.
spot brown areas varying from ● Rotate soybean with cereals.
Cercospora specks to large blotches ● Completely remove plant residue by
sojina appear on seeds. clean ploughing the field soon after
● The disease primarily harvest.
affects foliage, but stems, ● Seed treatment with Thiram +
pods and seeds may also Carbendazim (2:1) @ 3g/kg seed.
be infected. ● Spray Mancozeb @ 2.5g/lit or
● Leaf lesions are circular or Carbendazim 1g/lit.
angular, at first brown
then light brown to ash
grey with dark margins.
● The leaf spot may
coalesce to form larger
spots.
● When lesions are
numerous the leaves
wither and drop
prematurely.
● Lesions on pods are
circular to elongate, light
sunken and reddish
brown.

Rhizoctonia ● Infected seeds have ● Avoid dense planting.

aerial blight / irregularly shaped tan or ● Completely cover plant residue by
Web blight light brown sunken clean ploughing the field soon
Rhizoctonia lesions. after harvest.
solani ● Infected leaves appear as ● Destroy infected stubble.
water soaked at first ● Seed treatment with Thiram +
instance. They soon take Carbendazim (2:1) @ 3g/kg seed.
on a greenish brown to ● Use Mancozeb or copper fungicide at
reddish brown 2.5gm/l or carbendazim 1 g/lit.
appearance.
● The infected portion later
turns tan brown or black
in colour.
● Under high rainfall or
high humid conditions, a
web like mycelial growth
of fungus forms on the
leaves.
● Dark brown sclerotia are
formed on leaves and
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petioles.
● The pathogen survives as
sclerotia in soil.
● Humid and cool (24-32o
C) are favourable weather
conditions.

Soybean mosaic ● Infected seeds get ● Use healthy/certified seeds.

Soybean mosaic mottled. ● Keep the field free from weeds.
virus (SMV) ● Diseased plants are ● Rogue out infected plants and burn
belongs to Potty usually stunted with them
virus distorted (puckered, ● Two foliar sprays of Thiamethoxam
crinkled, ruffled, stunted, 25 WG @ 100 g/ha or Methyl
narrow) leaves. demeton 800 ml/ha at 30 and 45 days
● The parts are often after sowing to control the vector
stunted.
● Flattened or curved and
contain fewer and smaller
seeds.
● Infected seeds fail to
germinate or they
produce diseased
seedlings.

Yellow mosaic ● Characteristic symptom is ● Rogue out infected plants up to 30

conspicuous systemic days
Mung bean bright yellow mottling of ● Spray Monocrotophos 500 ml or
yellow mosaic leaves. Methyl demeton 25EC 500 ml/ ha
virus (MYMV) ● The yellow areas are twice on 15 and 30 days after sowing
scattered or occur in
indefinite bands along
the major veins.
● Rusty necrotic spots
appear in the yellow
areas as the leaves
mature.

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Supplementary notes on Sunflower

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Contents

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“The ultimate goal of farming is not the growing of crops, but the cultivation and
perfection of human beings.” – Unknown

1 Introduction
√ Sunflower is an oilseed crop.
√ Botanical name of Sunflower is Helianthus annuus.
√ The origin of Sunflower is North America.
√ Family of sunflowers is Compositae.
√ Sunflower is a day neutral crop.
√ It is a cross pollinated crop.
√ The head of a sunflower is called capitulai.

2 Importance
√ Sunflower has high quality edible oil (45-50%).
√ It is considered to be healthier because it is low in saturated fat which basically means that it contains
less of the unhealthy type of fat content.
√ Sunflower oil is primarily composed of linoleic acid, a polyunsaturated fat, and oleic acid, a
monounsaturated fat.
√ Sunflower seeds offer a great source of vitamin E which is an antioxidant and helps to keep your skin
and eyes in good health as well as your immune system.
√ As well as vitamin E, they contain vitamins A and B, protein, iron, calcium and nitrogen.
√ Sunflowers are also used as feed for livestock and animals.
√ The heads contain most of the nutrition value since the seeds are high in energy and also have protein.

3 Geographical distribution
√ Ukraine, Russia, European Union and Argentina are the leading sunflower producing
countries/regions in the world.
√ Ukraine is the largest sunflower producer in the world and Russia comes second in terms of
production.
√ Ukraine and Russia produce almost half of the world sunflower seeds.
√ Karnataka is the major producer of sunflower in the country.
√ Karnataka followed by Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Bihar, Orissa and Tamil Nadu are major
sunflower producing states of India.

4 Climatic requirements
√ Basically, Sunflower is a crop that requires a cool climate during germination and seedling growth,
warm weather from the seedling stage up to flowering and non-cloudy, sunny days during flowering
to maturity.
√ A frost free period of about 120 days is recommended where sunflowers are to be grown on a
commercial scale.
√ Sunflowers grow well within a temperature range of 20 - 25 °C , although controlled environment
tests indicate that 27 - 28 °C would appear to be the optimum.
√ The rainfall requirement ranges from 500 to 1000 mm.

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5 Soil requirement
√ Sunflower grows well in deep, neutral and well-drained light soils as well as in heavy soils.
√ The optimum pH of the soils for this crop is 6.5-8.5.
√ Low lying, coastal soils with water stagnation and acidic soils are not suitable for sunflower cultivation.
√ Sunflowers can tolerate moderate levels of salinity.

6 Varieties of Soybean
√ Varieties of Sunflower

Sr. No. Varieties Oil Content (%)

1 Jwalamukhi 42

2 Modern 34-35

3 PSH 569 36.3

4 Surya 35-38

5 GKSFH 42.5

6 SS 0808 37.9

7 DRSF 108 36-39

8 CO 1 35-38

9 NDSH 1012 (Prabhat) 40-41

10 CO H 3 (CSFH 12205) 42

7 Seeds and sowing

√ Seed should be free from insects, pests and diseases.
√ It should be free from any inert matter i.e. dust particles, weed seeds etc.
√ Seeds should be viable and genetically pure.
√ It is a photo sensitive crop.
√ Sunflower is sown in the month of June-July for kharif , November for rabi season and January-
February for the summer season.
√ Timely sowing is very important for optimum yield. It will also help to reduce attack of pests and
diseases.
√ Sowing depth should be 4-5 cm for better yield is essential.
√ Seed should be soaked for 14 hrs and shade dried prior to seed treatment with 2- 3 gm
Thiram/Captan/ Metalaxyl or 5 gm Imidacloprid.
√ Seed rate and spacing

Sr. No. Type Seed rate (kg/ha) Spacing (cm X cm)

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1 Composite 10 45 X 30

2 Hybrid 5 60 X 30

8 Manure and Fertilizer management

√ Sunflowers are heavy feeders and deplete the soil more than many other crops
√ Application of 5 to 6 ton/ha well decomposed FYM at the time of preparation of the land is necessary.
√ A fertilizer dose [Link] and [Link] kg NPK/ha for hybrids and composite,respectively .
√ Apply a full dose of P2O5 and K2O along with 50% of N as basal in the seed rows of 25% N at the time
hoeing and earthing up and rest 25% at flowering stage.
√ Sunflowers respond to Calcium, Sulphur and Boron.
√ Calcium helps seed filling and improves seed weight.
√ Sulphur required for oil synthesis.
√ Boron increases pollen viability, stigmatic receptivity and seed set.
√ Gypsum @ 250 kg/ha and Borax @ 10 kg/ha as basal to increase seed setting and oil quantity.
√ If Borax is not applied as basal, it may be applied 0.2% as direct spray to capitulum at ray floret stage.

9 Water management
√ In general, irrigation may be given once in a week to crop on light soil and once in 20 days to crop on
heavy soil.
√ Avoid excess irrigation, it may lead to wilt or root rot.
√ Also avoid moisture stress at critical growth stages, as it affects seed sets and yield.
√ Critical growth stages of sunflower

Critical Growth Stages Irrigate Short Duration Varieties Irrigate Long Duration Varieties
(DAS) (DAS)

Bud Initiation 0-35 35-40

Flowering 45-50 55-60

Seed Setting 55-80 65-90

10 Weed management
√ Apply Fluchloralin at 2.0 litre/ha before sowing and incorporate or apply as pre-emergence spray on
5 day after sowing followed by irrigation or apply Pendimethalin as pre-emergence spray 3 days
after sowing.
√ The spray of these herbicides has to be accomplished with a Backpack/Knapsack/Rocker sprayer
fitted with a flat fan nozzle using 900 litre water/ha as spray fluid.
√ All the herbicide application is to be followed by one late hand weeding 30 - 35 days after sowing.
√ Hoe and hand weed on the 15th and 30th day of sowing and remove the weeds.
√ Allow the weeds to dry for 2 - 3 days in the case of irrigated condition and then give irrigation.

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11 Harvesting and Threshing
√ The sunflower crop matures in 90-100 days.
√ The crop has to be harvested when the lower side of the head turns yellow and some of the bracts
dry up.
√ The mature heads are cut with a sickle and are dried by exposing the upper side with seeds to the sun.
√ The well-dried heads are beaten with sticks to separate the seeds.
√ The cleaned seed is dried well and stored in gunny bags.

12 Yield
√ The average yield of sunflower crop is 20-30 qt/ha.

13. Pests of Sunflower

Name of the Nature of damage Control
pests

Bihar hairy ● Young larvae feed ● Deep summer ploughing

caterpillar gregariously mostly on ● Use of well rotten manures
Spilosoma the under surface of the ● Intercropping with pigeon pea at a
obliqua leaves row ratio of 2:1 is effective in
● Caterpillars feed on reducing the insect attack
leaves and in severe ● Collection and destruction of larvae
infestation the whole ● Spray phosalone 35 EC at 1000ml/ha
crop is defoliated
● Drying up of infected
leaves is the main
symptom

American ● The larva feeds on the ● Grow inter crops like, green gram,
Bollworm developing seeds and black gram, groundnut, soybean
Helicoverpa bore the head ● Sow 3-4 lines of maize (or) jowar
armigera ● Fungal development and around the sunflower crop to monitor
head starts rotting the moth
● The larva consumes leaf ● Sow trap crops like marigold at 50
in early stage of growth plants/acre
and move towards the ● Use of pheromone traps (4
capitulum and tunnel the traps/acre) for pest intensity
head identification as well as to trap the
male moths
● Setting of light traps (1 light trap/5
acre) to know the range of pest
incidence as well as to kill moth
population
● Release predators like coccinellids,
Chrysoperla carnea @1larva/ head
● Release parasitoides like
Trichogramma spp.@ 20,000/acre,

Leaf hopper ● The adult and nymphs ● Treat seed with imidacloprid 70 WS at
(jassids) suck the plant sap 7 g/kg protected the sunflower plants
Amrasca ● The infected leaves show from leaf hopper up to 7 weeks
biguttula pale yellow colouration ● Spray Imidacloprid 70% WS 490 ml/ha
biguttula ● In case of heavy or Imidacloprid 17.8% SL 100 ml/ha
infestation the leaves
turn inwards
● The leaf edges may turn
light pinkish brown

Tobacco ● The larvae feed on the ● Hand pick the Helicoverpa larvae and
caterpillar tender leaves, shoots, destroy
bracts and petals ● Spray any of the following insecticides
Spodoptera ● Later, the larvae spread in ○ Dichlorvos 76 EC 500 ml/ha
litura the field causing ○ Phosalone 35 EC 1000 ml/ha
defoliation ○ Phosalone 4 D 25 kg/ha
● The larvae also feeds on ● Insecticidal application at the time of
the developing seeds in bee visit is toxic to honey bees. So,
capitulum apply the insecticides after 4 pm
when the bee activity is minimum.
● Do not spray insecticides on the same
day when NAA is sprayed

14. Diseases of Sunflower

Name of the Symptoms Control
diseases

Downy Mildew ● The disease spreads ● Seed treatment with Metalaxyl at the
rapidly through seeds. rate of 3 g per kg of seed has been
Plasmopara ● Symptoms of the disease found to give effective control.
halstedii are evident as seedling ● Choice of planting sites and disposal
damping off, systemic of infected crop residues also give a
infection, local foliar fairly good control.
lesions and basal root or
stem galls.

Alternaria Blight ● The disease is a

Alternaria destructive one, widely
distributed wherever the ● Occurrence and severity of the
helianthi
crop is grown. disease depends on the season and
● Severe reduction in seed planting dates.
and oil yield reported. ● Mid-September planting of sunflower
● The most affected remains free from the disease.
components are number ● Foliar spray with 0.3 per cent
of seeds per head and the Mancozeb four times at an interval of
seed yield per plant. 10 days controls the disease.
● The disease also affects
the quality of sunflower
seeds by affecting
germination and initial
vigour of the seedlings.
● The disease is
characterised by the
development of dark
brown to black, circular
to oval spots varying from
0.2 to 5 in diameter.
● The spots are surrounded
by necrotic chlorotic zone
with grey white necrotic

Rhizopus Head ● Initial symptom appears

Rot Rhizopus sp as brown irregular water
soaked spots on the back ● To have effective control of the
of ripening head usually disease, simultaneous application of
adjacent to flower stalk. compatible insecticide and fungicide
● Spots gradually enlarge beginning with the completion of
and become soft and flowering stage is suggested.
pulpy and get covered ● Injury to the head should be avoided
with superficial white as far as practicable.
mycelium which later ● Spray Mancozeb @ 2g/lit in case of
becomes black. intermittent rainfall at the head
● Some seeds of the rotted stage.
heads shed and those
which remain in the head
taste bitter.
● Injury before flowering or
during the early stage of
head development is
unlikely to favour
infection even though the
inoculum may be present.
● Maximum rotting is
noticed at the soft dough
stage.
● Seed development is
severely impaired
depending on the stage
of maturation at the time
of Rhizopus infection and
rot development.

Rust ● It is more prominent in

Puccinia helianthi the rabi season and in the Spray Mancozeb 1000 g/ha
kharif season the
appearance is usually
late.
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● This disease in
conjunction with
Alternaria blight of leaves
may cause yield loss up to
40 per cent.
● Uredo pustules appear
first on the lower leaves.
Uredo pustules appear on
the younger leaves and
later spread over the
entire vegetative surface
covering stems, petioles,
floral bracts and petals.
● Uredia often coalesce to
cover large areas on the
affected plant parts.

