NEET

PHYSICS
MODULE 6
Ray Optics and Optical
Instruments

Wave Optics

Dual Nature of Radiation

and Matter, Atom

Nuclei

Semiconductor and
Digital Electronic
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 INDEX
S. No. Chapter Name Page No.

1. Ray Optics and Optical Instruments

Theory and Exercise 1.1 to 1.11 1 – 72
Exercise 2 73 – 76
Exercise 3 77 – 78
Exercise 4 (Previous Year’s Questions) 79 – 84
Answer Key 85 – 86
2. Wave Optics
Theory and Exercise 1.1 to 1.5 87 – 116
Exercise 2 117 – 119
Exercise 3 120 – 122
Exercise 4 (Previous Year’s Questions) 123 – 125
Answer Key 126
3. Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter, Atom
Theory and Exercise 1.1 to 1.6 127 – 156
Exercise 2 157 – 161
Exercise 3 162 – 163
Exercise 4 (Previous Year’s Questions) 164 – 168
Answer Key 169-170
4. Nuclei
Theory and Exercise 1.1 to 1.3 171 – 186
Exercise 2 187 – 188
Exercise 3 189 – 190
Exercise 4 (Previous Year’s Questions) 191 – 192
Answer Key 193 – 194
5. Semiconductor and Digital Electronic
Theory and Exercise 1.1 to 1.5 195 – 237
Exercise 2 238 – 243
Exercise 3 244 – 245
Exercise 4 (Previous Year’s Questions) 246 – 250
Answer Key 251
Ray Optics and Optical Instruments PHYSICS

Chapter
RAY OPTICS AND
1 OPTICAL
INSTRUMENTS

Chapter Overview • Light : It is the form of energy which makes objects visible to our
eye.
- Reflection of Light at plane • Optics : The branch of physics which deals with the nature of
surface light, its sources, properties, effects and vision is called optics.
- Reflection at Spherical
Surface 1. GEOMETRICAL OPTICS
– Refraction of Light It treats propagation of light in terms of rays and is valid only if
– Total Internal Reflection wavelength of light is much lesser than the size of obstacles.
[TIR] It concerns with the image formation and deals with the study
– Prism of simple facts such as rectilinear propagation, laws of
– Lens reflection and refraction by geometrical methods
– Optical Power
– Optical Instrument 2. REFLECTION OF LIGHT
– Experimental Skills When light rays strike the boundary of two media, a part of light
is turned back into the same medium. This phenomenon is called
Reflection of Light.
or
It is the phenomenon of change in the path of light without
change in medium.

2.1 Laws of Reflection

(1) The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal at the
point of incidence lie in the same plane. This plane is called
the plane of incidence (or plane of reflection).
IR Normal RR

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(2) The angle of incidence (the angle between normal and the incident ray) and the angle of reflection
(the angle between the reflected ray and the normal) are equal,
i.e. ∠i = ∠r
• As a result of reflection, the speed, wavelength, frequency and colour of light remain the same but
its intensity, in general, decreases.
• There is a phase change of φ rad if reflection takes place from an optically denser medium.

2.2 Regular and diffused Reflection

• Reflection from a smooth plane surface is called regular reflection.
In this type of reflection, a beam of parallel rays is reflected as a beam of parallel rays.
• Reflection from a rough plane surface is called irregular reflection.
In this type of reflection, a beam of parallel rays gets diffused on reflection.

2.3 Angle of Deviation

It is the angle by which the light ray rotates after reflection Incident N Reflected
from any surface light light
i
r
• On reflection from a plane mirror, a rays is deviated δ→ Angle of deviation
through an angle
0
δ = 180 – 2i Direction of
incident ray
• Normal Incidence : The light is incident normally,
i = r = 0° & δ = 180°
N
N
IR N
IR
RR IR
RR
RR
i=r=0
• Grazing Incidence : The light strikes tangentially.
i = r = 90° & δ = 0°
N
IR RR

Example 1:
Show that for a light ray incident at an angle ‘i’ on getting reflected, the angle of deviation is δ = π − 2i
or π + 2i. N R
Solution: R
i
From figure (b) it is clear that light ray bends either by i
δ2
δ1 anticlockwise or by δ2 (= 2π – δ1) clockwise. δ1
O δ1 O
From figure (a) δ1 = π – 2i.
A original
∴ δ2 = π + 2i. (a) original (b)
direction of direction of
propagation propagation
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Ray Optics and Optical Instruments PHYSICS
2.4 Ray, Object and Image
Ray
The straight line path followed by light in a homogeneous medium is called ray.
A bundle of rays is called a beam.
A narrow beam is called a pencil of light.

Parallel diverging converging

rays rays rays
Object (O)
• An object is a source of light rays.
• An object may be a point or an extended.
• It is the point of intersection of incident rays.
• Objects are of two types - Real & Virtual

Real Object
• An object is real if two or more incident rays actually emit or appear to emit.
• It is the point of divergence.
• It lies on incident side.
• The real object actually present.

Virtual Object
• It is the apparent point of convergence.
• It lies on opposite to incident side.
• If not intercepted by an optical element will meet at a point.
incident side
incident side 1

O O
virtual point
real point object
2 object

Image (I)
• The Image is a point of intersection of reflected rays or refracted rays.
• Objects are of two types - Real & Virtual

Real Image
• Real images are formed when the reflected or refracted rays actually meet or converge at a point.
• A real image can be obtained on screen.
• Both real and virtual objects can form real images.
• It lies on reflected or refracted side.

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Virtual Image
• Virtual images are formed when the reflected or refracted rays do not meet at a point but appear to
meet or diverge at a point.
• Both real and virtual objects can form Virtual images.
• It lies opposite on reflected or refracted side.
• A virtual image cannot be obtained on screen but they can be seen by our eye.
reflected side
reflected side

I
O I
real image real virtual
object image

2.5 Some Facts Regarding Plane Mirror

• The focal length and radius of curvature of a plane mirror are infinite. i.e., f = ∞, R = ∞ and its power
is zero.
• Distance of image = distance of object
x x
O I

• Size of image = size of object

Magnification = unity
x x
O I

• Image is erect and virtual.

• There is a lateral inversion in the image. The left-side of the object appears as the right-side of the
image.

• A plane mirror may form a virtual as well as real image.

• A man of height h requires a mirror of minimum length h/2 to see complete image of his own.
• If a person standing at the centre of a room wants to see complete wall behind himself, he requires
a mirror of at least one-third the dimension of wall fitted symmetrically on the wall in front of him.
• If a person is standing in a hall whose celling and two adjacent walls are plane mirrors, in all 7
images of the person will be formed.

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2.6 Field of View
• A mirror whatever may be the size of it forms the images of all objects lying in front of it.
• But every object has its own field of view for the given mirror.
• The field of view is the region between the extreme reflected rays and
• It depends on the location of the object in front of the mirror.
• If our eye lies in the field of view then only we can see the image of the object.
• The field of view of an object placed at different locations in front of a plane mirror are shown in
figure below.