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Supplementary notes on Paddy/Rice

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Contents
Origin..................................................................................................................................................... 3
Geographical distribution ..................................................................................................................... 3
Climatic requirements........................................................................................................................... 3
Soil requirement ................................................................................................................................... 3
Varieties of Paddy based on duration of crop life ................................................................................ 4
Rice cultivation ...................................................................................................................................... 4
6.1 Transplanted puddled lowland rice .............................................................................................. 4
6.2 Dry nursery.................................................................................................................................... 4
6.3 Main field management ................................................................................................................ 4
Root dipping .......................................................................................................................................... 5
Planting seedlings in the main field ...................................................................................................... 5
8.1 Management of aged seedlings .................................................................................................... 5
Nutrient management .......................................................................................................................... 6
9.1 Application of organic manures .................................................................................................... 6
9.2 Stubble incorporation ................................................................................................................... 6
9.3 Bio-fertilizer application................................................................................................................ 6
9.4 Application of inorganic fertilizers ................................................................................................ 6
Water management .......................................................................................................................... 6
Harvesting ......................................................................................................................................... 7
Yield................................................................................................................................................... 8
Transplanted hybrid rice ................................................................................................................... 8
System of rice intensification (SRI) cultivation ................................................................................. 8
Genetically modified rice .................................................................................................................. 9
15.1 Herbicide resistant varieties ......................................................................................................... 9
15.2 Nutritional value (Golden rice) ..................................................................................................... 9
15.3 Pest resistance ............................................................................................................................ 10
Important diseases in Rice crop ...................................................................................................... 10
16.1 Diseases caused by external organisms ...................................................................................... 10
16.2 Nutrition Deficiency diseases...................................................................................................... 11
Important varieties of Rice ............................................................................................................. 11

“The ultimate goal of farming is not the growing of crops, but the cultivation and
perfection of human beings.” – Unknown
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Origin
√ Rice cultivation probably dates back to the antiquity and has probably been the staple food and the
first cultivated crop in Asia.
√ Scientific name of Paddy/Rice is Oryza sativa. Paddy is the rice with husk.
√ In India, rice has been cultivated since ancient times. Carbonised paddy grains were found in the
excavation at Hasthinapur (Uttar Pradesh) at a site dated between 1000-750 B.C. This is the oldest
rice specimen yet known in the world.
√ Vavilov (1926) suggested that India and Burma should be regarded as the centre of origin of
cultivated rice.

Geographical distribution
√ Rice is the world’s leading food crop, cultivated over an area of about 167.13 million hectares
(2018) with a production of about 499.1 million tonnes (2018-19) (Rice).
√ In terms of area and production it is second to wheat.
√ Together, maize, rice and wheat are the single most important item in the human diet, accounting
for an estimated 42.5 percent of the world's food calorie supply. Globally, their contribution to our
supply of protein - around 37 percent - is a close second to that of fish and livestock products.
Wheat alone supplies more protein than the sum of poultry, pig and bovine meat. Maize, rice and
wheat even supply 6 percent of the fat in our diets.
√ Maximum area under rice is in Asia. Among the rice growing countries, India has the largest area
followed by China and Indonesia.
√ The leading countries producing rice crop are Japan, Brazil, China, India, Indonesia, Bangladesh,
Vietnam, Thailand, Myanmar and Philippines.
√ In India, rice is grown in almost all the states. Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya
Pradesh and West Bengal lead in the area. West Bengal and Uttar Pradesh have the highest
rice production.

Climatic requirements
√ In India, rice is grown under widely varying conditions of altitude and climate.
√ Rice cultivation in India extends from 8 to 35 degrees N latitude and from sea level to as high as
3000 metres.
√ Rice crop needs a hot and humid climate. It is best suited to regions which have high humidity,
prolonged sunshine and an assured supply of water.
√ The average temperature required throughout the life period of the crop ranges from 21 to 37
degree Centigrade. At the time of tillering the crop requires a higher temperature than for growth.
Temperature requirement for blooming is in the range of 26.5 to 29.50C. At the time of ripening,
the temperature should be between 20-250C.
√ Photo-periodically, rice is a short-day plant. However, there are varieties which are non-sensitive to
photoperiodic conditions.

Soil requirement
√ In India, rice is grown under so diverse soil conditions that it can be said that there is hardly any type
of soil in which it cannot be grown, including alkaline and acidic soils.

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√ Soils having good water retention capacity with good amount of clay and organic matter are ideal
for rice cultivation.
√ Clay or clay loams are most suited for rice cultivation, such soils are capable of holding water for
long and sustain crop.
√ Rice being a semi-aquatic crop grows best under submerged conditions. A major part of rice crop
in India is grown under ‘lowland’ conditions.
√ Rice plant is able to tolerate a wide range of soil reaction, but, it does have a preference for acidic
soils. It grows well in soils having a pH range between 4.5 and 6.5. It can be grown on alkali soils
also, after treating them with gypsum or pyrite.

Varieties of Paddy based on duration of crop life

1. Short duration (90 to 120 days)
2. Medium duration (120 –145 days)
3. Long duration (>150 days)
4. Hybrids (110 – 140 days)

Varieties famous in India: Ratna, Jaya, Rasi, Triveni, Mandya, Swarnapraba, Red Annapoorna,
Aishwarya, Basmati.

Rice cultivation
It is done in 2 steps – Nursery preparation and Main field preparation (Puddling)

6.1 Transplanted puddled lowland rice

√ Nursery area: Select 20 cents (800 m2) of land area near to water source for raising seedlings for
one hectare or 1/4th of the main field.
√ Seed rate: 30 kg for long duration; 40 kg for medium duration; 60 kg for short duration varieties
and 20 kg for hybrids.
√ Optimum age of the seedlings for transplanting is 18-22 days for short duration, 25-30 days for
medium duration and 35-40 days for long duration varieties.
6.2 Dry nursery
√ Dry ploughed field with fine tilth is required. Nursery area of 20 cents with sand and loamy soil
status is more suitable for this type of nursery.
√ Seed rate and seed treatment as that of wet nursery.
√ Sowing is dry seeding. Seeds are covered with sand and finely powdered well decomposed farm
yard manure.
√ Irrigation to be done to wet the soil to saturation.
√ Optimum age for transplanting – 4th leaf stage (25 to 30 days)
√ This type of nursery is handy in times of delayed receipt of canal water.

6.3 Main field management

Puddling is done here
Problem soil management
a) Fluffy paddy soils: Compact the soil by passing 400kg stone roller or oil-drum with stones

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inside, eight times at proper moisture level (moisture level at friable condition of soil which is
approximately 13 to18%) once in three years, to prevent the sinking of draught animals and workers
during puddling.
b) Sodic soils with pH values of more than 8.5, plough at optimum moisture regime, apply gypsum
at 50% gypsum requirement uniformly, impound water, provide drainage for leaching out soluble
salts and apply green leaf manure at 5 t/ha, 10 to 15 days before transplanting. Mix 37.5kg of Zinc
sulphate/ha with sand to make a total quantity of 75kg and spread the mixture uniformly on the
leveled field. Do not incorporate the mixture in the soil. Rice under sodic soil responds well to these
practices.
c) Saline soils with EC values of more than 4 dS/m, provide lateral and main drainage channels
(60cm deep and 45cm wide), apply green leaf manure at 5 t/ha at 10 to 15 days before transplanting
and 25% extra dose of nitrogen in addition to recommended P and K and ZnSO4 at 37.5 kg/ha at
planting.
d) Acid soils: Apply lime based on the soil analysis for obtaining normal rice yields. Lime is
applied 2.5t/ha before last ploughing. Apply lime at this rate to each crop up to the 5th crop.

Root dipping
Prepare the slurry with 5 packets (1000 g)/ha of Azospirillum and 5 packets (1000g/ha) of
Phosphobacteria or 10 packets of (2000g/ha) of Azophos inoculant in 40 litres of water and
dip the root portion of the seedlings for 15-30 minutes in bacterial suspension and transplant.

Planting seedlings in the main field

√ Transplant 2-3 seedlings/hill for short duration and 2 seedlings/hill for medium and long duration
varieties
√ Shallow planting (3 cm) ensures quick establishment and more tillers. Deeper planting (> 5cm) leads
to delayed establishment and reduced tillers.
√ Line planting permits rotary weeding and its associated benefits. Allow a minimum row spacing of
20 cm to use rotary weeder.
√ Fill up the gaps between 7 and 10 DAT through Gap filling and Thinning.

8.1 Management of aged seedlings

√ Follow the spacing recommended to medium and low fertility soil. Plant one or two seedlings/hill
√ Avoid cluster planting of aged seedlings, which are hindering the formation of new tillers.
√ New tillers alone are capable of producing normal harvestable panicle. Weak panicle may appear in
the mother culm within three weeks after transplanting and vanishes well before harvest.
√ To encourage the tiller production, enhance the basal N application by 50% from the recommended
and thereafter follow the normal schedule recommended for other stages.

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Nutrient management
9.1 Application of organic manures
√ Apply 12.5 t of FYM or compost; or green leaf manure @ 6.25 t/ha.
√ If green manure is raised @ 20 kg /ha, in-situ, incorporate it to a depth of 15 cm using a green
manure trampler or tractor.

9.2 Stubble incorporation

√ Apply 22 kg urea/ha at the time of first puddling while incorporating the stubbles of previous crop to
compensate immobilization of N by the stubbles.
√ This may be done at least 10 days prior to planting of subsequent crop. This recommendation is
more suitable for double crop wetlands, wherein, the second crop is transplanted in succession
with short turn-around period.

9.3 Bio-fertilizer application

√ Broadcast 10 kg of soil based powdered Blue Green Algae (BGA) flakes at 10 DAT for the dry season
crop. Maintain a thin film of water for multiplication.
√ Raise Azolla as a dual crop by inoculating 250 kg/ha 3 to 5 DAT and then incorporate during weeding
for the wet season crop.
√ Mix 10 packets (2000 g)/ha of Azospirillum and 10 packets (2000g/ha) of Phosphobacteria or 20
packets (4000g/ha) of Azophos inoculants with 25 kg FYM and 25 kg of soil and broadcast the
mixture uniformly in the main field before transplanting and Pseudomonas fluorescens (Pf 1) at
2.5 kg/ha mixed with 50 kg FYM and 25 kg of soil and broadcast the mixture uniformly before
transplanting.

9.4 Application of inorganic fertilizers

√ Apply fertilizer nutrients as per soil test recommendations
√ If the above recommendation are not able to be followed, adopt blanket recommendation as
follows:

*For Low N responsive cultivars like Ponni, N should be applied in three splits at Active tillering (AT),
panicle initiation (PI) and harvest (H) stages.

Water management
√ Puddling and leveling minimizes the water requirement

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√ Maintain 2.5cm of water over the puddle and allow the green manure to decompose for a minimum
of 7 days in the case of less fibrous plants like sunnhemp and 15 days for more fibrous green manure
plants like Tephrosia purpurea.
Total water requirement is 1100-1250

√ The daily consumptive use of rice varies from 6-10 mm and total water is ranges from 1100 to 1250
mm depending upon the agro climatic situation.
√ Of the total water required for the crop, 3% or 40 mm is used for the nursery, 16% or 200 mm for
the land preparation i.e. puddling and 81% or 1000 mm for field irrigation of the crop.
√ The growth of rice plant in relation to water management can be divided into four periods viz.,
Seedling, vegetative, reproductive and ripening.
√ Critical stages of water requirement in rice are, a) panicle initiation, b) booting, c) heading and d)
flowering.
√ Less water is consumed during seedling stage. At the time of transplanting, shallow depth of 2 cm is
adequate and maintained upto 7 days and there after 5 cm of submergence is necessary to facilitate
development of new roots.
√ The same water level is required for tiller production during the vegetative phase.
√ At the beginning of the maximum tillering stage the entire water in the field can be drained and left
as such for one or two days which is termed as mid-season drainage.
√ This mid-season drainage may improve the respiratory functions of the roots, stimulate vigorous
growth of roots and checks the development of non-effective tillers.
√ Any stress during the vegetative phase may affect the root growth and reduce the leaf area during
flowering phase 5 cm submergence should be maintained because it is a critical stage of water
requirement.
√ Stress during this phase will impair all yield components and cause severe reduction in yield. Excess
water than 5 cm is also not necessary especially at booting stage which may lead to delay in heading.
√ Water requirement during ripening phase is less and water is not necessary after yellow ripening.
√ Water can be gradually drained from the field 15-21 days ahead of harvest of crop. Whenever 5 cm
submergence is recommended the irrigation management may be done by irrigating to 5 cm
submergence at saturation or one or two days after the disappearance of ponded water.
√ This will result in 30% saving of irrigation water compared to the continuous submergence.

Harvesting
√ Ripening follows fertilization and can be subdivided into milky, dough, yellow, ripe, and
maturity/hard dough stages. These terms are primarily based on the texture and color of the
growing grains. The length of ripening varies among varieties from about 15 to 40 days. Ripening is
also affected by temperature, with a range from about 30 days in the tropics to 65 days in cool
temperate regions.
√ When 80% of the panicles turn straw colour, the crop is ready for harvest. Even at this stage, the
leaves of some of the varieties may remain green.
√ Confirm maturity by selecting the most mature tiller and dehusk a few grains. If the rice is clear and
firm, it is in hard dough stage.
√ When most of the grains at the base of the panicle in the selected tiller are in a hard dough stage,
the crop is ready for harvest. At this stage harvest the crop, thresh and winnow the grains.

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√ Dry the grains to 12% moisture level for storage. Grain yield in rice is estimated only at 14%
moisture for any comparison.
√ Maturity may be hastened by 3-4 days by spraying 20% NaCl a week before harvest to escape
monsoon rains.

Yield
√ Grain yield varies between 4000 and 6000 kg/ha depending on the management and climatic
conditions.
√ Straw yield of 8000-10000 kg/ha can normally be obtained.

Other than the above, there are other types of Rice cultivation viz.,

1. Wet seeded puddled lowland rice – Varieties suitable are Ponmani , IR20, ADT 38 ADT 39, Ponni, ADT
36, ADT 37 - Seed rate of 60 kg/ha
2. Dry seeded rainfed un-puddled lowland rice (Rainfed rice) – Varieties suitable are any short duration
variety as per the local varieties - Seed rate 75kg/ha dry seed
3. Dry seeded rainfed un-puddled lowland rice with supplemental irrigation (Semi-dry rice) – Varieties
suitable are any short duration variety as per the local varieties and if irrigation is available for entire
crop period, then medium duration varieties can be opted for.

Other than regular varieties, hybrid rice is also available.

Transplanted hybrid rice
√ Seed rate 20 kg/ha
√ Sparse sowing of seeds at one kg/cent of nursery area will give robust seedlings with 1-2 tillers per
seedling at the time of planting.
√ Age of seedling 20 to 25 days
√ Spacing (cm) 20 x 10 (50 hills/m2) or 25 x 10 (40 hills/m2) according to soil fertility
√ Seedlings/ hill One (along with tillers if already produced)
√ Fertilizer [Link] kg NPK/ha

System of rice intensification (SRI) cultivation

Dry season with assured irrigation is more suitable. Difficulty in crop establishment may be seen in areas
with heavy downpour
√ Varieties: Hybrids and varieties with heavy tillering.
√ Nursery - Seed rate: 5- 6 kg/ha for single seedling/hill.
√ Preparation of nursery area - Prepare 100 m2 nursery to plant 1 ha area. Select a leveled area near
the water source. Spread a plastic sheet or used polythene gunny bags on the shallow raised bed to
prevent roots growing deep into soil.
√ Preparation of soil mixture - Four (4) m3 of soil mix is needed for each 100 m2 of nursery. Mix 70%
soil + 20% well-decomposed pressmud / bio-gas slurry / FYM + 10% rice hull. Incorporate in the soil
mixture 1.5 kg of powdered di-ammonium phosphate or 2 kg 17-17-17 NPK fertilizer.
√ Filling in soil mixture- Place a wooden frame of 0.5 m long, 1 m wide and 4 cm deep divided into
4 equal segments on the plastic sheet or banana leaves. Fill the frame almost to the top with the soil
mixture. Pre-germinating the seeds 2 days before sowing: Soak the seeds for 24 hr, drain and
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incubate the soaked seeds for 24 hr, sow when the seeds sprout and radical (seed root) grows to 2-3
mm long.
√ Sowing - Sow the pre-germinated seeds weighing 90-100 g/m2 (100g dry seed may weigh 130g after
sprouting) uniformly and cover them with dry soil to a thickness of 5mm. Sprinkle water
immediately using rose can to soak the bed and remove the wooden frame and continue the
process until the required area is completed.
√ Watering - Water the nursery with rose-can as and when needed (twice or thrice a day) to keep the
soil moist. Protect the nursery from heavy rains for the first 5 DAS. At 6 DAS, maintain thin film of
water all around the seedling mats. Drain the water 2 days before removing the seedling mats for
transplanting.
√ Spraying fertilizer solution (optional): If seedling growth is slow, sprinkle 0.5% urea + 0.5% zinc
sulfate solution at 8-10 DAS.
√ Lifting seedling mats: Seedlings reach sufficient height for planting at 15 days. Lift the seedling mats
and transport them to main field.
√ Main field preparation - Puddled lowland prepared as described in transplanted rice. Perfect
leveling is a pre-requisite for the water management proposed hereunder
√ Transplanting - Single seedling of 15 days old. Square planting of 25 x 25 cm. Fill up the gaps
between 7 and 10 DAT. Transplant within 30 minutes of pulling out of seedlings.
√ Irrigation management - Irrigation only to moist the soil in the early period of 10 days. Restoring
irrigation to a maximum depth of 2.5cm after development of hairline cracks in the soil until panicle
initiation. Increasing irrigation depth to 5.0cm after PI one day after disappearance of ponded water

Genetically modified rice

√ This types of rice that have been genetically modified for agricultural purposes. The rice genome is
usually modified using particle bombardment via the use of a gene gun or more commonly, a
process known as agro-bacterium mediated transformation.
√ The cultivation and use of genetically modified varieties of rice is however controversial and not
legal in some countries.
There are again various types of GM rice varieties developed for various purposes.

15.1 Herbicide resistant varieties

√ Some companies introduce herbicide resistance in the non-target crop so as to make their
herbicides more effective on their targets.
√ Most traditional herbicides work on dicotyledons and do not work on grasses. The incorporation of
herbicide resistance in cereal crops allows the use of broad-spectrum herbicides that work on all
undesirable plants including monocotyledonous weeds.
√ Monsanto conducts research on rice that can tolerate glyphosate (active ingredient in the
herbicide
with trade name of "Roundup") to produce "Roundup Ready rice".
√ Bayer’s line of herbicide resistant rice is known as Liberty Link.

15.2 Nutritional value (Golden rice)

√ Half of the world population's main food source is rice. In Asia, white rice is eaten three times a day.
√ The main concern about white rice is that it has insufficient concentrations of vitamin A. It has been
suggested that rice could be fortified to reduce the level of nutritional vitamin A deficiencies.
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√ Golden rice was originally created by Dr. Ingo Potrykus and his team in Zurich, Switzerland. This
genetically modified rice is capable of producing beta-carotene in the endosperm (grain) which is
a pre cursor for vitamin A production.
√ In addition, Golden rice had increased iron content.
√ Potrykus’s goal is to distribute the rice to poor countries whose citizens suffer blindness and even
death from a lack of vitamin A.
√ The company SynGenta owns the license for commercial distribution of golden rice.

15.3 Pest resistance

√ BT rice is modified to express the cryIA(b) gene of the Bacillus thuringiensis bacterium.
√ The gene confers resistance to a variety of pests including the rice borer through the production of
endotoxins.
√ Various countries are doing trials on insect resistant cultivars.
√ The benefit of this is that the farmers did not need to spray their crops to control fungal, viral, or
bacterial pathogens. In comparison, conventional rice is sprayed three to four times per growing
season to control pesticides.

Important diseases in Rice crop

They can be caused by 2 factors. One is because of attack of some organism be it Fungus/ Bacteria/
Virus/ pest incidence and the other is because of some nutrition deficiency.

16.1 Diseases caused by external organisms

Rice Tungro disease infected by Tungro virus,

symptoms of which are similar to potassium
deficiency symptoms.

The bakanae disease is caused by the fungus

Gibberella fujikuroi. Diseased plants are often
conspicuous in a field because of their extreme
height and pale, spindly appearance.

Blast disease caused by Pyricularia grisea is also

known as rotten neck or rice fever

Leaf spot or brown spot of rice caused by

Helminthosporium spp is also called as sesame leaf
spot or Helminthosporiose or fungal blight

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16.2 Nutrition Deficiency diseases
As per the picture below, we can notice that the symptoms of nutrition deficiency varies as per the
appearance on older leaves and younger leaves.

Khaira disease in rice is caused because of Zinc deficiency

Hydrogen sulphide toxicity of rice is known as “Akiochi disease”, causes black crown and root rot in rice.

Aphelenchoides besseyi (nematode) is best known as the causal agent of white tip disease of rice.

Ivory white of paddy disease is caused by the deficiency of Iron in Paddy/Rice.

Important varieties of Rice

√ CSR13 is a fine-grain salt-tolerant rice variety adapted to alkaline and inland saline soils and CSR27
possesses dual tolerance of coastal salinity and sodicity.

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√ Pokkali is a unique saline tolerant rice variety that is cultivated using extensive aquaculture in an
organic way in the water-logged coastal regions, spread in about 5000 hectares area in Alappuzha,
Thrissur and Ernakulam districts of Kerala in Southern India.

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Supplementary notes on Sorghum

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“The ultimate goal of farming is not the growing of crops, but the cultivation and
perfection of human beings.” – Unknown

Introduction
√ Sorghum is a Camel of desert because it produces good yields under high temperature and low soil
moisture.
√ Botanical name of Sorghum is Sorghum bicolor.
√ The origin of Sorghum is Africa.
√ Family- Gramineae (Poaceae)
√ Sorghum is often cross pollinated crop.
√ Inflorescence of sorghum is panicle (commonly called head).
√ The sorghum grain is used primarily as human food in various forms, such as roti or bhakri
(unleavened bread), or is cooked like rice.
√ Sorghums are also malted, popped and several local preparations are made.
√ Green and dried fodder is the most important roughage for feeding cattle throughout the country.
√ The utilization of grain sorghum as a cattle feed, poultry ration and other industrial uses is at
present not very significant, although considerable scope exists.

Geographical distribution
√ Sorghum is the most important food and fodder crop of dryland agriculture.
√ Sorghum is mainly cultivated in the peninsular and central India. Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra
Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh (the Bundelkhand region) and Tamil
Nadu are the major Sorghum – growing states. Other states grow sorghum in small areas primarily
for fodder.

Climatic requirements
√ Sorghum plants are very hardy and can withstand high temperature and drought.
√ It may be successfully grown under atmospheric temperature ranging between 15 0C to 40 0C and
annual rainfall ranging from 400 to 1000 mm.

Soil requirement
√ Sorghum is grown on a variety of soil types but the clayey loam soil rich in humus is found to be the
most ideal soil.
√ It may tolerate mild acidity to mild salinity under pH 5.5 to 8.0.
√ A good sorghum soil must have an efficient drainage facility though; it may withstand water logging
more than maize.

Varieties of Sorghum
Kharif Sorghum
A. Improved Variety
Sr. No. Variety Days to Maturity Yield (t/ha)
1 SPV-46 110 - 115 35 - 40
2 CSV-15 110-115 40-45
3 CSV-13 110 - 115 35-40
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B. Hybrid Variety
Sr. No. Variety Days to Maturity Yield (t/ha)
1 CSH-1 90 - 100 30 - 35
2 CSH-5 110 - 115 45 - 50
3 CSH-6 90-100 50-60
4 CSH-9 110 - 115 45 - 50
5 CSH-10 110 - 115 45 - 50
6 CSH-11 110 - 115 45 - 50
7 CSH-14 100 - 105 45 - 50

Rabi Sorghum
A. Improved Variety
Sr. No. Variety Days to Maturity Yield (t/ha)
1 M-35-1 120 - 125 15 - 18
2 CSV-8R 120 - 125 20 - 22
3 Swati 120 - 125 24 - 28
4 CSV-14R 115 - 120 20 - 24
5 Selection 3 105 - 110 5-6
6 SPV-1359 125 - 130 25 - 30

B. Hybrid Variety
1 CSH-13R 115 - 120 25 - 30
2 CSN-15R 115 - 120 32- 35
3 Phule Yashoda 120 - 125 18 - 20
4 SPV-84 120-125 20-22

Land preparation
√ Deep summer ploughing with mould board plough soon after rabi crop is harvested and leaving the
soil exposed to sun until onset of monsoon is a common practice.
√ With the onset of monsoon the land should be ploughed twice by country plough. But the soil for
grain crop should be pulverized for a fine tilth by harrowing and cross planking.
√ If desired, field should be levelled before sowing so that rainwater may be well distributed
throughout the field.

Seeds and sowing

√ Sowing time: Sorghum crop is grown in almost all the seasons of the year. In Northern India
conditions it is grown in kharif season but in Southern India the crop is grown during Rabi and
summer seasons. Kharif crop should be sown soon after first break of monsoon rains i.e. nearly in
last week of June. Therefore, the best sowing time is in last week of June to first week of July
depending upon onset of monsoon. Whereas rabi jawar is sown in the month of October to
November.
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√ Spacing: A spacing of 40-45 cm between the rows and 15-20 cm between the plants is quite
satisfactory.
√ Seed rate: Required plant population may be obtained by using a seed rate of 8-12 kg/ha. The seeds
are sown about 3-4 cm deep in the furrows.
√ Seed treatment: The seed treatment may be done by Agrosan GN, Thiram at the rate of 3g/kg of
seed or sulphur at the rate of 5g/kg of seed. The seed is treated, dried and sown in the field.

Manure and Fertilizer management

√ Sorghum is an exhaustive crop and it depletes soil fertility very fast, if proper care is not taken. The
fertilizer doses differ from type to type and nature of crop to be grown
e.g. local varieties need less quantity than hybrid ones. Similarly, irrigated crop requires higher doses
than rainfed ones no matter whether it is a local or high yielding variety.
√ Considering all these points an optimum dose may be found out from the following details: an
optimum dose of nitrogen for rainfed high yielding and local varieties of irrigated crop should be 60-
80kg/ha while for irrigated high yielding varieties it should be between 120-150 kg/ha.
√ In case of heavy soils one single application gives better results than split application but in case of
light soils split application i.e. half basal and remaining half as top-dressing at knee-height stage or
30-35 days after sowing is preferred.
√ Under low rainfall or in rainfed areas top-dressing of nitrogen is not required. On an average a dose
of 40-60 kg P2O5/ha is found to be good. Placement at 4-6 cm depth has given better results.
√ However, under normal conditions it is mostly basal placed. Potash at the rate of 40kg/ha applied at
the time of field preparation gives good result

Irrigation
√ Sorghum is a fairly drought resistant crop and it does very well in areas receiving 50 cm well
distributed rainfall but it cannot withstand waterlogging at any stage of crop growth.
√ The most critical growth stages for irrigation are knee-height stage, flowering and grain filling
stages at which the crop should be ensured for proper moisture conditions so that the crop does not
suffer from moisture stress.
√ Contrary to this in kharif crop an efficient drainage must be provided as the crop cannot tolerate
water accumulation for more than few hours, therefore, in low lying areas sowing of crop on 5-7cm
high ridges or sowing in flat beds followed by light earthing up is a remedy for stagnant water in the
field.

Weeds
√ Witch weed (Striga spp.) is the most common weed found in Sorghum.
√ Witch weed is root parasite.

Weed management
√ Manual weeding’s and hoeing’s help in solving the weed problem but it is possible only during rabi
and arid cropping seasons while rains do not permit the manual weeding or hoeing during kharif
season.

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√ Application of herbicides like atrazine @ 0.5 kg a.i./ha or Propazine @1.0 kg a.i./ha dissolved in 900-
1000 liters of water, therefore, becomes obviously essential to control weeds. These herbicides
should be applied before emergence of sorghum seedlings.

Harvesting
√ The high yielding varieties mature in about 100-120 days’ duration after which they are harvested.
Generally, two methods of harvesting i.e. either stalk-cut or cutting of ear heads by sickles are
employed.
√ However, in foreign countries sorghum harvesters are used. In case of stock cut method the plants
are cut from near the ground level, the stalks are tied into bundles of convenient removed from
plants, while in later case the ear heads, after their removal from the standing crop, are piled up on
the threshing floor and after few days they are threshed.

Threshing
√ Threshing of ear heads is done either by beating them with sticks or by trampling them under
bullock’s feet. Later method is quicker and is practiced by majority of farmers who use to grow the
crop on larger scale.

Yield
√ The grain yield of improved varieties under assured water supply ranges between 25-35 quintals/ha
and that of hay between 150-170 quintals/ha.

Plant protection of Sorghum

15.1 Pests of Sorghum

Sr. Pest Growth stage at Preventive measure Chemical control

No. which pest attack
1 Shoot- fly Seedling stage -Use of higher seed rate - Carbofuran @ 1kg/100kg of
(Atherigona -Removal & destruction seed, or 5% Disulfoton @
soccata) of damaged seedlings 10- 3g/m row length, or 10%
12 days after phorate granule @ 5 g/m
germination. row length may be sown
along with seeds.
OR
- Spraying of Carbaryl
(50%w.p) or Endrin (20% EC
@ 2 kg or 1 kg/ha
respectively twice i.e. 3-5
DAS & 8-12 DAS.
2 Stem borer Seedling to Uprooting and burning of Application of granules of
(Chilo flowering stage stubbles. any of 4% Edosulfan @
partellus) 8kg/ha, 4% Carbaryl @

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12kg/ha or 2% Lindane @ 15
kg/ha in leaf whorls twice at
10 days interval starting from
20 days after germination.

3 Midge fly Panicle Burning of panicle Spraying of Carbaryl

(Stenodiplosis emergence to residues and chaff left (50%W.P) @ 3 kg/ha or
sorghicola) flowering after threshing. Lindane (20EC) @ 1.25 litre
or Endosulfan (30 EC) @ 1
litre in 500-600 litres of
water/ha before flowering or
3 days after panicle
emergence controls the
insect.

15.2 Diseases of Sorghum

Sr. No. Disease Casual Organism Control measure
1 Grain smut Sphacelotheca sorghi Seed treatment with organo-mercurial compound
viz. Ceresan, Agrosan GN, etc.
2 Ergot Sphacelia sorghi -Seed treatment with organo-mercurial compound
viz. Ceresan, Agrosan GN, etc.
-Spraying of Ziram @0.15% or 1 kg/ha at boot leaf
stage and its repetition at 5-7 days interval at least
two times.
- Immersion of seed in 2% saline water, washing
them with fresh water and drying in shade controls
the disease.