O I

O
I
Field of

(a) (b) (c)

view

O I

2.7 Length of Mirror Required to View Complete Object

The minimum size of a plane mirror, required to see the full image of an observer is half the size of that
observer.
H
x M1 H'
x
EYE (E)
x +y Image of
y
observer
Ht of
y M2 Mirror = 1/2 ht
F of eye F'

Z Z
H = head, F = feet
Alternate: ∆ E M1 M2 and ∆ E H´F´ are similar
M1M2 z
∴ =
H´F´ 2z
AF FB AF 2d
= or = M1 M2 = H’ F’/2 = HF/2
HI BI x d
Example 2:
A person of height 160 cm wants to see his compete image what is the minimum length of plane mirror
is required.
Solution:
H
To see his own image min length of mirror required = = 80 cm
2
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Example 3:
Find the angle ‘θ’ made by plane mirror with horizontal if the reflected ray is vertical in the following cases.
Reflected Reflected
ray ray

(a) (b)

20°
Incident ray
(Horizontal) θ Incident ray θ
Solution:
(a) As ∠i = ∠r so 90 – θ = θ ⇒ θ = 45° (b) As ∠i = ∠r ⇒ 90 – θ + 20° = θ ⇒ θ = 55°
Reflected Reflected
ray ray

θ θ
90–θ 90–θ
θ 20°
Incident Normal θ Normal
ray Incident
θ ray θ
Example 4:
What are the co-ordinate of Image ?
(–10,5)
O
x-axis

Solution:
st
For the image formed by a plane mirror Image formed will be virtual & erect i.e. the image will lie in 1
quadrant dobject = dimage (i.e. x co-ordinate of image = +10) Height of object = Height of image (i.e. Y co-
ordinate of image= 5) So co-ordinate of image = (10, 5)
Example 5:
What are the co-ordinate of Image?

(–10,0)
45°
O
x-axis

Solution:
OC =IC = 10 So co-ordinate of image are (0, –10)

O 45°
e
C

I
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2.8 Rotation of Plane Mirror
Incident Reflected RR
ray ray IR
(1) α α (2) α θ
θ

• If Mirror is rotated by an angle ‘θ’ the reflected ray rotates by an angle 2θ in same direction.
• At any instant, if the angular velocity of mirror will be ωM. Then angular velocity of reflected ray
will be 2ωM.

2.9 Some Facts Regarding Two Inclined Plane Mirror

When two plane mirrors are kept facing each other at angle θ and an object is placed between them,
multiple images of the object are formed in a circular path as a result of multiple successive reflections.
360° 360°
(i) If = even number; number of image = –1
θ θ
360° 360°
(ii) If = odd number; number of image = – 1,
θ θ
if the object is placed on the angle bisector.
360° 360°
(iii) If = odd number; number of image = ,
θ θ
if the object is not placed on the angle bisector.

2.10 Deviation Produced

If a ray gets reflected once from each of two mirrors inclined at an angle θ, the deviation produced is
independent of angle of incidence and is given as
δ = 360° – 2θ
If two plane mirrors are inclined to each other at 90°, the emergent ray is always antiparallel to incident
ray if it suffers one reflection from each whatever be the angle of incidence.

Example 6:
Figure shows a point object placed between two parallel mirrors. Its distance from M1 is 2 cm and that
from M2 is 8 cm. Find the distance of images from the two mirrors considering reflection on mirror M1 first.
M1 M2

2cm
O
8cm

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Solution:
To understand how images are formed see the following figure and table. You will require to know what
symbols like Ι121 stands for. See the following diagram.
I12 1
This last number '1' indicates
that light rays are reflected from
mirror '1' i.e. M1
I12 is object this case

M1 6 M2
5
4
3
2
A 1
O B
I121 I1 1 2 I12 I1212
3
4
5
6

Incident rays Reflected by Reflected rays Object Image Object distance Image distance
Rays 1 M1 Rays 2 O I1 AO = 2 cm AI1 = 2cm
Rays 2 M2 Rays 3 I1 I12 BI1 = 12 cm BI12 = 12 cm
Rays 3 M1 Rays 4 I12 I121 AI12 = 22 cm AI121 = 22 cm
Rays 4 M2 Rays 5 I121 I1212 BI121 = 32 cm BI1212 = 32 cm
Similarly, images will be formed by the rays striking mirror M2 first. Total number of images = ∞.

Example 7:
An object is placed between two plane mirrors inclined at 90° angle. How many images will be formed?
Solution:
The number of images formed by two mutually perpendicular mirrors (θ = 90°) will be 3. All these three
images will lie on a circle with centre at C at the point of intersection of mirror M1 and M2 and whose
radius is equal to the distance between C and object O.
I1 O
M1

M'2 C M'2
M'1
I1, I4 I2

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Example 8:
Two plane mirrors A and B are aligned parallel to each other as shown in figure. A light ray is incident
at an angle of 30° at a point just inside one end of A. The plane of incidence coincides with the plane of
the figure. The maximum numbers of times the ray undergoes reflections (including the first one)
before it emerges out is
2√3m
B

0.2 m

A
(1) 28 (2)30 (3)32 (4) 34
Solution:
Let number of reflections be n then
n (0.2 tan 30°) = 2 3 ⇒ n = 30
x =0.2 tan 30°

0.2 m

2.11 Relation Between Velocity of Object, Image and Mirror

Taking Mirror in YZ Plane & Normal to Polished Surface as x-axis.
y
object image

From mirror property:

xIM = – xOM, yIM = yOM and zIM = zOM
Here xIM means ‘x’ coordinate of image with respect to mirror. Similarly, others have meaning.
Differentiating w.r.t time, we get
v(IM)x = − v(OM)x ; v(IM)y = v(OM)y ; v(IM)z = v(OM)z ,
⇒ for x axis vIG = – (vOM + vMG) but
for y axis and z axis viG = voG
Here : vIG = velocity of image w.r.t ground.
Also, we can say that
V|| V V V||
0 0

( v ⊥ )I x
= − ( v ⊥ )O 
x 

O V1 V1 O ( v|| )I x
= ( v|| )O 
x 

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Example 9:
An object moves with 5 m/s towards right while the mirror moves with 1m/s towards the left as shown.
Find the velocity of image.
object

5 m/s 1 m/s

mirror
Solution:
Take → as + direction. vi – vm = vm – v0
vi – (–1) = (–1) – 5
vi= – 7m/s.
⇒ 7 m/s and direction towards left.

Exercise 1.1

1. Find out total no. of images formed 3. A plane mirror makes an angle of 30° with the
horizontal. If a vertical ray strikes the mirror,
O find the angle between the mirror and the
(A) 20° reflected ray?
20° (1) 60° (2) 40°
(3) 50° (4) 70°
4. When a small plane mirror is placed
(B) (C) horizontally on a level ground at a distance of
30° O 20° 60m from the foot of a tower, the top of the
30° 10° tower and its image in the mirror subtend an
angle of 90° at the mirror. The height of the
(1) 8, 5, 9 (2) 5, 8, 11
tower will be:
(3) 6,7,9 (4) 8, 15, 11 (1) 30 m (2) 60 m
(3) 90 m (4) 120 m
2. Find the angle ‘θ’ made by plane mirror with 5. Figure shows the plane (top view) of a cubical
horizontal if the reflected ray is vertical in the room, with the wall CD as a plane mirror; each
following case side of the room is 3 metres in length. A
camera P is placed at the mid point of the wall
Reflected AB. At what distance should the camera be
ray focused to photograph the image of an object
placed at A:
P
A O B
30°

Incident θ L
ray
D C
(1) 60° (2) 40°
(3) 50° (4) 30° (1) 3.14 m (2) 6.18 m
(3) 9.42 m (4) 9.18 m
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6. Choose the correct mirror-image of figure 11. Virtual objects identified by -
given below: (1) Converging incident rays
(2) Diverging incident rays
(3) Converging reflected rays
(4) Diverging reflected rays

12. An object shaped as ‘L’ is placed between two

parallel plane mirrors as shown. In the first
(1) (2)
seven closest images, how many laterally
inverted images are formed?