3 Downy Sclerospora sorghi - Avoid waterlogging.

mildew - Removal and burning/burying of
diseased plants
- Application of Dithane Z-78 @ 0.2 % spray
solution reduces secondary
infection

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Supplementary notes on Maize

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Contents
Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................3
Importance .........................................................................................................................................................3
Geographical distribution ...................................................................................................................................4
Climatic requirements ........................................................................................................................................4
Soil requirement .................................................................................................................................................4
Varieties of Maize ...............................................................................................................................................4
6.1 High yielding hybrids ..................................................................................................................................4
6.2 Composites varieties ..................................................................................................................................5
6.3 Nutritionally superior opaque-2 composites (very superior in protein quality) ........................................6
Land preparation ................................................................................................................................................7
Seeds and sowing ...............................................................................................................................................7
Manure and Fertilizer management...................................................................................................................7
Irrigation .........................................................................................................................................................8
Weed management ........................................................................................................................................8
Harvesting.......................................................................................................................................................9
Yield ................................................................................................................................................................9
Plant protection of Maize ...............................................................................................................................9
14.1 Pests of Maize.............................................................................................................................................9
14.1.1 Stem borer ..........................................................................................................................................9
14.1.2 Red Hairy Caterpillars .........................................................................................................................9
14.1.3 Aphids .................................................................................................................................................9
14.1.4 Grass hoppers .................................................................................................................................. 10
14.1.5 Termites ........................................................................................................................................... 10
14.1.6 Diseases of Maize ............................................................................................................................ 10

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“The ultimate goal of farming is not the growing of crops, but the cultivation and perfection of
human beings.” – Unknown

Introduction
√ Maize is known as Queen of Cereals.
√ Botanical name of Maize is Zea mays.
√ The origin of Maize is Mexico.
√ Family- Gramineae (Poaceae)
√ Maize is cross pollinated crop (protandary).
√ Maize is monoecious crop having two different type of inflorescence.
√ Classification of Maize on the basis of endosperm characters
Shurtevant (1899) classified into 7 groups

Sr. No. Corn Botanical name Features

1 Dent corn Zea mays indentata Mostly cultivated in U.S.A
2 Flint corn Zea mays indurate Mostly cultivated in India
3 Sweet corn Zea mays saccaharata Sweeter than other
4 Soft corn Zea mays amylacea -
5 Pop corn Zea mays everta Used for making pop corn
6 Waxy corn Zea mays ceratinakulesh Produces starch similar to
tapioca
7 Pod corn Zea mays tunicata Primitive type of corn

Importance
√ Forage and Feed: The next important field where maize finds extensive use is for livestock feeds viz, cattle,
poultry and piggery both in the form of seeds and fodder. The green fodder can be fed to milch cattle to
boost the milk production of a considerable extent. The crop has to be harvested when the grains are in
milky stage, This variety is supposed to have Lactogenic effect hence especially suited for milch cattle. The
digest ability of maize fodder is higher than sorghum, bajra and other non-leguminous forage crops.
√ Food: In most of the developing countries maize is consumed directly as food. In India, over 85 percent of
the maize production is used as food. Most commonly used forms are as (1) Chapattis (2) porridges of
various forms (iii) boiled or roasted green ears (iv) breakfast foods like corn flakes and (v) Popcorn. For the
(iii) and (v) category sweet and Popcorn varieties are especially grown in USA and Europe.
√ Other Uses: The maize cob, the central rachis to which the grains are attached remains as an agricultural
waste after threshing; it finds many important agricultural and industrial uses. Approximately it forms 15 to
18% of the total ear weight and contains 35% cellulose, 40% pentose and 15% lignin. Their uses in
agriculture includes as a litter for poultry and as a soil conditioner.
√ Industrial Uses: The industrial uses based on the physical properties of the cob when ground to powder are
as fillers for explosives in the manufacture of plastics, glues, adhesives, reyon, resin, vinegar and artificial
leather and as diluents and carrier in the formulation of insecticides and pesticides. Based on the chemical
properties the processed cobs find their use in the manufacture of furfurol, fermentable sugars, solvents,
liquid fuels, charcoal gas and other chemicals by destructive distillation, and also in the manufacture of pulp,
paper and hard boards.
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Geographical distribution
√ Maize is mainly cultivated in Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh.
√ The maize is cultivated throughout the year in all states of the country for various purposes including grain,
fodder, green cobs, sweet corn, baby corn, popcorn.
√ The predominant maize growing states that contributes more than 80 % of the total maize production are
Andhra Pradesh (20.9 %), Karnataka (16.5 %), Rajasthan (9.9 %), Maharashtra (9.1 %), Bihar (8.9 %), Uttar
Pradesh (6.1 %), Madhya Pradesh (5.7 %), Himachal Pradesh (4.4 %).
√ Apart from these states maize is also grown in Jammu and Kashmir and North-Eastern states. Hence, the
maize has emerged as important crop in the non-traditional regions i.e. peninsular India as the state like
Andhra Pradesh which ranks 5th in area (0.79 m ha) has recorded the highest production (4.14 m t) and
productivity (5.26 t ha) in the country.

Climatic requirements
√ Maize is essentially a warm weather crop. It is grown under extremely divergent climatic conditions in
different parts of the world, ranging from tropical to temperate regions.
√ It is widely cultivated from the sea level up to altitudes of 2,500 m. It can be successfully grown where the
night temperature does not go below 15.60 0C (600F).
√ It cannot withstand frost any stage of its growth.
√ In India, its cultivation extends from the hot arid Plains of Rajasthan and Gujarat to the wet hills of Assam
and Bengal (receiving over 400 cm of rainfall).

Soil requirement
√ Maize requires fertile, deep and well drained soils. However, it can be grown on any type of soil, ranging
from deep heavy clays to light sandy ones.
√ It is necessary that the pH of the soil does not deviate from the range 7.5 to 8.5.
√ Maize plants, particularly in the seedling stage, are highly susceptible to salinity and water.
√ Accordingly, the provision of proper drainage is essential for the successful cultivation of this crop. The
slight sandy soils greatly facilitated drainage, but have a relatively poor water holding capacity; on the
contrary, very heavy soils, with excellent water holding capacity, have relatively poor drainage.
√ Hence, soils ideally suited for maize cultivation should have adequate water holding capacity and should also
provide for good drainage.

Varieties of Maize
6.1 High yielding hybrids
Ganga-1, Ganga-101, Ranjit, Deccan, Ganga-5, Ganga Safed-2, hi-Starch, Ganga-4, Himalayan 123, Ganga-3 and
V.L. 54

Sr. No. Hybrid Variety Grain Type Salient Feature

1 Ganga-5 Bold, yellow, semi-flint A medium maturing (95-110 days),
medium statured and widely adapted
hybrid. Recommended for the
northern Plains and Peninsular India.
Resistant to leaf blight and brown

3 Deccan Bold, yellow, semi-flint A medium maturing in 105-110 days,

recommended for Peninsular India.
Excellent husk cover. Highly resistant
to leaf blight and downy mildew. This
hybrid has widely adaptability.

4 Himalayan Bold, white, dent A medium maturing widely hybrid. It

has a high starch recovery and is
preferred by the starch industry. It this
very popular in Bihar and Uttar
Pradesh, particularly during the Rabi.

5 Hi-Starch 123 Bold, yellow, semi-flint A medium maturing hybrid (105-115

days) recommended for high
elevations up to 2000m. This hybrid is
very popular for cultivation, at high
elevations. Excellent husk cover.
Highly resistant of downy mildew, leaf
blight and rust. It is susceptible to
stalk rots under water logged
conditions.

6 Ganga-4 Bold, white, flint A full seasoned hybrid recommended

for the white maize growing in the
regions in the states of Madhya
Pradesh, Bihar and Uttar Pradesh
particularly in the Tarai tracts. More
resistant to downy mildew and rust. It
has been favored for Rabi cultivation
in Bihar.

6.2 Composites varieties

Vijay, Amber, Sona, Kisan, Jawahar and Vikram

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Sr. No. Composite Variety Grain Type Salient Feature
1 Vijay Medium, yellow, flint to Medium maturing composite (100-110
semi-flint days) which has shown wide
adaptability to the Indian Sub-
continent. Possess considerable
resistance to foliar diseases
2 Kissan Medium, yellow, semi- Medium maturing composite (105-110
flint days) marked by resistant downy
mildew and leaf blight. Well
developed husk cover. It has shown
superiority in the Tarai belt of Uttar
Pradesh and in north Eastern
Himalayan region.
3 Vikram Medium, yellow, orange Early maturing composites (90-95
flint days) recommended for the northern
plains; shows considerable tolerance
to drought and downy mildew.

4 Sona Medium, orange, shiny Medium maturing composite (100-110

flint days) recommended for northern
plains, considerable resistance to
foliar disease.
5 Jawahar Medium, yellow, semi Recommended for northern plains
flint with caps and peninsular India matures in 100-
110 days. Resistant to downy mildew
and leaf blight. High resistant to stem
border.
6 Amber Bold, Yellow, semi flint A medium maturing composite (105-
110 days) recommended for
Peninsular India and the Himalayan
belt up to an elevation of 1,700m.
Resistant to leaf blight and downy
mildew.

6.3 Nutritionally superior opaque-2 composites (very superior in protein quality)

Sr. No. Opaque 2 Grain Type Salient Feature
composite Variety
1 Shakti Yellow to light yellow A medium maturing Opaque-2
semi flint, with soft dull composite, recommended for
grains cultivation in the states.
2 Rattan Yellow to light yellow A medium maturing Opaque-2
semi flint, with soft dull composite recommended for
grains cultivation in the states of Punjab and
Rajasthan.

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3 Protina Yellow to light yellow A medium maturing Opaque-2
semi flint, with soft dull composite recommended for
grains cultivation in Karnataka and the Tarai
belt of Uttar Pradesh

Land preparation
√ A good seedbed for maize should be fine but compact, and free from weeds.
√ It is desirable that the previous crop refuse is buried under with a mould board plough.
√ In due course, two or three ploughings with the wooden plough are given.
√ In case the tractor is used, one ploughing followed by a couple of disking is generally adequate.
√ For kharif cultivation, it is essential that adequate drainage is provided. It may be provided in the form of
very shallow surface drains at 40-50 m apart (depending on the slope and the texture of the soil) across the
slope and connected to main outlet.
√ Shallow drains do not obstruct the movement of the cattle or tractors during cultivation. Surface drains
should be provided during sowing.

Seeds and sowing

√ There are three distinct seasons for the cultivation of maize: the main season is kharif; whereas its
cultivation during Rabi in Peninsular India and Bihar and in spring in northern India is done. Higher yields
have been recorded in the Rabi and spring crops. The higher yields are primarily due to better water
management and the lower incidence of disease and pests.
√ In most parts of India, maize during kharif is sown with the break of monsoon, the actual dates varying from
region to region. It is sown in early March in north eastern hills, in April to early May in north western hills,
in May June in Peninsular India, in the end of June to mid July in the Indo-Gangetic Plains. The late sowing of
maize may extend up to late August in certain irrigated tracts of Punjab. Spring maize is sown in late January
to the end of February in Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka in the end of October to mid
November. Both the spring and the Rabi crops are raised, more or less, under irrigation
√ Sowing made a week before the usual break of monsoon, with initial one or two irrigations, provide a better
chance for the establishment of plants, and yield increases of 15-20 per cent have also been recorded.
√ Spacing-Maize is sown in rows, 60-75 cm apart, whereas the plants in the row are spaced at 20 to 25 cm. A
population of 60-75 thousand plants per hectare at harvest are required for obtaining the optimum yield.
√ Sowing in rows is generally done with drill or by dropping the seed behind the plough. The practice of
broadcasting, particularly under rain fed conditions and for fodder maize is still prevalent in several parts of
country.
√ Seed rate- 17 to 20 kg of seed for the grain crop and 35-40 kg per hectare for the fodder crop is needed.

Manure and Fertilizer management

√ For obtaining high yield, the maize crop should be heavily manured. 10 tonne/ha of farmyard manure or
compost should be ploughed into the soil before the sowing.
√ For hybrid and composite varieties of maize, 100-120 kg of nitrogen, along with 60 kg of P2O5 and 40 kg of
K2O per hectare, is recommended.
√ The precise level of application of phosphorus and potash should be modified in the background of soil
analysis.

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√ One third of the nitrogen and total quantity of potash and phosphorus should be applied before sowing,
while the remaining nitrogen should be applied as a side dressing at the Knee high stage and at tasseling in
two equal doses.
√ In freshly leveled fields and soils with very light texture, a soil application of 10-20 kg/ha of zinc sulphate
before sowing has also given good results.
√ To control soil infesting insects, 10-20 kg of 10% DDT or BHC per hectare may be mixed with the basic
fertilizer application.
√ Farmers planting local varieties may apply 40-60 kg of nitrogen to the soil per hectare.

Irrigation
√ In regions with about 60 cm of well distributed rainfall during the growing season, any additional irrigation is
not necessary.
√ Inadequate soil moisture during flowering and poet flowering particularly during the grain filling period will
markedly reduce the yield.
√ During the grain filling period- the most susceptible stage, additional irrigation if needed, should be applied.
√ The total number of irrigations will depend on the rainfall distribution pattern.
√ The spring and rabi crops are entirely raised under irrigation; the number of irrigations may, however, vary
from 5-10 depending type of the soil and the prevailing temperatures.
√ The period between tasseling and silking stage is critical.

Weed management
√ During the initial stage, the growth of the maize plants is suppressed by weeds. Weeding may be done
between the rows with bullock or tractors drawn implements, whereas the weeding within the row is done
by hand.
√ Two or three weeding may be necessary, following which the crop is earthed up to provide for better
standability.
√ No inter cultivation after flowering should be done, as it is likely to damage the lateral roots.
√ For the fodder crop of maize, less of weeding is needed, since the soil surface is nearly covered by a dense
population of the maize plants.
√ Weeds are the serious problem in maize, particularly during kharif /monsoon season they compete with
maize for nutrient and causes yield loss up to 35 %.
√ Therefore, timely weed management is needed for achieving higher yield. Atrazine being a selective and
broad-spectrum herbicide in maize checks the emergence of wide spectrum of weeds.
√ Pre-emergence application of Atrazine (Atratraf 50 wp, Gesaprim 500 fw) @ of 1.0-1.5 kg a.i /ha in 600 litre
water, Alachlor (Lasso) @ 2-2.5 kg a.i /ha, Metolachlor (Dual) @ 1.5-2.0 kg a.i /ha, Pendamethalin (Stomp) @
1-1.5 kg a.i./ ha are effective way for control of many annual and broad leaved weeds.
√ While spraying, following precautions should be taken care by the person during spray, he should move
backward so that the Atrazine film on the soil surface may not be disturbed.
√ Preferably three boom flat fan nozzle should be used for proper ground coverage and saving time. One to
two hoeing are recommended for aeration and uprooting of the remaining weeds, if any.
√ While doing hoeing, the person should move backward to avoid compaction and better aeration.
√ For areas where zero tillage is practiced, pre-plant application (10-15 days prior to seeding) of non-selective
herbicides viz., Glyphosate @ 1.0 kg a.i. ha-1 in 400-600 litre water or Paraquat @ 0.5 kg a.i. ha-1 in 600 litre
water is recommended to control the weeds.