(3) (4)

7. What are the coordinate of image when the

object is in third quadrant.
(1) 1 (2) 2
(3) 3 (4) 4
O x-axis
(–7,–3) 13. Figure shows two plane mirrors parallel to
(1) (–7, –3) (2) (7, –3) each other and an object O placed between
(3) (–3, –7) (4) (–3, 7) them. Then the distance of the first three
images from the mirror M2 will be: (in cm)
8. A clock hung on a wall has marks instead of
numbers on its dial. On the opposite wall there 5cm
is a mirror, and the image of the clock in the O
mirror if read, indicates the time as
8 : 20. What is the time in the clock: 15cm
(1) 3 : 40 (2) 4 : 40 M1 M2
(3) 5 : 20 (4) 4 : 20 (1) 5, 10, 15 (2) 5, 15, 30
(3) 5, 25, 35 (4) 5, 15, 25
9. The image of a real object formed by a plane
mirror is: 14. If an object is placed symmetrically between
(1) Erect, real and of equal size two plane mirrors, inclined at an angle of 72°,
(2) Erect, virtual and of equal size then the total number of images formed is:
(3) Inverted, real and of equal size (1) 5 (2) 4
(4) Inverted, virtual and of equal size (3) 2 (4) Infinite

10. Real object is identified by – 15. A ray of light incident on a plane mirror at an
(1) Converging incident rays angle of incidence of 30°. The deviation
(2) Diverging incident rays produced by the mirror is:
(3) Converging reflected rays (1) 30° (2) 60°
(4) Diverging reflected rays (3) 90° (4) 120°

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16. Two vertical plane mirrors are inclined at an 18. A man 180 cm high stands in front of a plane
angle of 60 with each other. A ray of light mirror. His eyes are at a height of 170 cm from
travelling horizontally is reflected first from the floor. Then the minimum length of plane
mirror for him to see his full length image is:
one mirror and then from the other. The
(1) 90 cm (2) 180 cm
resultant deviation is
(3) 45 cm (4) 360 cm
(1) 60° (2) 90°
(3) 180° (4) 240°
19. When a plane mirror is rotated through an
angle θ then the reflected ray turns through
17. Two plane mirrors are inclined to each other
the angle 2θ then the size of the image
at 90°. A ray of light is incident on one mirror (1) Is doubled
and the reflected light goes to the other (2) Is halved
mirror. The ray will undergo a total deviation (3) Remains the same
of: (4) Becomes infinite
(1) 180°
(2) 90° 20. A plane mirror is approaching you at 10 cm/s.
(3) 45° You can see your image in it. At what speed
(4) cannot be found because angle of will your image approach you?
incidence is not given. (1) 10 cm/s (2) 5 cm/s
(3) 20 cm/s (4) 15 cm/s

3. REFLECTION AT SPHERICAL SURFACE

3.1 Thin Spherical Mirrors
• It is a segment of a spherical shell whose one surface
C F P C F P
is polished.
• There are two types of spherical mirror. RS PS RS PS
PS : Polished surface & RS : Reflecting surface

(1) Concave Mirror

• In this mirror reflection takes place from the inner surface and outer surface is polished or
silvered.
• It converges the light rays.
• It is used as a shaving mirror, in search light, in cinema projector, in telescope by ENT
specialists etc.

(2) Convex Mirror

• In this mirror reflection takes place from the outer surface and the inner surface is polished or
silvered.
• It diverges the light rays.
• It is used in road lamps, side mirror in vehicles etc.

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3.2 Terms and Definitions
• Center of Curvature (C) : It is the centre of the spherical surface of which the mirror is a part.
• Radius of Curvature (R) : It is the radius of spherical surface of which of the mirror is a part
(distance CP) .
• Pole (P) : It is the center of the mirror surface.
• Principal Axis (CP) : It is the line joining the Pole to the Center of Curvature of the mirror.
• Aperture (A) : It is the diameter of the mirror (AB) .
For spherical mirror aperture is circular area.
• Principal Focus (F) : It is the point on the principal axis, through which a ray of light parallel to the
principal axis, after reflection, passes (concave mirror) or appears to pass (convex mirror).
• Focal Length (f) : It is the distance between the pole P and the principal focus F.
• Focal plane : A plane passing through focus and perpendicular to principal axis is called focal plane
A A IR
IR
F C C F P
P

B B
Concave Mirror Convex Mirror

3.3 Types of Rays

(1) Paraxial Rays
• Rays very close to optical axis.
• They are nearly parallel to principal axis.
• They make very small angles of incidence.
sin θ ≈ θ, cos θ ≈ 1 & tan θ = θ
• For this, consider only mirror of small aperture.
• All formulae are applicable only for paraxial rays.
(2) Marginal Rays
• The rays far away from optical axis are marginal rays.
• All lens & mirror formulae are not applicable for it.

3.4 Ray Tracing

Four types of rays are used for Image formation.
• Ray-1 : A ray parallel to principal axis after reflection either actually passes through the principal
focus F (concave) or appears to diverge from it (convex).

IR RR

F IR
F
RR

• Ray-2 : A ray passing through the principal focus F or appears to converge at F is reflected parallel
to the principal axis.

RR IR

F RR
F
IR

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• Ray-3 : A ray through the centre of curvature strikes the mirror normally and is reflected back along
the same path.

RR IR
RR
F C
C F
IR

• Ray-4 : A ray striking at pole P is reflected symmetrically back in the opposite side of principal axis.

RR RR
r P r
P i i
IR IR

3.5 Symbols
u = object distance, v = image distance, f = focal length, R = radius of curvature,
vO = velocity of object, vI = velocity of image, P = power, m = magnification

3.6 Sign- Convention

Hight
• All measurements taken from the pole.
upward IR Plane
• Measurement along the direction of ray is taken as (+ve) Convex
Concave
+ve and opposite the ray is taken as −ve. P
• Measurement above the principal axis is taken as Hight
+ve and below the principal axis is −ve. downward Distance along
(–ve) Distance against IR (+ve)
3.7 Important Relations IR (–ve)
• For a spherical mirror of small aperture, the focal length is half of the radius of curvature
⇒ f =R /2
• Mirror formula : For all spherical mirrors,
1 1 2 1
+ = =
u v R f
• Power (P) : It is the ability to deviate the path of the rays striking it.
1 100
P= − = −
f f(cm)

3.8 Magnification : It is defined as the ratio of size of image to the size of object.
It is of three types –

(1) Linear (Lateral, Transverse) Magnification (m)

When an object is placed perpendicular to the principal axis and is given as
Height of image v f f −v
m= = − = =
Height of object u f −u f
(a) If m > 1 , the image is enlarged, (b) If m = 1 , the image is of same size,
(c) If m < 1 , the image is reduced, (d) If m > 0 , the image is erect,
(e) If m < 0 , the image is inverted.

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(2) Longitudinal (Axial) Magnification (mL)
When an object is placed along the principal axis and is given as
I ( v − v ) ∆v
mL = L = − 2 1 = − C F
OL (u2 − u1 ) ∆u O
If length of the object is small, I
2 2 2
dv v 2  f  −  f −v 
mL = − =−   = –m = −   =  
du u  f −u   f 
(3) Areal Magnification (mA)

hi=mhO
When a two dimensional object is placed with its plane
perpendicular to the principal axis and is given as hO
2 2 2
IA  v  2  f   f −v 
mA = =  = m =   = 
OA  u   f −u   f  WO

3.9 Image formation by spherical Mirrors

Concave mirror
Image formed by concave mirror
• may be real or virtual
• may be inverted or erect,
• may be smaller, larger or equal in size of object depending upon the distance of the object from the mirror
Object Position Image Position & Nature Diagram
1. When object is placed at At F on same side real inverted very
infinity (i.e. u = ∞) small in size |m| < |–1| F P
C

2. When object is placed between Between F and C on same side real

infinity and C (i.e. u > 2f) and inverted small in size |m| < |–1| C F P

3. When object is placed at centre At C on same side Real inverted

of curvature Equal in size m = –1 C F P
(i.e. u = 2f)

4. When object is placed between Between 2f and ∞ on side real &

C and focus (i.e. f < u < 2f) inverted larger in size |m| > |–1| C F P

5. When object is placed at focus At ∞ on same side real inverted

(i.e. u = f) Very large in size |m| >> |–1| C P
F

6. When object is placed at focus Behind the mirror virtual erect

and pole (i.e. u < f) large in size |m| > |+1| C
F P

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Convex mirror
Image formed convex mirror of a real object is
• always virtual erect and smaller in size
• depending upon the location of the object and mirror, never forms enlarged image of a real object.

Object Position Image Position & Nature Diagram

1. When object is placed at At F on same side real inverted
infinity (i.e. u = ∞) very small in size |m| << |+1|
P
F

2. When object is placed Between P and F behind the mirror

anywhere on the principal axis virtual erect small in size |m| < |+1|
P
O F

Convex mirror never forms enlarged image of a real object

Example 10:
Where should an object be placed in front of a concave mirror of focal length 15 cm to have a
magnification of 3 in case of
(a) real image (b) virtual image
Solution:
1 1 1
The mirror equation is given by + =
v u f
(a) In case of real image
−v
m= = −3
u
−v
So, v = 3u ⇒ = −3
u
4 1
⇒ = ⇒ u = –20cm
3u −15
(b) In case of virtual image
−v
m= = +3; v = –3u
u
1 1 1 2 1
– + = ⇒ = ⇒ u = –10cm
3u u −15 3u −15

Example 11:
Converging rays are incident on a convex spherical mirror so that their extensions intersect 30 cm behind
the mirror on the optical axis. The reflected rays form a diverging beam so that their extensions
.
intersect the optical axis 1.2 m from the mirror Determine the focal length of the mirror.
Solution:
In this case u = + 30
⇒ v = + 120
1 1 1 1 1
∴ = + = +
f v u 120 30
f = 24 cm
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Example 12:
Find the position of final image after three successive reflections taking first reflection on m1.

ROC = 20 cm
O

15 cm

m1
40 cm
Solution:
I reflection
Focus of mirror = – 10 cm ⇒ u = – 15 cm
Applying mirror formula :
1 1 1
+ = ⇒ v = – 30 cm.
v u f
For II reflection on plane mirror
u = – 10 cm ∴ v = 10 cm
For III reflection on curved mirror again
u = – 50 cm ; f = – 10 cm
Applying mirror formula :
1 1 1
+ =; v = – 12.5 cm.
v u f

Example 13:
Focal length of a concave mirror is f. If the sun subtends on angle θ at pole of mirror, find the diameter
of the image
f = 10 cm

F
θ
Image of θ
sun
Solution:
Let x be the diameter of the image & the rays are coming from a very large distance they can be
considered as paraxial rays
x
So, tan θ ≈ θ = ⇒x=fθ
f

Example 14:
Where an object has to be placed in front of a convex mirror (focal length f) such that the image of the
object is n times the size of object
Solution:
f
Magnification ‘m’ = =n
f −u
(f − nf )
⇒ f = nf – nu ⇒ u = −
n
Note here –ve sign denotes real object.
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Example 15:
A thin rod of length f/3 is placed along the principal axis of a concave mirror of focal length f such that
its image which is real and elongated, just touches the rod. What is magnification ?
Solution:
 image is real and enlarged, the object must be between C and F. One end A' of the image coincides

with the end A of rod itself, 5

f
1 1 1 2
so vA = uA , + = M
v A v A −f
i.e., vA = uA = – 2f A B F
B' A' C f 5
f
P
So, it clear that the end A is at C.
3 3
f M'
 the length of rod is 2f
3
∴ distance of the other end B from P is uB
f 5
= 2f − =f
3 3
1 1 1 5
if the distance of image of end B from P is vB then + = i.e., vB = − f
vB − 5 f − f 2
3
1
f
5 1 vB − v A 3
∴ the size of the image | vB | − | v A |= f − 2f = f and magnification m = = 2 =−
2 2 uB − uA − 1 f 2
3
Negative sign implies that image is inverted with respect to object and so it is real.

Example 16:
2
An object of area 25 cm is kept perpendicular to the principal axis of a convex mirror (f = 20 cm) at a
distance of 30 cm from the pole. Find the area of image.
f = 20 cm

10 mm

40 cm
Solution:
f
For convex mirror m =
f −u
2
Here f = +20 cm, u = –30 cm, so m =
5
2 2
Area of image = m (Area of object) = 4 cm

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3.10 Velocity of Image
Principal axis has been taken to be along x–axis and Aperture plane along y-axis.
M
̂j

O
̂i

M
(Longitudinal velocity) : Velocity along axis
When an object is coming from infinite towards the focus of concave mirror
1 1 1 1 dv 1 du
 + = ⇒ − 2 − =0
v u f v dt u2 dt
  v2   2 
⇒ vIx = −  2  v Ox = – m v Ox
u 
Here ,
dv
vIx = = velocity of image along principal axis
dt
du
vOx = = velocity of object along principal-axis
dt

3.11 Newton’s Formula

• Consider an object placed in front of a concave mirror of M

focal length f at a distance x1 from the focus. If a real u

image is formed at a distance x2 from the focus, then I O F

P
2
x1 ⋅ x 2 =
f x1 f
This is known as Newton’s formula. x2
• It implies that the position of an object and its real image V M'
are interchangeable.
• This formula does not apply to convex mirror.