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√ Under heavy weed infestation, post-emergence application of Paraquat can also be done as protected spray
using hoods.

Harvesting
√ The maize crop sown for grain is harvested when the grains are nearly dry and do not contain more than 20
per cent moisture. The appearance of the plant may be misleading, particularly in the case of high yielding
hybrids and composites whose grains are dry, while the stalk and leaves may be still green. Ears are
removed from the standing crop. Harvested ears are dried in the sun before shelling. In the case of the late-
sown crop, farmers prefer to harvest the whole plants and pile them, and the ears are removed are
removed later. Maize stalks are used as cattle feed or fuel. In fact, no part of the maize plant, even the cobs
from which the grains have been removed, is left unused.
√ Maize grown for fodder should be harvested at the milk to early dough stage; the earlier harvested crop is
likely to yield less and have a lower protein content. For silage, however, the late dough is preferred. Both
power and hand operated low priced maize shellers are available indigenously. These shellers are
considerably more efficient than hand shelling or beating with sticks, the common practice in northern India.

Yield
√ Considerable variation in grain yield is observed. The yield levels depend upon the variety, the amount of
the fertilizer used, and the rainfall pattern etc.
√ Under irrigated conditions and recommended cultural practices, an average yield of 4 tonnes per hectare in
the Indo-Gangetic Plains is common; in peninsular India and at higher elevations, a mean yield of 5-7 tonnes
per hectare has frequently been obtained.
√ Under low fertility and rainfed conditions with poor yielding varieties, a grain yield of about 1 to 2 tonnes/ha
is obtained.

Plant protection of Maize

14.1 Pests of Maize
14.1.1 Stem borer
These borers feed on leaves in the earlier stages. Later on they bore into the stem and cobs, rendering the plant
unproductive.

Control: After harvest, the stalks and stubbles should be collected from the field and burnt. Crop can be sprayed
twice with Thiodan 35 EC @ 27 ml in 18 litres water, once 20-25 days after germination and the second spray at
the time of grain formation (in endemic areas).

14.1.2 Red Hairy Caterpillars

Caterpillars feed and destroy the whole plant if the attack is in the early stages of growth.

Control: Egg masses and young caterpillars should be collected as soon as detected, and destroyed. The field
should be ploughed out after the crop is harvested, so as to expose pupae. Thiodan 35 EC @ 27 ml in 18 litres
water should be sprayed only as last resort.

14.1.3 Aphids
Tiny, soft bodied insects, usually green in colour. Nymphs and adults suck the sap from leaves and young shoots.

Control: The crop can be sprayed with Rogor 30 EC @ 18 ml in 18 litres water.

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14.1.4 Grass hoppers
Short-winged hoppers, laying eggs in the soil at a depth of 7.5 to 20 cms, adults feed on foliage.

Control: Thiodan 35 EC @ 25 ml or Ekalux 25 EC@ 28 mi in 18 litres water can be sprayed.

14.1.5 Termites
These pests attack young seedlings as well as mature plants; attack is also visible on roots and lower parts of the
plants.

Control: Thiodan 4 % Dust @ 12-15 kg per hectare is applied and mixed well with the soil.

14.1.6 Diseases of Maize

Leaf Blight: Manifestation of oval to round, yellowish-purple spots on leaves. The affected leaves dry up and
appear as if burnt. In severe cases, the plants may become stunted, resulting in poorly-formed ears.

Control: The crop can be sprayed with Dithane M-45 or Indofil @ 35-40 gms or Blue Copper @55 -60 gms in 18
litres water, 2 -3 sprays at 15 days’ interval, will effectively control the disease.

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Supplementary notes on Wheat

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Contents
Origin .............................................................................................................................................................. 4
Geographical distribution ................................................................................................................................ 4
Climatic requirements ..................................................................................................................................... 4
Soil requirement.............................................................................................................................................. 5
Varieties of Wheat........................................................................................................................................... 5
5.1 Varieties by IIWBR, Karnal ........................................................................................................................ 5
5.2 Varieties for Biscuit purpose .................................................................................................................... 5
5.3 Varieties for Baking purpose .................................................................................................................... 6
5.4 Macaroni wheat Varieties ........................................................................................................................ 6
5.5 Single gene dwarf wheat Varieties ........................................................................................................... 6
5.6 Double gene dwarf wheat Varieties ......................................................................................................... 6
5.7 Important wheat varieties during Green revolution ................................................................................. 6
5.8 Varieties for salt affected soil ................................................................................................................... 6
5.9 Drought resistant varieties ....................................................................................................................... 6
5.10 Rust and Blight resistant varieties ............................................................................................................ 6
Seeds and sowing ............................................................................................................................................ 6
Fertilizer management..................................................................................................................................... 6
Nutrient management ..................................................................................................................................... 7
Water management ........................................................................................................................................ 7
Weeds ......................................................................................................................................................... 7
Weed management ..................................................................................................................................... 8
Harvesting ................................................................................................................................................... 8
Threshing..................................................................................................................................................... 8
Yield ............................................................................................................................................................ 8
Storage ........................................................................................................................................................ 8
Nutritional value.......................................................................................................................................... 9
Pests of Wheat ............................................................................................................................................ 9
17.1 Major pests.............................................................................................................................................. 9
17.2 Minor pests.............................................................................................................................................. 9
17.3 Diseases of Wheat ................................................................................................................................. 10
Nutrition Deficiency diseases ..................................................................................................................... 10
18.1 Nitrogen Deficiency ............................................................................................................................... 10
18.2 Phosphorous Deficiency ......................................................................................................................... 11
18.3 Potassium Deficiency ............................................................................................................................. 11

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18.4 Iron Deficiency ....................................................................................................................................... 11
18.5 Zinc Deficiency ....................................................................................................................................... 12
18.6 Magnesium Deficiency ........................................................................................................................... 12
18.7 Sulphur Deficiency ................................................................................................................................. 12

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“The ultimate goal of farming is not the growing of crops, but the cultivation and perfection of
human beings.” – Unknown

Origin
√ Wheat is the second most important staple food after rice consumed by 65% of the population in India and is
likely to increase further due to changes in food habits. Wheat is mostly consumed in the form of ‘chapati’ in
our country for which bread wheat is cultivated in nearly 87 per cent of the cropped area.
√ Botanical name of Wheat is/are

Sr. No. Type of Wheat Botanical Name

1 Mexican dwarf/Common bread wheat Triticum aestivum

2 Macaroni wheat Triticum durum

3 Emmer wheat Triticum dicocum

4 Indian dwarf/Club wheat Triticum spherococum

√ The origin of wheat is South West Asia (Turkey).

√ Family- Gramineae (Poaceae)

Geographical distribution
√ In 2017, world production of wheat was 772 million tonnes, making it the second most-produced cereal after
maize.
√ Together, maize, rice and wheat are the single most important item in the human diet, accounting for an
estimated 42.5 percent of the world's food calorie supply. Globally, their contribution to our supply of
protein - around 37 percent - is a close second to that of fish and livestock products. Wheat alone supplies
more protein than the sum of poultry, pig and bovine meat. Maize, rice and wheat even supply 6 percent of
the fat in our diets.
√ In India, Madhya Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh are the major state in which area under wheat
cultivation is maximum.

Climatic requirements
√ Wheat crop has wide adaptability. It can be grown not only in the tropical and sub-tropical zones, but also in
the temperate zone and the cold tracts of the far north ,beyond even the 60 degree north altitude .
√ Wheat can tolerate severe cold and snow and resume growth with the setting in of warm weather in spring .It
can be cultivated from sea level to as high as 3300 meters.
√ The best wheat is produced in areas favoured with cool, moist weather during the major portion of the growing
period followed by dry, warm weather to enable the grain to ripen properly.
√ The optimum temperature range for ideal germination of wheat seed is 20-25 C though the seeds can germinate
in the temperature range 3.5 to 35 c.

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√ Rains just after sowing hamper germination and encourage seedling blight. Areas with a warm and damp climate
are not suited for wheat growing.
√ During the heading and flowering stages, excessively high or low temperatures and drought are harmful to
wheat. Cloudy weather, with high humidity and low temperatures is conducive for rust attack.
√ Wheat plants require about 14-15 c optimum average temperature at the time of ripening . The temperature
conditions at the time of grain filling and development are very crucial for yield. Temperatures above 25c during
this period tend to depress grain weight.
√ When temperatures are high, too much energy is lost through the process of transpiration by the plants and the
reduced residual energy results in poorer grain formation and lower yields.
√ Wheat is mainly a rabi (winter) season crop in India.

Soil requirement
√ Wheat is grown in a variety of soils of India. Soils with a clay loam or loam texture, good structure and moderate
water holding capacity are ideal for wheat cultivation.
√ Care should be taken to avoid very porous and excessively drained soils. Soil should be neutral in its reaction.
√ Heavy soil with good drainage is suitable for wheat cultivation under dry conditions. These soils absorb and
retain rain-water very well.
√ Heavy soils with poor structure and poor drainage are not suitable as wheat is sensitive to water logging.
√ Wheat can be successfully grown on lighter soils provided their water and nutrient holding capacity are
improved.
√ A soil pH between 6 to 7 is ideal for wheat cultivation.

Varieties of Wheat
5.1 Varieties by IIWBR, Karnal
New varieties Old varieties

Karan Narendra DBW 93

Karan Vandana DBW 107

Karan Shriya DBW 168

DDW 47( Durum wheat ) DBW 173

DBW 222

DBW 252

5.2 Varieties for Biscuit purpose

Sonalika, HD 2285,Larma roja, PBW 175, C 306, Sujata
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5.3 Varieties for Baking purpose
K 65, K 68, NP 880, UP 310, UP 319, Sharbati sonora.

5.4 Macaroni wheat Varieties

Jayaraj, Meghdoot, Malvika, HD 4530, Bansi

5.5 Single gene dwarf wheat Varieties

Sonalika, UP 262, WL 711, Girja

5.6 Double gene dwarf wheat Varieties

Kalyan sona, UP 215, Jyoti, Jawahar, Hira, Moti, Sangam, UP 301, UP 319

5.7 Important wheat varieties during Green revolution

Kalyan sona, Sonalika, HD 2329

5.8 Varieties for salt affected soil

Lok 1, Raj 3077, KRL 1 to 4, PBW 19

5.9 Drought resistant varieties

K 68, NP 890, Narmada

5.10 Rust and Blight resistant varieties

UP 2425, PBW 273, WH 291

Seeds and sowing

√ The optimum time of sowing for wheat is when the mean daily temperature is between 23±3°C and for good
tillering temperature it should range between 16-20°C.
√ Under irrigated timely sown conditions, the wheat sowing may be done in the first fortnight of November.
√ Under late sown conditions, the wheat sowing may be done in the first fortnight of December.
√ Seed rate of wheat is 100 kg/ha.
√ In case of F.I.R.B.S (Furrow Irrigated Raised Bed System) seed rate may be reduced to 75 kg/ha
√ For late sown and rainfed conditions seed rate should be increased to 125 kg/ha.
√ Seeding depth should be around 5±2 cm with a row spacing of 22.5 cm.

Fertilizer management
√ It was demonstrated that 120 kg nitrogen, 60 kg phosphorus and 40 kg potash per hectare were required for
optimum productivity.
√ The N was to be applied in two split doses of 60 kg as basal and the remaining 60 kg at first irrigation and full
phosphorus and potash to be applied as basal.
√ Recently, the new wheat varieties have responded up to 180 kg N/ha with optimal dose around 150 kg/ha.
√ In the Indo-Gangetic plains, application of zinc @ 25kg/ha in the rice-wheat system was found to increase the
yield substantially.
√ Recently, the use of sulphur has been found beneficial for enhancing the productivity as well as the grain
protein content of wheat.
√ Response to Mn (pockets in the Indo-Gangetic plains) and boron (eastern and far eastern region) has also
been realized.

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Nutrient management
√ Fertiliser requirement for irrigated timely sown conditions is [Link] kg N:P2O5:K2O/ha.
√ Full P and K with 1/3rd N are to be applied as basal and the rest 2/3rd N should be applied at first node stage
at around 40-45 days after seeding.
√ In general, all the fertiliser @ 90:30 kg N:P2O5/ha is applied at the time of sowing as basal under rainfed
conditions.
√ Zinc sulphate should be applied @ 25 kg/ha once a year or @10 kg/ha per crop in Zn deficient soils.
√ Zinc deficiency can also be corrected by foliar spray of 0.5% zinc sulphate. Prepare the solution for spray by
dissolving 2.5 kg zinc sulphate and 1.25 kg un-slaked lime in 500 litres of water. Two to three sprays at 15-day
intervals are needed.
√ In Mn deficient soil, spray 0.5% manganese sulphate solution (2.5 kg manganese sulphate in 500 litres of
water) 2-4 days before first irrigation and two to three sprays afterwards at weekly intervals on clear sunny
days.

Water management
√ Water requirement of wheat crop is 45 to 65 cm through its life cycle.
√ Crown root initiation and heading stages are the most critical to moisture stress. Four to six irrigations are
enough for wheat crop. Depending upon the water availability, these should be applied as per the
requirement of the crop.
√ In FIRB system, first irrigation may be applied immediately after sowing for proper germination.
√ IW/CPE ratio ratio is 0.90.
√ Critical growth stages of irrigation for wheat crop

Sr. No. Critical Growth Stage DAS

1 Crown Root Initiation 20-25

2 Tillering Stage 40-45

3 Late Jointing Stage 60-65

4 Flowering Stage 80-95

5 Milking Stage 110-115

6 Grain filling/ Dough stage 120-125

Weeds
√ Phalaris minor is found with dwarf wheat.
√ Objectionable weed-Convolvulus arvensis
√ Horrible weed-Sorghum halepense
√ Satellite weed-Phalaris minor, Avena fatua
√ Associated weed-Phalaris minor,Avena fatua,Chenopodium album

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Weed management
√ Apply Pendimethalin @ 1000 g/ha at 0-3 days after sowing in 500-600 litres of water/ha as pre-emergence.
√ For control of mixed weed population Sulfosulfuron @ 25.0 g/ha in 250-300 litres of water/ha can be sprayed
at 30-35 days after seeding. In a resistance free area, a combination of 2,4-D @ 500 g/ha and isoproturon @
750 g /ha can also be used.
√ For control grassy weeds only Clodinafop @ 60 g/ha or Fenoxaprop-ethyl @ 100 g/ha) in 250-300 litres of
water/ha should be applied.
√ If only broadleaved weeds are present then apply 2,4-D @ 500 g/ha or Metsulfuron methyl @ 4 g/ha in 250-
300 litres of water/ha.