Exercise 1.2

1. A concave mirror is held in water. What 2. Which of the following could not produce a
should be the change in the focal length of virtual image:
the mirror? (1) Plane mirror
(1) Halved (2) Convex mirror
(2) Doubled (3) Concave mirror
(3) Remains the same (4) All the above can produce a virtual image
(4) Increases exponentially

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3. Column-I contains a list of mirrors along with 6. A motor car is fitted with a rear view mirror
the position of object. Match this with of focal length 20 cm. A second motor car 2
Column-II describing the nature of the image. m broad and 21.6 m high is 6 m away from
Column-I Column-II first car. Find the position of second car as
seen in the mirror of the first car.
(P) real, inverted, (1) 20 cm infront the mirror.
(A)
C F enlarged (2) 20 cm behind the mirror.
(3) 19.35 cm behind the mirror.
(4) 17 cm behind the mirror.

(Q) virtual, erect,

(B) 7. The magnification of 'X' is more than unity for
enlarged
real object Identify X.
(1) Convex mirror
(2) Concave mirror
(3) Plane mirror
(R) virtual, erect, (4) All of the above
(C)
diminished
8. A virtual image three times the size of the
object is obtained with a concave mirror of
(S) virtual, erect, radius of curvature 36 cm. Find the distance
(D) of the object from the mirror.
F same size
(1) -36 cm (2) –12 cm
(1) (A) P; (B) R, (C) S; (D) Q (3) + 12 cm (4) –20 cm
(2) (A) P; (B) S; (C) S; (D) R
(3) (A) R; (B) S; (C) P; (D) Q 9. In case of concave mirror, the minimum
(4) (A) S; (B) R, (C) R; (D) Q distance between a real object and its real
image is:
4. A man stands in front of a mirror of special (1) f (2) 2f
shape. He finds that his image has a very (3) 4f (4) Zero
small head, a fat body, and legs of normal
size. What can we say about the shapes of the 10. A man has a shaving mirror of focal length
three parts of the mirror? 0.2 m. How far should the mirror be held from
(1) Convex, Concave, Plane his face in order to give an image of two fold
(2) The plane, Concave, Convex magnification ?
(3) Concave, Convex, Plane (1) 1.13 cm (2) 2 cm
(4) Convex, Plane, Concave (3) 2.1 cm (4) –0.1 m

11. The focal length of a concave mirror is 30 cm.

5. A convex mirror has a focal length f. A real
Where should an object be placed so that its
object is placed at a distance of f/2 from the
image is three times magnified, real and
pole. Find out the magnification of the image.
inverted ?
(1) 2/3 (2) –2/3
(1) –30 cm (2) –40 cm
(3) 3/2 (4) –3/2
(3) –20 cm (4) –25 cm

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12. A small candle 2.5 cm in size is placed 27 cm 17. A convex mirror of focal length f forms an
in front of a concave mirror of radius of image which is 1/n times the object. The
curvature 36 cm. At what distance from the distance of the object from the mirror is:
mirror should a screen be placed in order to  n−1 
(1) (n – 1)f (2)  f
receive a sharp image ? Describe the nature  n 
and size of the image. If the candle is moved n+1 
(3)  f (4) (n + 1)f
closer to the mirror, how should the screen  n 
have to be moved?
(1) –54 cm, h1 = 5 cm, m = 2 real, inverted, 18. A boy stands straight in front of a mirror at a
magnified distance of 30 cm away from it. He sees his
(2) +54 cm, h1 = 6 cm, m = 2 real, inverted, th
erect image whose height is 1/5 of his real
magnified height. The mirror he is using is:
(3) –50 cm, h1 = 6 cm, m = 2 virtual, erect, (1) Plane mirror (2) Convex mirror
diminished (3) Concave mirror (4) None
(4) –54 cm, h1 = 10 cm, m = 3 real, inverted,
magnified 19. The image formed by convex mirror of focal
length 30 cm is a quarter of the size of the
13. An object of height 7.5 cm is placed in front object. Then the distance of the object from
of a convex mirror of radius of curvature the mirror, is:
25 cm at a distance of 40 cm. The height of (1) 30 cm (2) 90 cm
the image should be: (3) 120 cm (4) 60 cm
(1) 2.3 cm (2) 1.78 cm
(3) 1 cm (4) 0.8 cm 20. The focal length of a concave mirror is 20 cm.
Determine where an object must be placed to
14. An object of height 1.5 cm is situated at a
form an image magnified two times when the
distance of 15 cm from a concave mirror. The
image is real:
concave mirror forms its real image of height
(1) 30 cm from the mirror
3.0 cm. The focal length of concave mirror
(2) 10 cm from the mirror
will be:
(3) 20 cm from the mirror
(1) – 10 cm (2) – 20 cm
(4) 15 cm from the mirror
(3) 20 cm (4) 30 cm

15. The focal length of a concave mirror is 50 cm. 21. A square ABCD of side 1 mm is kept at
where an object be placed so that its image is distance 15 cm infront of the concave mirror
two times magnified, real and inverted: as shown in the figure. The focal length of the
(1) 75 cm (2) 72 cm mirror is 10 cm. The length of the perimeter
(3) 63 cm (4) 50 cm of its image will be(nearly):
B C
16. A convex mirror has a focal length f. A real
object is placed at a distance f in front of it A D
from the pole, then it produces an image at: 15 cm
(1) Infinity (2) f (1) 12 mm (2) 2 mm
(3) f/2 (4) 2f (3) 4 mm (4) 6 mm

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22. A point object is moving on the principal axis 23. In the diagram shown the velocity of image
of a concave mirror of focal length 24 cm will be along:
towards the mirror. When it is at a distance of
v
60 cm from the mirror, its velocity is object
9 cm/sec. What is the velocity of the image at C F
that instant: R
(1) 5 cm/sec. Q S
image
(2) 12 cm/sec P
(3) 4 cm/sec (1) P (2) Q
(4) 9 cm/sec (3) R (4) S

4. REFRACTION OF LIGHT
• When a ray of light is incident on the boundary between two transparent media (interface), a part of
it passes into the second medium with a change in direction. This phenomenon is called refraction.
• When light passes from one medium to another, a part of ray is reflected back into the first medium
and the rest passes into the second medium.
• When it passes into the second medium, its direction of travel is changed.
• It either bends towards the normal or away from the normal.
• The cause of refraction is the difference in the speeds of light for two media.
• Greater the difference in the speeds of light in the two media, greater will be the amount of
bending.
• A medium in which speed of light is more is called an optically rarer medium.
• The medium in which speed of light is less is called the optically denser medium.
• In free space, speed of light is c= 3 × 108 ms −1 .
• In any material medium, speed of light v < c

4.1 Laws of Refraction

There are two laws of refraction:

i1
µ1 Rare
µ2 Denser
i2

1. For two particular media, the ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of
refraction is constant, i.e.,
sini1
= constant
sini2
This is known as Snell's law.
2. The incident ray, the reflected ray, the normal and the refracted ray all lie in the same plane.

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4.2 Refractive index
• It is the optical property of a medium.
• It is the medium characteristic which decides speed of light in it.
• It is of two types -
(1) Absolute Refractive Index (µ) or (n)
It is defined as the ratio of speed of light in vacuum to the speed of light in that medium.
c
µ = ⇒ c = µv = constant ⇒ µ ∝ 1 v
v
µ = 1 (min value) for vacuum, µ ≈ 1 (≡ 1.003) for air
µ = 1.33 (=4/3) for water, µ = 1.50 (=3/2) for glass.
(2) Relative Refractive Index (µ21)
• It is defined as the ratio of two refractive index
• When light travels from medium one to medium two then refractive index of medium two w.r.t.
medium one is written as
µ
µ21 =1 µ2 = 2
µ1
sini1
• In Snell’s Law, the constant ratio is called the relative refractive index of med-2 with
sini2
respect to med-1. Thus,
µ sini
1 µ2 =µ21 = 2 = 1
µ1 sini2
• Now, we can write Snell’s law as,
µ . sin i = constant
For two media µ1 . sin i1 = µ2 . sin i2
• The general form of Snell’s law can be written as.
µ sini1 v λ
µ21 = 1µ2 = 2 = = 1= 1
µ1 sini2 v 2 λ2
Here, v1 is the speed of light in medium 1 and v2 is the speed in medium 2.
Similarly, λ1 and λ2 are the corresponding wavelengths.
• Deviation of ray : δ = |i – r|
• When light travels from one medium to another, then speed of light (v), wavelength (λ),
amplitude and Intensity changes. But frequency (v) and colour of light do not change.
• A light ray passes from an optically rarer to an optically denser medium, it bends towards the
normal.
• Here, µ2 > µ1 So, i1 > i2 (i > r) & v1 > v2 & λ1 > λ2.
Incident
ray
i Rarer
medium
δ
δ = (i–r) Denser r
medium
Refracted
ray
• A light ray bends away from the normal while passing from a denser medium to a rarer medium.
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• Here, µ2 < µ1
So, i1 < i2 (i < r) & v1 < v2 & λ1 < λ2.
Incident Denser
ray i medium δ = (i–r)

Rarer
medium rδ
Refracted
ray
Points to Ponder
Cauchy’s Equation
• The absolute refractive index depends upon wavelength of light according to the relation
B C
µ= A + 2 + 4 + .....
λ λ
Where, A, B, C are constants known as Cauchy’s constants, depends on medium.
• As λ increases, µ decreases.
• For white light - VIBGYOR (seven colour)
λ V < λ I < λ B < λ G < λ Y < λ O < λR
• Thus, µ V > µI > µB > µG > µ Y > µO > µR
• λRed > λviolet’ & µRed < µviolet
Principle of Reversibility
• When a light ray, after suffering ‘N’ number of reflections and refractions, will has its final path
reversed, i.e., it travels back along its entire initial path.
• This relates the refractive index of medium in which light travels.
µ µ
• For two medium : 1 µ2= 2 & 2µ1= 1 ⇒ 1µ2 ⋅2 µ1= 1
µ1 µ2

Example 17:
Refractive index of glass with respect to water is 1.125. Find the absolute refractive index of water, if
the absolute refractive index of glass is 1.5.
Solution:
The refractive index of glass with respect to water
µg µg 1.5
is wµg = or µw = = = 1.33
µw µ
w g 1.125

Example 18:
8
The velocity of light in air is 3 × 10 m/s. Find the velocity of light in glass of refractive index 1.5. If the
wavelength of yellow light in air is 6000Å, find its wavelength in the glass.
Solution:
Let c1 and c2 be the velocities of light in air and glass respectively.
Using the definition of refractive index
c c 3 × 108 8
µ = 1 or c2 = 1 ⇒ c2 = = 2 × 10 m/s
c2 µ 1.5
Since frequency remains same when light passes from one medium to another.
Therefore c1 = λ1f c2 = λ2f
c λ λ 6000
Now µ = 1 = 1 or λ2 = 1 = = 4000 Å
c2 λ 2 µ 1.5
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Example 19:
Find the angle θa made by the light ray when it gets refracted from water to air, as shown in figure.

θa µ=1

µ=4/3
water
sin-13/5
Solution:
Apply, Snell’s Law
4 3 4 –1 4
µWsin θW = µa sin θa ; × =1 sin θa ; sin θa = ; θa = sin
3 5 5 5

4.3 Single Refraction by a plane interface: (Real Depth, Apparent Depth and Normal Shift)

Case-1 : Object in denser and observer in rarer

• If an object is placed below the surface of water or under a glass slab, it appears to be raised.
i.e., the apparent depth is less than the real depth. C
This is due to refraction. i
Air
• Refractive index can also be given as Medium A B
HA i r
Real Depth HR
= R.I. = ⇒µ HR
Apparent Depth HA i
HR
⇒ HA = O
µ (a)
• Speed : vR = µ.vA
 1
• The normal shift of image is y = HR – HA = HR  1 − 
 µ
Case-2 : Object in rarer and observer in denser
• If an object is placed above the surface of water and observer is under the water, it appears to be
farther. i.e., the apparent height is more than the real height.
This is due to refraction. I
Refractive index can also be given as
O
Apparent Depth HA HA
= R.I. = ⇒µ H R
Real Depth HR Air
H A Medium
⇒ HR = A or HA = µ.HR
µ
• Speed : vA = µ.vR
• The normal shift of image is
y = HA – HR = HR(µ – 1)
If a beaker is filled with immiscible transparent liquids of refractive indices µ1, µ2, µ3 and individual
depth d1, d2, d3 respectively, then
• the apparent depth of the beaker is found to be : µ1 d1
d d d µ2 d2
Dapparent = 1 + 2 + 3
µ1 µ 2 µ 3 µ3 d3
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 PHYSICS Ray Optics and Optical Instruments
• the effective R.I. of Liquid is found to be
dReal (d + d + d )
µeffective = = 1 2 3
dAppa  d1 d2 d3 
 + + 
 µ1 µ 2 µ 3 
• In case of two liquids if d1 = d2 , then effective R.I.
2µ1 µ2
µ=
µ1 + µ 2

Example 20:
An object lies 100 cm inside water. It is viewed from air nearly normally. Find the apparent depth of the
object.
Solution:
d 100
d′ = = =75 cm
nrelative 4/3
1

Example 21:
See the figure
(i) Find apparent height of the bird for fish
(ii) Find apparent depth of fish for bird 36 cm
air
(iii) At what distance will the bird appear to the fish. (n=1)
(iv) At what distance will the fish appear to the bird
Water
(v) If the velocity of bird is 12 cm/sec downward and the fish
(n=4/3) 36 cm
is 12 cm/sec in upward direction, then find out their
relative velocities with respect to each other.
Solution:
36 36
(i) d´B = = = 48 cm
1 3/4
4
 
3
36
(ii) d´F = = 27 cm
4/3
(iii) For fish : dB = 36 + 48 = 84 cm
(iv) For bird : dF = 27 + 36 = 63 cm.
 