Harvesting
√ In peninsular India - wheat is harvested at the end of February or at beginning of March
√ Symptoms :
√ 1 . The crop is harvested when the grain shade and the straw becomes dry .
√ 2 . Don ‘t allow the crop till it is dead ripe . Harvest the crop when
the stalks are slightly green to avoid shredding .
√ 3 . Non shedding varieties -They are harvested when the grain is matured
fully .
√ Test : A simple test is to crush a few grains between tooth and should
crack ( 25 - 30 % moisture )
√ Shedding varieties should be harvested when the stalks are slightly green .
√ Ordinary method of harvesting by sickle is quite efficient for small farmers.

Threshing
√ Grain is generally threshed by trampling with cattle on a threshing floor.
√ Use of stone rollers, saw threshers and tractors also expedite the operation .
√ Simple mechanical threshers Eg : Ludhiana thresher & Sherpur thresher are used by some
farmers .
√ Winnowing is done generally with winnowing baskets .

Yield
√ Rainfed conditions 6 - 11 q/h a
√ Irrigated conditions 18 -23 q/h a
√ With improved methods of cultivation yield 27 to 31 q / ha of grain .
√ The yield of straw is generally double the yield grain .
√ Grain : Straw ratio is 1 : 2

Storage
√ The grain should be thoroughly dried before storage.
√ The storage life of grain is closely related to its moisture contest.
√ Grains with less than 10% moisture stores well.
√ The storage pits, bins or godowns should be moisture proof and should be fumigated to
keep down the stored grain pests including rats. Zinc Phosphide (ZnPo4) is very effective against rats.
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Nutritional value
√ In 100 grams, wheat provides 327 kilocalories of food energy and is a rich source (20% or more of the Daily
Value, DV) of multiple essential nutrients, such as protein, dietary fiber, manganese, phosphorus and niacin
(table). Several B vitamins and other dietary minerals are in significant content.

Pests of Wheat
17.1 Major pests

[Link]. Pest Scientific Name Family Order

1 Wheat Aphid Macrosiphum miscanthi Aphididae Hemiptera

2 Climbing Mythimna separata Noctuidae Lepidoptera

cutworm/armyworm

3 Ghujhia Weevil Tanymecus indicus Curculionidae Coleoptera

4 Gram Pod Borer Helicoverpa armigera Noctuidae Lepidoptera

5 Termites Odontotermes obesus Termitidae Isoptera

Microtermes obesi

6 Molya Heterodera avenae Heteroderidae Tylenchida

Nematode/cyst
nematode

7 Wheat-gall Anguina tritici Tylenchidae Tylenchida

Nematode

17.2 Minor pests

[Link]. Pest Scientific Name Family Order

8 Aphid Schizaphis graminum Aphididae Hemiptera

Rhopalosiphum maidis

9 Hopper Laodelphax striatella Delphacidae Hemiptera

Pyrilla perpusilla Lophopidae

10 Jassids Amrasca spp Cicadellidae Hemiptera

11 Wheat bug Eurygaster maura Pentatomidae Hemiptera

12 Wheat thrips Anaphothrips favicinctus Thripidae Thysanopte

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13 Cut worms Agrotis spp. Noctuidae
Marasmia trapezalis Pyraustidae Lepidopter
a

14 Pink borer Sesamia inferens Noctuidae Lepidopter

15 Shootfly Atherigona naqvii Muscidae Diptera

A. orzae

16 Whorl maggot Hydrellia griseola Ephydridae Diptera

17 Flea beetle Chaetocnema basalis Chtysomelidae Coleoptera

17.3 Diseases of Wheat

Sr. No. Name of Disease Scientific Name

1 Black or stem rust Puccinia graminis tritici

2 Loose smut Ustilago nuda tritici (Ustilago tritici)

3 Flag smut Urocystis tritici

4 Karnal bunt Neovossia indica

5 Foot rot Pythium graminicola

P. arrhenomanes

6 Powdery mildew Erysiphe graminis var. tritici

7 Leaf blight Alternaria triticina / Bipolaris sorokiniana

Nutrition Deficiency diseases

As per the picture below, we can notice that the symptoms of nutrition deficiency varies as per the appearance on
older leaves and younger leaves.

18.1 Nitrogen Deficiency

Pale green plants with pale yellow older leaves

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18.2 Phosphorous Deficiency
Dark green plants, often with purple color; oldest leaves may be dark yellow to orange turning to brown.

18.3 Potassium Deficiency

Pale green plants with a limp or wilted appearance; bright yellow chlorosis turning brown along the margins of the
oldest leaves.

18.4 Iron Deficiency

Yellow leaves with prominently green veins.

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18.5 Zinc Deficiency
Stunted, pale green plants with localized white to pale yellow chlorosis, turning to brown or gray necrotic lesions.

18.6 Magnesium Deficiency

Green yellow plants with yellow interveinal chlorosis turning to brown necrosis on the middle leaves.

18.7 Sulphur Deficiency

Pale yellow plants; uniformly yellow leaves without necrosis.

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Supplementary notes on Bajra

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“The ultimate goal of farming is not the growing of crops, but the cultivation and perfection of
human beings.” – Unknown

Introduction
√ Bajra is also known as cattail millet, candle millet, dark millet, spiked millet.
√ Botanical name of Bajra is Pennisetum glaucum.
√ The origin of Bajra is Africa.
√ Family- Gramineae (Poaceae)
√ Bajra is cross pollinated crop (protogyny).
√ The highest quantity of minerals (2.7%) is found in bajra among the cereals.
√ Protein content in bajra is 11.6%.
√ Fat content in bajra is 5%.
√ In pearl millet, the inflorescence is predominantly protogynous.

Geographical distribution
√ It is grown all over India except Assam and part of northeast India.
√ The highest area and production is in the Rajasthan state.

Climatic requirements
√ The crop has a wide adaptability as it may grow under different day lengths, temperature and moisture
stress.
√ Most of the varieties developed in India are photosensitive which helps in growing the crop during
monsoon, rabi and arid season.
√ It requires low annual rainfall ranging between 40-50 cm and dry weather. The crop may tolerate drought
but cannot withstand high rainfall of 90 cm or above.
√ The temperature range for maximum output is 30 -35 0c.

Soil requirement
√ Light soils of low inherent fertility with good drainage, mild salinity are best type for this crop.
√ Crop does not tolerate soil acidity.

Varieties of Bajra
1. NBH-149, VBH-4 developed for Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Maharashtra are capable of
producing 14% higher yield.
2. ICM4-155 gave higher yield than the standard check and adopted for all growing tracts of India.
3. H-306
4. NH-338
5. Hybrid like MP-204, MP205.
6. HB 1 (First hybrid)
7. HHB 67
8. BJ 104
9. Pusa Moti
10. Pusa Napier (Napier Grass ,fodder variety)

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Land preparation
√ The crop needs very fine tilt because the seeds are too small.
√ 2-3 harrowing and a ploughing is followed so that a fine tilth may be obtained to facilitate the sowing
and proper distribution of seed at appropriate depth.

Seeds and sowing

√ Sowing time:- Most appropriate time of sowing is middle or last week of July
√ Seed rate :-
4-5 kg/ha for drilling method
2.5-3 kg/ha for dibbling method
√ Spacing 40 –45 cm between rows, 10 –15 cm within rows.
√ Seed treatment- The organo-mercurial compound Ceresan, Agrosan should be used @ 2.5-3 kg/ha to
control seed borne diseases

Manure and Fertilizer management

√ Generally,the crop requires low quantity of nutrients. But All India Co-ordinated Millet Improvement
Project has proved that new plant types of bajra especially hybrids respond to very high doses of
fertilizers.
√ Under rainfed areas application of organic manures such as FYM or compost helps in increasing the crop
yield at the rate of 150-200 quintals/ha 80 –100 kg N:40-50 kgP:40-50kgK is recommended dose for
hybrid variety.
√ Fertilizers are applied in split doses, half of nitrogen, full phosphorus and potash should be basal placed
at the time of sowing.
√ The organic manures must be applied 20 days before the sowing of the seeds for full decomposition. One
fourth dose of nitrogen should be applied about 30 days and 60 days after sowing.

Irrigation
√ Bajra is grown rainfed and crop being drought resistant hardly needs any irrigation, however it is
observed that the yield may be significantly increased by irrigating the crop at critical growth stages like
maximum tillering, flowering and grain filling stage.
√ Therefore light irrigations and efficient drainage is very essential for bajra production.

Intercultural operation
√ Thinning or gap filling is followed at the time of first intercultural operation.
√ Hand weeding is followed to control the weeds or application of Atrazine @ 0.5 kg/ha would take care of
most of the weeds

Harvesting
√ The crop is harvested when grains become hard enough and contain moisture. Two methods are adopted
for harvesting the crop Cutting ear head
i) from standing crop followed by cutting of remaining plants later
ii) Cutting of entire plants by sticks and stalking the plants for five days in sun for obtaining grains. Grains
are separated either by beating the ear heads with sticks or by trampling the ear heads under bullock
feet.

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Yield
√ Irrigated crop yields 30-35 quintals/ha
√ Unirrigated crop yield 12-15 quintals/ha

Plant protection of Bajra

13.1 Pests of Bajra
√ Shoot fly: Atherigona soccata Rondani (Diptera: Muscidae)
√ Grasshopper: Hieroglyphu ssp (Orthoptera: Acrididae)
√ White ant: Chrotogonu sp (Isoptera: Termitidae)
√ Grey weevil: Mylloceru sp (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)
√ Stem borer: Chilo partellus Swinhoe (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)
√ Earhead bug: Calocoris angustatus (Hemiptera: Miridae)
√ Hairy caterpillar: Spilosoma oblique Walker (Lepidoptera: Arctiidae)
√ Earhead worm: Cryptoblabes gnidiella Milliere (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)
√ Blister beetle: Mylabris pustulata Gyllenhal (Coleoptera: Meloidae)
√ Chaffer beetle: Rhizotrogus majalis Razoumowsky (Coleoptera:Scarabaeidae)

13.2 Diseases of Bajra

√ Downy mildew (Sclerospora graminicola)- for controlling this disease seed treatment with fungicide
like Dithane Z-78 or M-45 @ 2.0kg/ha in 800-1000 lit. of water.
√ Smut (Tolyposporium penicillariae)- Treatment with Ceresan or Thirum @ 1-2 g/kg seeds is effective.
√ Ergot (Claviceps fusiformis)- Seed treatment with 20% common salt solution followed by washing with
fresh water and then treating with Ceresan or Thirum @ 1-2 g/kg seeds is effective.

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Supplementary notes on Coconut

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“The ultimate goal of farming is not the growing of crops, but the cultivation and perfection
of human beings.” – Unknown

Introduction
√ Botanical name of Coconut is Cocus nucifera.
√ Family- Arecaceae
√ Origin of Coconut is South pacific (Polynesia).
√ Botanically, the coconut fruit is a drupe.
√ It has 3 layers: the exocarp, mesocarp, and endocarp. The exocarp and mesocarp make up the
"husk" of the coconuts.
√ The palm produces both the female and male flowers on the same inflorescence; thus, the palm
is monoecious.
√ The female flower is much larger than the male flower. Flowering occurs continuously.
√ Coconut palms are believed to be largely cross-pollinated, although most dwarf varieties are self-
pollinating.
√ Coconut is a large palm, growing up to 30 m (100 feet) tall, with pinnate leaves 4–6 m (13–20 feet)
long, and pinnae 60–90 cm (2–3 feet) long.
√ Coconut is heliotropic plant.
√ Fully mature nut have 30-40% coir.

Importance
√ It is one of the most useful trees in the world, and is often referred to as the "tree of life".
√ It provides food, fuel, cosmetics, folk medicine and building materials, among many other uses. The
inner flesh of the mature seed, as well as the coconut milk extracted from it, forms a regular part of
the diets of many people in the tropics and subtropics.
√ Coconuts are distinct from other fruits because their endosperm contains a large quantity of clear
liquid, called coconut water or coconut juice.
√ Mature, ripe coconuts can be used as edible seeds, or processed for oil and plant milk from the
flesh, charcol from the hard shell, and coir from the fibrous husk.
√ Dried coconut flesh is called copra, and the oil and milk derived from it are commonly used in
cooking – frying in particular – as well as in soaps and cosmetics.
√ The hard shells, fibrous husks and long pinnate leaves can be used as material to make a variety of
products for furnishing and decoration.
√ The coconut has cultural and religious significance in certain societies, particularly in India, where it
is used in Hindu rituals. It forms the basis of wedding and worship rituals in Hinduism,

Geographical distribution
√ In India, coconut palms are grown on the entire coastal belt.
√ Major share goes to Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu followed by Goa, Maharashtra, Andhra
Pradesh, and Orissa.

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Climatic requirements
√ The coconut palm grows well in an equatorial climate.
√ Coconut is a tropical fruit plant.
√ It thrives well up to 1000 m above the sea level.
√ The well distributed rainfall ranging from 100 to 300 cm is favourable.
√ The long spells of hot and dry weather, severe winters and extremes of temperatures are not
favourable for coconut growing.

Soil requirement
√ The coconut palm can grow in a wide range of soil conditions ranging from laterite, alluvial, red,
sandy loam having pH range from 5.5 to 8.0.
√ Soil should be fertile and good drainage without any hard substratum within one of the surface.

Varieties of Coconut
√ Tall- West Coast Tall, Laccadive Ordinary, East Coast Tall and Andaman Ordinary.
√ Dwarf- Chowghat Green Dwarf, Chowghat Orange Dwarf, Gangabondam
√ Hybrids
[Link](AO x GB)-Kerala
[Link] (LO)-Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra
[Link]-Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu
[Link](WCT x COD)-Kerala and Karnataka
[Link](WCT x GB)-Kerala
[Link] (LO x GB)-Kerala
[Link] Ordinary-West Coast Konkan region, east coast of Andhra Pradesh and West Bengal
[Link] (BGR)-Coastal Maharashtra
[Link] 1 (ECT x DG)-Tamil Nadu
[Link] 2 (ECT x MYD)-Tamil Nadu
[Link]-Andhra Pradesh

Propagation
√ The coconut palm is commonly propagated by seeds.
√ The mother palms should be regular bearers giving annual yield of more than 100 nuts with the
copra content of 150 g per nut.
√ The mother palm should be within the age group of 20 to 40 years.
√ These palms producing barren nuts and shedding immature nuts in large number should be
discarded for the nursery purpose.

Season and Planting

√ The planting should be done on onset of monsoon for which the pits of 0.75 x 0.75 x 0.75 m should
be opened and filled with a mixture of compost, bone meal, super phosphate, well before the
monsoon.
√ Well developed and well grown seedlings about 1 to 2 years old should be selected for planting.
√ The planting distance depends on the type of plant or variety, soil type and weather monoculture or
associated culture or mixed culture is adopted, distance should be in such a way that the fronds
(leaves) of planting adjacent palms to do not overlap when fully grown.

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√ The spacing may be 7 to 8 m both ways for tall varieties.