12 
(v) Velocity of fish with respect to bird = 12 +  = 21 cm/sec.
 4/3 
 1
 
12 
Velocity of bird with respect to fish = 12 +  = 28 cm/sec.
 3/4 
 1

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4.4 Refraction Through a Slab
It is the Double refraction from Plane Interface. C E M C E
When light passes through a parallel slab, having same N
M N
medium on both sides, then Emergent ray is parallel to
the incident ray. I1 O I A B A B OI
µ µ
D F D F
4.4.1 Normal Shift t t
• Here two cases are possible. (a) (b)
(i) For Divergent Ray in figure-a.
The object shifted towards slab with a normal shift
 1
OI = 1 −  ⋅ t
 µ
(ii) For Convergent Ray in figure-b.
The object shifted away from slab with a normal shift
 1
OI = 1 −  ⋅ t
 µ

4.4.2 Lateral shift

When a light ray passes through parallel slab, the emergent ray(CD) is N
A
parallel to incident ray(AB). i
B
• But the emergent ray is displaced laterally by a distance d, which depends
r
on µ, t (thickness of slab) and i. N d
• Its value is given by the relation, C
i
sin(i − r)  cos i 
d= ⋅ t;d =1 −  t ⋅ sini D
cosr  µ2 − sin2 i 
 1
• For small angles of incidence, d =i⋅  1 −  t .
 µ

Example 22:
Find the lateral shift of light ray while it passes through a parallel glass slab of thickness 10 cm placed
in air. The angle of incidence in air is 60° and the angle of
refraction in glass is 45°. i = 60°
Solution:
t sin (i − r) 10sin (60° − 45°) r=45° 10cm
d= =
cosr cos 45°
10sin 15° Lateral shift
= = 10 2 sin 15°.
cos 45°

Example 23:
An object is placed 21 cm in front of a concave mirror of radius of curvature 10 cm. A glass slab of
thickness 3 cm and refractive index 1.5 is then placed close to the mirror in the space between the
object and the mirror. Find the position of the final image. Assume the slab is 1 cm away from mirror.
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 PHYSICS Ray Optics and Optical Instruments
Solution:
As the glass slab will produce a shift
 1  2 M
x = t 1 −  = 3 1 −  = 1cm
 µ  3
So, the image I1 of O formed by the glass slab will be at a distance
(21 – 1) = 20 cm from the mirror as shown in figure. This image will act O I1 P
I3 I2
as an object for the concave mirror of focal length (10/2) = 5 cm. x x
1 1 1 20 M'
So, + = i.e. v = − cm (20/3)
v −20 −5 3
21 cm
i.e. the concave mirror will form an image I2 of virtual object I1 at a
distance (20/3) cm in front of it. This image will form an image I3 of object I2 producing a shift x away
from the plate. So the distance of final image from the point P of mirror MM’ will be
 20 
PI3 = PI2 + I2I3 =   + 1 = 7.67 cm in front of the mirror
 3 

4.5 Application of Refraction

(i) Bending of an Object

A
C C
B I2
E C O
E I1
(A) (B)
(ii) Visibility of two images of an object
(iii) Twinkling of stars
(iv) Oval shape of sun in the morning and evening

Exercise 1.3

1. Refractive index of water is 4/3 and that of 3. The colour are characterised by which of
glass is 3/2. Find refractive index of glass following character of light:
with respect to water. (1) Frequency (2) Amplitude
3 9 (3) Wavelength (4) Velocity
(1) (2)
4 8
4 8
(3) (4) 4. Time taken to cross a 4 mm window glass of
3 9
refractive index 1.5 will be:
-8 8
2. A ray of light is incident upon an air/water (1) 2 × 10 sec (2) 2 × 10 sec
interface (it passes from air into water) at an -11 11
(3) 2 × 10 sec (4) 2 × 10 sec
angle of 45°. Which of the following
quantities change as the light enters the
5. The wavelength of light in vacuum is 6000 Å
water:
(I) wavelength and in a medium it is 4000 Å. The refractive
(II) frequency index of the medium is:
(III) speed of propagation (1) 2.4 (2) 1.5
(IV) direction of propagation (3) 1.2 (4) 0.67
(1) I, III only (2) III, IV only
(3) I, II, IV only (4) I, III, IV only
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6. The wavelength of light diminishes µ times 11. In the figure shown the angle made by the
(µ = 1.33 for water) in a medium. A driver light ray with the normal in the medium of
from inside water looks at an object whose refractive index 2 is:
natural colour is green. He sees the object as:
(1) Green (2) Blue 45°
n1 = 1
(3) Yellow (4) Red
n2 =√3
7. The frequency of a light wave in a material is n1 =√2
14
2 × 10 Hz and wavelength is 5000 Å. The n4 = 2
refractive index of material will be: n5 = 1.6
(1) 1.40 (2) 1.50 (1) 30° (2) 60°
(3) 3.00 (4) 1.33
(3) 90° (4) None of these
8. A medium shows relation between i and r for
light incident form air, as shown. If the speed 12. A diverging beam of light from a point source
of light in the medium is nc then the value of S having divergence angle α, falls
n is: symmetrically on a glass slab as shown. The
sin r angles of incidence of the two extreme rays
are equal. If the thickness of the glass slab is
t and the refractive index µ, then the
45° divergence angle of the emergent beam is
sin i S
(1) 1.5 (2) 2 α
(3) 2 (4) 1 i i
9. A light ray is moving from denser (refractive m t
index=µ) to air. If the angle of incidence is
half the angle of refraction, find out the (1) zero (2) α
angle of refraction. −1
(3) sin (t / µ ) (4) 2sin−1 (t / µ )
µ µ
(1) r = 3cos −1   (2) r = 2cos −1  
2 2
µ 2 13. A bubble in glass slab [µ = 1.5] when viewed
(3) r = 7cos −1   (4) r = 4cos −1   from one side appears at 5 cm and 2 cm from
3 µ
other side then thickness of slab is:
10. Find relation between θ1, θ2 and θ3 if all the (1) 3.75 cm (2) 23 cm
medium are parallel (3) 10.5 cm (4) 1.5 cm
θ1
n1 3
14. Width of a slab is 6 cm whose µ = . If its rear
2
n2
θ2 surface is silvered and object is placed at a
distance 28 cm from the front face. Calculate
n3
θ3 the final position of the image from the
silvered surface.
(1) n1sinθ2 = n2 sinθ3 = n3 sinθ1
(1) 30 cm (2) 27 cm
(2) n1sinθ1 = n2 sinθ2 = n3 sinθ3
(3) 34 cm (4) 32 cm
(3) n1sinθ3 = n2 sinθ2 = n3 sinθ1
(4) n1sinθ1 = n2 sinθ3 = n3 sinθ2
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15. A 2 cm thick layer of water covers a 3 cm 18. A beam of light is converging towards a point.
thick glass slab. A coin is placed at the A plane parallel plate of glass of thickness t,
bottom of the slab and is being observed from refractive index µ is introduced in the path of
the air side along the normal to the surface. the beam. The convergent point is shifted by
Find the apparent position of the coin from (assume near normal incidence):
the surface. µ