Fertilizer management
√ To get a good yield, palms should be fertilized regularly and with a quick frequency, Bimonthly
applications are more beneficial. Micronutrients/Ormichem @ 2 kg/palm once in a year should be
applied to avoid any micro-nutrient disorders.
√ The schedule of fertilizer application is given as below:

Plant age (year) Urea (grams) SSP (grams) MOP (grams) Application distance
around stem (cm)
1st 500 600 320 30
2nd 1000 1200 640 30
3rd 1500 1800 960 30
4th 2000 2400 1280 30
5th 2225 3000 1600 30

Irrigation
√ The coconut palm requires large quantities of water for its normal growth and timely production.
√ In normal conditions and in absence of rains every palm needs about 16-18 litre water daily.
√ Regular irrigation helps to increase the fruit set, improve size and copra content.
√ However, stagnation of water and ill drained conditions should be strictly avoided.

Special Practice
√ The dwarf varieties are considered on self-pollinating while tall varieties are considered cross
pollinating inter planting of mix planting be done to increase the fruit set.
√ Honeybees are considered to be very useful for pollination and be reared in the viscinity of palm
cultures.

11.1 Care of Young plant

√ The young palms need proper care during the early stages of growth from transplanting up to 5th
year. The seedlings should be protected from stray cattle.
√ During summer months, shade and frequent watering must be provided to the young palms to avoid
casualties.
√ The care should be taken to see that the collar and leaf axils of the seedlings are not covered by
mud, water or soil.

Harvesting and yield

√ The well-developed nuts should be harvested one month earlier to full maturity.
√ Yearly, 2 to 6 harvesting can be done.
√ Average 80 to 100 nuts are harvested per tree/year.

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Plant protection
13.1 Important pests
Rhinoceros beetle, Red palm weevil, leaf eating caterpillar and cockchafer beetle are the major insect
pests. Occasionally mealy bug, rat and slug also become troublesome. Bud rot and leaf rot and root wilt
can cause severe damage to palms.
√ Control measure
One should be very alert to notice the symptoms of any post and take the suitable control measures.
Close planting should be avoided plantation should be kept weed free and clean. The palms should be
cleared off at least once in a year. Providing a good drainage and feeding the palms with balanced
nutrition is useful to keep palms healthy

Post harvesting handling and sale

√ The nuts are hardy and can be kept for a long time.
√ Nuts harvested at less than 9-month age will be dried spoiled or without or very thin layer of copra.
√ Copra is removed and then processed for different purposes or dried and stored and sold as dry
copra.
√ Post-Harvest Management of coconut involves its conversion into copra and coconut oil.
√ Coconut husk is used to manufacture coir mat, cushion and other products.
√ Two forms of copra are manufactured. There are copra and milling copra. However, milling copra is
manufactured
√ Commercially. Milling copra is most popular coconut is southern States.
√ In Kerala, 60-65% of the total coconut produced is converted into milling copra.

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Supplementary notes on Cashewnut

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Contents
Introduction .........................................................................................................................................................3
Importance ...........................................................................................................................................................3
Geographical distribution ....................................................................................................................................4
Climatic requirements ..........................................................................................................................................4
Soil requirement...................................................................................................................................................4
Varieties of Cashewnut ........................................................................................................................................4
Propagation ..........................................................................................................................................................5
Planting ................................................................................................................................................................5
Manures and Fertilizer management...................................................................................................................5
Irrigation ...........................................................................................................................................................6
Cover Cropping.................................................................................................................................................6
Training and Prunning ......................................................................................................................................6
Harvesting ........................................................................................................................................................7
Processing ........................................................................................................................................................7
14.1 Grading and Packaging .................................................................................................................................7
Yield ..................................................................................................................................................................7
Plant protection ...............................................................................................................................................7
16.1 Important pests affecting cahewnut ............................................................................................................7
16.2 Diseases and control measures of Cashewnut ............................................................................................8

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“The ultimate goal of farming is not the growing of crops, but the cultivation and perfection of
human beings.” – Unknown

Introduction
√ Botanical name of Cashewnut is Anacardium occidentale.
√ Family- Anacardiaceae
√ The origin of Cashewnut is Brazil.
√ The tree can grow as high as 14 m (46 feet), but the dwarf cashew, growing up to 6 m (20 feet), has proven
more profitable.
√ The leaves are spirally arranged, leathery textured, elliptic to obovate, 4–22 cm (1.6–8.7 in) long and 2–15 cm
(0.79–5.91 in) broad, with smooth margins.
√ The flowers are produced in a panicle or corymb up to 26 cm (10 in) long; each flower is small, pale green at
first, then turning reddish, with five slender, acute petals 7–15 mm (0.28–0.59 in) long.
√ The fruit of the cashew tree is an accessory fruit (sometimes called a pseudocarp or false fruit).

√ The fruit is an oval or pear-shaped structure, a hypocarpium, that develops from the pedicel and the
receptacle of the cashew [Link] the cashew apple, it ripens into a yellow or red structure about 5–
11 cm long.
√ It is edible and has a strong "sweet" smell and taste.
√ The true fruit of the cashew tree is a kidney– or boxing-glove–shaped drupe that grows at the end of the
cashew apple.
√ The drupe develops first on the tree, and then the pedicel expands to become the cashew apple. The true
fruit contains a single seed, which is often considered a nut in the culinary sense.
√ The seed is surrounded by a double shell that contains an allergenic phenolic resin, anacardic acid—which is a
potent skin irritant chemically related to the better-known and also toxic allergenic oil urushiol, which is
found in the related poison ivy.

Importance
√ Culinary uses for cashew seeds in snacking and cooking are similar to those for all tree seeds called nuts.
√ Cashews are commonly used in cuisine, whole for garnishing sweets or curries, or ground into a paste that
forms a base of sauces for curries (e.g., korma), or some sweets (e.g., kaju barfi).
√ It is also used in powdered form in the preparation of several Indian sweets and desserts.
√ The shell of the cashew nut contains oil compounds that can cause contact dermatitis similar to poison ivy,
primarily resulting from the phenolic lipids, anacardic acid, and cardanol.
√ Raw cashews are 5% water, 30% carbohydrates, 44% fat, and 18% protein (table).
√ In a 100 gram reference amount, raw cashews provide 553 Calories, 67% of the Daily Value (DV) in total fats,
36% DV of protein, 13% DV of dietary fiber and 11% DV of carbohydrates.
√ Cashews are rich sources (20% or more of the DV) of dietary minerals, including
particularly copper, manganese, phosphorus, and magnesium (79-110% DV), and of thiamin, vitamin
B6 and vitamin K (32-37% DV) (table).
√ Iron, potassium, zinc, and selenium are present in significant content (14-61% DV) (table).
√ Cashews (100 grams, raw) contain 113 milligrams (1.74 gr) of beta-sitosterol.

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√ The cashew apple is mashed and the juice extracted and kept for fermentation for a few days.
√ Fermented juice then undergoes a double distillation process. The resulting beverage is called feni or
fenny. Feni is about 40–42% alcohol.
√ The single-distilled version is called urrac, which is about 15% alcohol.

Geographical distribution
√ The commercial cultivation of cashew is taken up in eight states of our country mainly in west and eastern
coast viz., Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra, Orissa, Tamil Nadu, and West Bengal.
√ In addition, cashew is also grown in few pockets of Assam, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Meghalaya, Nagaland, and
Tripura.

Climatic requirements
√ Cashew is a tropical plant and can thrive even at high temperatures.
√ Young plants are sensitive to frost. The distribution of cashew is restricted to altitudes up to 700 m above
mean sea level where the temperature does not fall below 20°C for a prolonged period.
√ Areas where the temperatures range from 20 to 30°C with annual precipitation of 1000 – 2000 mm are ideal
for cashew growing.
√ However, temperatures above 36°C between the flowering and fruiting period could adversely affect the fruit
setting and retention.
√ Heavy rainfall, evenly distributed throughout the year is not favorable though the trees may grow and
sometimes set fruit.
√ Cashew needs a climate with a well-defined dry season of at least four months to produce the best yields.
√ The coincidence of excessive rainfall and high relative humidity with flowering may result in flower/fruit drop
and heavy incidence of fungal diseases.

Soil requirement
√ The best soils for cashew are deep and well-drained sandy loams without a hardpan.
√ Cashew also thrives on pure sandy soils, although mineral deficiencies are more likely to occur.
√ Water stagnation and flooding are not congenial for cashew.
√ Heavy clay soils with poor drainage and soils with pH more than 8.0 are not suitable for cashew cultivation.
√ Excessive alkaline and saline soils also do not support its growth.
√ Red sandy loam, lateritic soils and coastal sands with slightly acidic pH are best for cashew.

Varieties of Cashewnut
√ There are few varieties grown in various states of India.
Sr. No. State Varieties
1 Andhra Pradesh BPP 1, BPP 2, BPP 3, BPP 4, BPP 5, BPP 6, BPP 7, BPP 8.

2 Tamil Nadu VRI 1, VRI 2, VRI 3

3 Odisha Bhubaneshwar, Jagannath , Balabhadra

4 West Bengal Jhargram 1, Jhargram 2

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5 Maharashtra Vengurla 1, Vengurla 2, Vengurla 3, Vengurla 4, Vengurla 5,
Vengurla 6, Vengurla 7, Vengurla 8.

6 Goa Goa 1, Goa 2

7 Kerala BLA 39-4, NDR 2-1, Kanaka, Dhana, Priyanka, Amrutha, Sulabha,
Dhanasree, Akshaya, Anagha, Anakkayam-1.

8 Karnataka Ullal 1, Ullal 2, Ullal 3, Ullal 4, UN 50, NRCC Selection 1, NRCC Selection
2, Bhaskara, Chintamani 1, Chintamani 2

Propagation
The cashew is grown by the following methods:
√ Seed propagation -It is the oldest and cheapest method of propagation. It is also used to raise the plants for
the purpose of grafting.
√ Layering -This method is more successful in coastal and more humid areas.
√ Soft wood grafting -This is followed both in the nursery as well as in the field of in-situ.

Planting
√ The work of digging of pits has to be completed much in advance (May – June).
√ Cashew can be planted in pits of 60cm x 60cm x 60cm size in soils with normal strata.
√ In hard lateritic soils, pits of 1m x 1m x 1m size are recommended.
√ The topsoil and sub-soil are kept separately and allowed to wither under the sun.
√ It helps in the migration of termites and ants. Burning of the debris and forest wastes inside the pits before
planting is advantageous.
√ The pits are then filled with topsoil mixed with farmyard manure or compost (5 kilograms) or poultry manure
(2 kilograms) and rock phosphate (200 grams).
√ In order to mitigate soil-borne diseases, BHC @ 100 grams/pit is also added to the soil mixture.
√ Planting space of 8 m x 5 m is recommended.
√ The trees grow vigorously in the first 3 years and as soon as the crowns touch each other alternate trees
should be removed until the permanent planting distance of 10 to 12 m is reached.

Manures and Fertilizer management

√ In India, the application of manures and fertilizers is very limited in the case of Cashew.
√ In order to get better yield, it is essential to maintain adequate N:P:K ratio in the soil.
√ Application of 10-15 kg of farmyard manure per plant is recommended to ensure adequate organic matter in
the soil.
√ The fertilizers recommended for a mature cashew tree are 500 g N (1.1 kg urea), 125 g P2O5 (750 g Single
Super Phosphate and 125 g K2O (200 grams muriate of potash).
√ The ideal time for application of fertilizer is immediately after the cessation of heavy rains.
√ Fertilizers should be applied in a circular trench along the drip line. Before the application of fertilizer, it
should be ensured that there is adequate soil moisture.

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√ In Cashew crop, the fertilizers should be applied in two split doses during pre-monsoon (May – June) and
post-monsoon (September – October) season.
√ However, in the case of a single application, it should be done during the post-monsoon season (September –
October) when adequate soil moisture is available.
√ In sandy and laterite soils, soils of sloppy land and in heavy rainfall zones, the fertilizer application should be
done in a circular trench of 25 cm width and 15 cm depth at 1.5m from the tree trunk.
√ In red loamy soils and in low rainfall areas (east coast), the fertilizers should be applied in circular bands at a
distance of 0.5m, 0.7m, 1.0m and 1.5m away from the trunk during first, second, third and fourth year
onwards of planting, respectively.

Irrigation
√ In Cashew production, irrigation is an important factor during the establishment of young trees because it
doubles the growth tempo of young trees in a dry season.
√ Due to the deep root system, the trees can survive several months without irrigation.
√ Mature trees should receive 1800 liters of water per tree every 2 weeks.

Cover Cropping
√ In Cashew production, leguminous cover enriches the soil with the plant nutrients and adds organic matter,
prevent soil erosion and conserves moisture.
√ The seeds of these cover crops may be sown at the beginning of the rainy season.
√ The seedbeds of 30cm X 30cm size are prepared in the interspace in slopes by loosening soil and mixing a
little quantity of compost.
√ The seeds of these crops are sown in the beds and covered with a thin layer of soil. The seeds should be
soaked in the water for six hours before sowing.

Training and Prunning

√ In Cashew cultivation, during the first year of planting, the sprouts coming from the rootstock should be
removed frequently to ensure better health of the plant.
√ These sprouts eat up valuable plant nutrition and also cause the death of grafted scion allowing the only
rootstock to grow. Initial, training and pruning of cashew plants during the first 3-4 years is essential for
providing proper shape to the trees.
√ The trees are shaped by removing lower branches and water shoots coming from the base during the first 3-4
years. Thereafter, little or no pruning is necessary.
√ The plant should be allowed to grow by maintaining a single stem up to 0.75-1.0 m from the ground level.
√ Weak and criss-cross branches are also chopped off.
√ In order to avoid lodging of the plant by wind, proper staking of a plant is essential.
√ After 4-5 years, the main stem is de-topped to a height of 4-5 m from the ground level.
√ Thereafter, regular removal of dried/ dead wood, criss-cross branches and water shoots once in a 2-3 year is
done to keep the plant healthy.
√ The training and pruning of cashew plants are done during August – September.
√ The cut surfaces are smeared with Bordeaux paste.
√ The flowers appearing during the first and second year of planting should be removed (de-blossoming) and
plants should be allowed to bear fruits only after the third year.

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Harvesting
√ In Cashew Farming, cashew plants start bearing after three years of planting and reach full bearing during the
tenth year and continue giving remunerative yields for another 20 years.
√ The cashew nuts are harvested during February – May. Normally, harvesting consists of picking of nuts that
have dropped to the ground after maturing.
√ However, if the apples are also used for making jam, juice, syrup, Fenni, etc., the fruit has to be harvested
before it falls naturally.
√ The cashew apples are removed and the nuts are dried in sun for 2-3 days to bring the moisture level from 25
percent to 9 percent.
√ The maturity of the cashew nut is tested by the floatation method.
√ The mature nuts sink in water while the immature/ unfilled one’s float.
√ The nuts are collected at weekly intervals from the farm during the harvesting season.
√ During that period the land should be clean in order to facilitate the collection of cashew.

Processing
√ This involves the following steps
1) Preliminary cleaning
2) Roasting
3) Shelling
4) separation
5)Drying
6) Peeling.

14.1 Grading and Packaging

√ Kernels, whole and broken, are sorted into 6 grading schedules.
√ There is only a small demand for broken or dark and unevenly roasted kernels.
√ Kernels are dried to 3 % moisture content before they are packed.
√ Drying is necessary to extend shelf life and prevent fungal and other infections.
√ Dried kernels do not become rancid. Nut kernels of export quality are vacuum packed in tins.

Yield
√ Plantations of unknown origin or seedling progenies with conventional methods of cultivation yield less than
one kg of raw nuts per tree.
√ However, there is a chance to increase the yield up to 4 to 5 kg per tree with the adoption of improved
production techniques, over a period of 4 to 5 years.
√ In new plantations, with the use of elite planting material coupled with a package of improved agronomic
practices, a yield of 8-10 kg per tree could be achieved.

Plant protection
16.1 Important pests affecting cahewnut
Pest Symptoms Control Measures
Cahew weevil Brown-black gummy frass (insect Remove bark from infested areas and
excrement) on trunk and destroy any larvae or pupae found, this

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(Mecicorynus loripes) branches; girdling of branches; process should be repeated every month
plants dying for up to six months; severely infested
trees should be removed and destroyed;
remove all adult weevils from tree prior to
destruction and also remove bark and kill
all larvae and pupae
Coconut bug Necrotic lesions on fruit which Conserve natural enemies by avoiding
develop into hard lumps; unnecessary applications of insecticides
(Pseudotheraptus wayi) pockmarks of fruit; spotting on
kernels
Helopeltis bug Deformed leaves with angular Monitor crop regularly for signs of
lesions along veins; leaves may damage; conserve populations of natural
(Helopeltis anacardii, drop from plant; elongated green enemies, weaver ants can reduce
lesions on young shoots which populations; avoid interplanting cashew
Helopeltis schoutedeni) may exude gummy substance; with other crops which are hosts for
dieback of shoots helopeltis bugs such as tea and cotton

16.2 Diseases and control measures of Cashewnut

Diseases Symptoms Control Measures
Angular leaf spot Angular cream colored lesions with dark- Some dwarf types of cashew are
brown margins on leaves of seedlings; resistant to this disease
(Septoria anacardii) angular black lesions with chlorotic halos
on mature trees; defoliated seedlings
Anthracnose Water-soaked lesions on leaves, twigs, A protective coating of copper-based
flowers or young apples which develop fungicide on susceptible parts of plant
(Colletotrichum into orange-brown or red lesions can prevent the disease; fungicide
gloeosporoides) should be applied when buds begin to
expand through to fruit set but are not
required during dry periods
Black mould Chlorotic spots on upper surface of Damage most severe on dwarf cashew
leaves which spread to lower surface as varieties
(Pilgeriella anacardii) infection progresses; dark-brown to
black fungal patches on leaves; leaves
shrivelling and dropping from plant

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Supplementary notes on Arecanut

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“The ultimate goal of farming is not the growing of crops, but the cultivation and perfection of
human beings.” – Unknown

Introduction
√ Botanical name of Arecanut is Areca catechu.
√ Family- Arecaceae
√ Areca nut is not a native crop of India. It is generally believed to be native to Malaysia or Philippines where it
is grown in many varieties.
√ Botanically, the arecanut fruit is a berry.
√ Areca catechu is a medium-sized palm tree, growing straight to 20 m (66 feet) tall, with a trunk 10–15 cm (4–
6 in) in diameter. The leaves are 1.5–2 m (4.9–6.6 feet) long, pinnate, with numerous, crowded leaflets.

Importance
√ Areca nut and the plant as a whole is used widely in India and South Asia as: a masticator for chewing
purposes, vegetable, medicine, stimulant, timber, fuel wood, clothing, wrapping, lubricant, tannin and so
forth.
√ The nut is chewed with the betel leaf as it has a stimulating effect.
√ The chemical composition of areca nut comprises 14 to 15 percent of
fat, polyphenols, tannins, alkaloids, polysaccharides, a small amount of protein, and vitamin B6 and vitamin C.
√ The fat, which is extracted by using organic solvents, is made up of mastic acid and its byproducts. The fat is
mixed in a certain proportion with cocoa butter or coconut oil, which is then used to make confectioneries
and duplicate dairy products.
√ The polyphenol (tannins) content varies from 38 to 47% in tender nuts and 15 to 22% in ripe nuts. Tannin,
which is extracted from the nut, is used in foods as natural coloring agent, and also in the leather industry.
√ Other minor constituents in the areca nut alkaloids, in terms of the total weight of the nut, is about 1.6%,
which are comprise arecoline, arecolodine, arecaidine, guvacine, isoguvacine, and govacolidine; the
pharmacological and other uses of these alkaloids are as "antihelminithic, ophthalmic, antibacterial,
antidiabetic.
√ Areca nut husk is used to make many industrial products such as hardboard, insulation wool, cushions, paper,
paper board and activated carbon. The chemical composition of the areca husk consists of
18.75% furaldehyde which when distilled produces 5.5% furfural; it also yields xylitol.
√ Areca leaf sheaths are used to make ply-boards. Other miscellaneous uses of leaf sheath are to make caps,
eating bowls, vessels to keep palm wine, and artifacts.

Geographical distribution
√ Areca nut production in India is the largest in the world, as per FAO statistics for 2017, accounting for 54.07 %
of its world output, and is exported to many countries.
√ Within India, as of 2013-14, Karnataka produces 62.69 percent of the crop followed by Kerala and Assam; all
three states together account for 88.59 percent of its production.
√ In the other states of Meghalaya, Tamil Nadu, and West Bengal, where it is also consumed, the crop is grown
in a very small area.
√ In Karnataka, in the Uttara Kannada District the crop is grown extensively.

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√ It grows from West Indies to the East Coast of Africa, and in Bangladesh, China, Sri Lanka and Malaya.

Climatic requirements
√ Arecanut is a tropical fruit plant.
√ The arecanut palm is capable of growing under a variety of climatic conditions.
√ The cultivation of arecanut is mostly confined to 28º north and south of the equator.
√ It grows well within the temperature range of 14ºC and 36ºC and is adversely affected by temperatures
below 10ºC and above 40ºC.
√ Extremes of temperature and wide diurnal variations are not conducive for the healthy growth of the palms.
√ Arecanut can be grown in areas receiving annual rainfall of 750 mm in Maidan parts of Karnataka to 4,500
mm in Malnad areas of Karnataka.
√ In areas where there is prolonged dry spell, the palms are irrigated.
√ Due to its susceptibility to low temperature, a good crop of arecanut cannot be obtained at an altitude of
more than 1000 m MSL.

Soil requirement
√ It is grown in soils such as laterite, red loam and alluvial soils.
√ It can also be grown on fertile clay loam soils.
√ Sticky clay, sandy, alluvial, brackish and calcareous soils are not suitable for arecanut cultivation.
√ The soil should be deep and well drained.

Varieties of Arecanut
√ There are few local varieties known by the name of the place where they are grown and are furnished below

Name of the local variety Place where grown

South Kanara Dakshina Kannada district and Kassargod district of
Kerala
Thirthahalli Malnad area of Karnataka
Sreevardhan Coastal Maharashtra
Mettupalayam Coimbatore District
Mahitnagar West Bengal
Kahikuchi Assam
Central Plantation Crops Research Institute, Regional Station, Vittal has released three
improved cultivars, they are:

Name of the cultivar Characters

Mangala An introduction from China (VTL-3) early
bearing, higher fruit set, higher yield (10 kg
ripe nuts/palm/year), semitall variety
Subangla A selection from Indonesia (VTL-11), yield
17.5 kg of nuts/palm at the age of 10 years.

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Sreemangala A selection from Singapore (VTL-170), yields
16.5 kg/palm at the 10th year.

Propagation
√ The arecanut palm is commonly propagated by seednuts.
√ Collection of seednuts should be confined to high yielding palms which commence to bear early as well as
those which give more than 50% of fruit set.
√ From these selected mother palms, fully ripe nuts are alone collected.
√ All undersized and malformed nuts must be rejected. Heavier seednuts (above 35g) within a bunch are alone
selected, as they give higher percentage of germination and produce seedlings of better vigour than lighter
ones.

Season and Planting

√ In areas where South-West monsoon is severe, planting in the month of September-October is
recommended.
√ In other areas planting can also be done in the months of May-June.
√ Arecanut plants need adequate protection from exposure to the south western sun as they are susceptible to
sun-scorch.
√ Proper alignment of the palms in the plantation will minimise sun scorching of the stem.
√ In the square system of planting at a spacing of 2.7m x 2.7m, the north south line should be deflected at
angle of 35o towards west.
√ The outermost row of plants on the southern and south-western sides can be protected by covering the
exposed to with areca leaves or leaf sheaths or by growing tall and quick growing shade trees.
√ Pits of 90x90x90cm are dug and the pils are filled with a mixture of top soil, powdered cowdung and sand to
a height of 50 to 60cm from the bottom.
√ The seedlings are planted in the center of the pit, covered with soil to the collar level and pressed around.
√ A shade crop of banana can be raised to give protection to the seedlings from sunscroch.
√ The selected seednuts are sown immediately after harvest, 5cm apart in sand beds under partial shade with
their stalk ends pointing upwards.
√ Sand is spread over the nuts just to cover them.
√ The beds may be watered daily.
√ Germination commence in about 40 days after sowing and the sprouts can be transplanted to the second
nursery when they are about three months old. At this stage, the sprouts might have produced two to three
leaves.
√ Twelve to eighteen-month-old seedlings are to be selected and transplanted in the main field.
√ Seedlings with maximum number of leaves (five or above), minimum height and maximum girth are to be
selected for planting.
√ The selected seedlings should be removed with a ball of earth adhering to the roots for planting.

Manures and Fertilizer management

√ Annual application of 100 g N (220 g urea), 40 g P2O5 (200 g rock phosphate) and 140 g K2O (235 g muriate
of potash) in addition to 12 kg each of green leaf and compost per palm per year is recommended.

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√ The fertilizers are to be applied in two split doses. One third of the fertilizer is applied in May - June and two
third along with the organics during September-October.
√ Fertilizers are applied in basins around the palm dug to a depth of 15-20 cm and 0.5-1.0 m radius leaving 20
cm from the base of the palm.
√ After application, the soil is rolled up and covered with organic matter and soil.
√ Organic matter recycling
On an average, 5.5 to 6.0 tonnes of wastes are available from one ha of areca garden per year. This can be
effectively used as organic source of nutrients for areca palms.
√ But direct application of these wastes in the garden will take long time for decomposition and will not meet
the nutrient demand of the crop immediately.
√ Hence, these materials can be composted using earthworms effectively and used as organic manure in areca
gardens.
√ To prepare vermicompost, areca wastes are chopped into small pieces of 10 cm and heaped.
√ The heap should be mixed with cow dung slurry @ 10 kg / 100 kg of waste and kept for two weeks with
sprinkling water daily.
√ Then the chopped material is arranged in beds of one-meter width and convenient length.
√ Cement tanks or trenches can be used for this purpose.
√ A layer of 10-15 cm waste material is alternated with 2 cm layer of cow dung over which earthworms are
released at the rate of 1000 numbers per square meter.
√ The wastes are converted into fine granular, odourless vermicompost within 60 days.
√ During this period, the earthworm population is doubled. About 8 kg /palm/year of vermicompost meets the
crop nutrient demand in terms of nitrogen.
√ The two species of earthworms Eudrilus eugeniae and Eisenia foetida can be used.

Irrigation
√ Arecanut cannot withstand drought for a long time.
√ Being a perennial crop, once affected by water stress, it may require two-three years to regain the normal
vigour and yield.
√ The death of palms due to moisture stress is also not uncommon.
√ Irrigation intervals of 5 and 10 days were found superior throughout the season.
√ The quantity of water to be applied is about 200 lit per palm/irrigation.
√ During the summer, majority of the farmers face scarcity of water and it will be difficult to supply the
required water to the palms.
√ To overcome this problem, new irrigation methods were tried which can save water without affecting the
yield of arecanut.
√ They are sprinklers and drip irrigation methods. Sprinkler and drip irrigations can save 20 and 44 per cent
respectively of water.

Shading
√ The palms are highly susceptible for sun scorching.
√ The seedlings should be given protection against the direct exposure to sun.
√ This may be done either covering the plants with areca or coconut leaves or by raising crops like banana in
between two rows of arecanut.
√ Sun scorching is mostly seen during October – January.
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√ During this period even the stems of young palms have to be protected.
√ For this a quick growing shade plant can be planted on Southern and Western sides of the garden.

Harvesting and Processing

√ The stage of harvesting depends on the type of produce to be prepared for the market. The most popular
trade type of arecanut is the dried, wholenut knows as chali or kottapak.
√ Fully ripe, nine months old fruits having yellow to orange red colour is the best suited for the above purpose.
√ Ripe fruits are dried in the sun for 35 to 40 days on drive levelled ground.
√ For drying dehusking, sometimes fruits are cut longitudinally into two halves and sundried for about 10 days,
the kernals are scooped out and given a final drying.
√ Another form of processing is by making Kalipak.
√ The nuts of 6 to 7 months maturity with dark green colour are dehusked cut into pieces and boiled with
water of dilute extract from previous boiling, a kali coating is given and dried finally.
√ Kali is the concentrated extract obtained from boiling 3 to 4 batches of Kalipak.
√ Many varieties of scented suparis are now prepared by blending the dried, broken bits of arecanut with
flavour mixtures and packed.

Yield
√ More than 10 kg of ripe nuts per palm at the 10th year is considered as normal yield in any plantation.

14 Plant protection
14.1 Important pests affecting arecanut
Pest Symptoms Control Measures
Mites (Raoiella indica) Adults and young ones suck the lower Spray the lower surface of leaves
surfaces of the leaves, causing them to with dicofol 0.05%
(Oligonychus indicus) turn yellow and bronzed in appearance
Spindle bug Adults and young ones suck the sap from Place 2 g of phorate granules taken
the tender spindle resulting in loss of in perforated polybags in the inner
(Calvalhoia arecae) vigour and consequent death most leaf axils.
Inflorescence caterpillar Caterpillars feed on the flowers and Infected spadices may be forced
clamp the inflorescence into a wet mass open and sprayed with malathion
(Tirathaba mundella) of frass with silky threads 0.05%

14.2 Diseases and control measures of arecanut

Diseases Symptoms Control Measures
Koleroga or mahili Water-soaked lesions appearing on the Spray 1% Bordeaux mixture twice
nut surface near the perianth spread over at 45 days interval during
(Phytophthora arecae.) the other parts giving the nut a dark green monsoon.
colour. Infected nuts shed without
perianth.

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Bud rot Affected spindle appear yellow, later Early removal of the infected tissue
changing to brown and finally the whole and treat the healthy tissue with
(Phytopththora spindle rots. Bordeaux paste. Drench the crown
palmivora) with 1% Bordeaux mixture as a
prophylactic measure.
Anabe roga Small brown irregular patches appear on Provide better drainage, isolate
the stem and a brownish exudate oozes the affected palms by trenches,
(Gonoderma luciderm) out from these patches drench with 0.3% captain.
Yellow leaf disease Leaves become yellow, smaller, stiff and Regular manuring, ensure
pointed, crown gets reduced, palm drainage, grow cover crops,
(Mycoplasm like remains stunted with few or no nuts. remove the affected palms.
organisms)

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