Air O
h1 Water

t
h2 Glass
 1  1
(1) t  1 −  away (2) t  1 +  away
Coin  µ  µ
(1) 4 cm  1  1
(3) t  1 −  nearer (4) t  1 +  nearer
(2) 3.5 cm  µ  µ
(3) 5 cm
(4) 7 cm 19. An object is placed at 24 cm distance above
the surface of a lake. If water has refractive
16. Find the height of water for which container index of 4/3, then at what distance from lake
is seen half filled when seen from above. surface, a fish will see the object:
(1) 32 cm above the surface of water
(2) 18 cm over the surface of water
(3) 6 cm over the surface of water
21 cm
H (4) 6 cm below the surface of water

20. Given that velocity of light in quartz

(1) 12.5 cm 8
= 1.5 × 10 m/s and velocity of light in
(2) 10.5 cm 8
glycerin = (9/4) × 10 m/s. Now a slab made
(3) 8 cm of quartz is placed in glycerin as shown. The
(4) 14 cm shift of the object produced by slab is:
18 cm
17. A microscope is focused on a mark on a piece Glycerine Glycerine
of paper and then a slab of glass of thickness Observer
Object
3 cm and refractive index 1.5 is placed over
the mark. How should the microscope be 20 cm
moved to get the mark in focus again:
(1) 1 cm upward
Quartz
(2) 4.5 cm downward
(3) 1 cm downward (1) 6 cm
(4) 2 cm upward (2) 3.55 cm
(3) 9 cm
(4) 2 cm

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5. TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION [TIR]

• When a ray of light goes from denser to rarer medium it bends away from the normal.
• As the angle of incidence in denser medium increases, the angle of refraction in rarer medium also
increases.
• At a certain angle of incidence, the angle of refraction becomes 90°, this angle of incidence is called
critical angle (C).
sini 1
Taking Snell’s Law = r 90º
sinr µ
(when i = C, r = 90°) i c
θ>c θ
1 1  1 
µ= ; sin C = ; C = sin−1   O
sinC µ µ
• Greater the refractive index lesser will be the critical angle.
• When angle of incidence exceeds the critical angle then light ray comes back in to the same medium
after reflection from interface.
This phenomenon is called total internal reflection (TIR)

Condition for TIR

(i) The ray incidence at the interface from denser medium.
(ii) The angle of incidence must be greater than critical angle.

Dependence of critical angle

(i) Critical angle depends upon wavelength as
1
λ = f   ∝ sin C
µ
λR > λv ⇒ µR < µV and so CR > CV
(ii) With temperature rise, µ decreases therefore, critical angle C increases
(iii) For ‘glass-air’ pair critical angle is 42°,
for ‘water-air’ pair critical angle is 49° and
for ‘diamond-air’ pair critical angle is 24°.

Example 24:
Find the max. angle that can be made in glass medium (µ = 1.5) if a light ray is refracted from glass to
vacuum.
Solution:
–1
1.5 sin C = 1 sin 90°, sin C = 2/3, C = sin 2/3

Example 25:
Find the angle of refraction in a medium (µ = 2) if light is incident in vacuum, making angle equal to
twice the critical angle.
Solution:
Since the incident light is in rarer medium. Total Internal Reflection cannot take place.
–1 1
C = sin = 30°
µ
∴ i = 2C = 60°
Applying Snell’s Law. 1 sin 60° = 2 sin r
3 –1  3 
sin r = ⇒ r = sin  
4  4 

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5.1 Application of TIR
(A) Field of vision of fish
A fish inside the water can see the whole world through a
cone with an apex angle twice the critical angle for air water
interface.
The radius of the base of the cone, r
h
R = h tan C = ; C
µ2 − 1 h
The area of the base of the cone, C
π h2
A= ;
(µ 2
−1 )
Where µ is the refractive index of the denser with respect to rarer mirror.

(B) Optical Fiber

Optical fiber consists of many long high quality composite glass / quartz fibers. Each fiber consists
of a core and cladding.
The refractive index of the material of the core (µ1=1.7) is higher then that of the cladding (µ2=1.5).
When the light is incident on one end of the fiber at a small angle, the light passes inside undergoes
repeated TIRs along the fiber and finally comes out.
The angle of incidence is always larger than the critical angle of core material with respect to its
cladding
Light can pass through along the fiber even if it is bent.

Expression of Incidence angle

1 × sin θ = µ1 sin r ...(1) (µ2) cladding
µ1 sin θc = µ2 sin 90°
(µ1)
0 r θc Core
 r + θc = 90 θ
0
µ1 sin (90 – r) = µ2 ...(2)
µ1 cos r = µ2
From e (1)
µ12 sin2 r =
sin2 θ ...(3)
µ12 cos2 r µ22
= ...(4)
Squaring and adding e (3) & (4)
µ12 =µ22 + sin2 θ
sin−1 µ12 − µ22 = θ

(C) Optical Looming Rarer

It is an optical illusion in cold countries where an object lying on
the ground appears to be hanging in the air.
This happens because a ray from the object going upward suffers
TIR and returns back towards the ground as shown, since the
refractive index of air falls off with height due to temperature Denser
difference.
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(D) Mirage
It is an optical illusion in deserts in which the image gives the impression of reflection from a pond
of water.

(E) Brilliance of diamond

Due to repeated TIRs diamond sparkles.
Diamonds are skillfully cut with many faces in such a way that much of the incident light undergoes
multiple TIR within the diamond before passing out again in the air.

Exercise 1.4

1. A ray of light travels from denser medium 5. If light travels a distance x in time t1 sec in air
having refractive index 2 to air, What and 10x distance in time t2 in a certain
should be the angle of incidence for the ray medium, then find the critical angle of the
to emerge out ?
medium.
(1) i > 45° (2) i < 45°
(3) i = 45° (4) i ≥ 45° t   10t1 
(1) sin−1  1  (2) sin−1  
 t2   t2 
2. Calculate the critical angle for glass-air  t   10t1 
interface if a ray of light incident on a glass (3) sin−1  1  (4) sin−1  
surface is deviated through 15° when angle  10t2   3t2 
of incidence is 45°.
(1) 30° (2) 60° 6. In total internal reflection when the angle of
(3) 45° (4) 22.5° incidence is equal to the critical angle for the
pair of media in contact, what will be the
3. The speed of light in media M1 and M2 is angle of refraction?
1.5 × 108 m / s and 2.0 × 108 m / s respectively. (1) 90°
A ray of light enters from medium M1 to M2 at (2) 180°
an incidence angle i . If the ray suffers total (3) 0°
internal reflection, the value of i is: (4) equal to the angle of incidence
2
(1) equal to or less than sin−1  
3 7. A light wave travels from glass to water. The
3 3
(2) equal to or greater than sin−1   refractive index for glass and water are
5 2
3 4
(3) equal to or greater than sin−1   and respectively. The value of the critical
4 3
2 angle will be:
(4) less than sin−1  
3 1
(1) sin−1  
2
4. Two transparent media A and B are separated
9
by a plane boundary. The speed of light in those (2) sin−1  
media are 1.5 × 108 m / s and 2.0 × 108 m / s , 8
respectively. The critical angle for a ray of light 8
(3) sin−1  
for these two media is: 9
(1) tan−1 ( 0.750 ) (2) sin−1 ( 0.500 ) 5
(4) sin−1  
(3) sin−1 ( 0.750 ) (4) tan−1 ( 0.500 ) 7
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8. A ray of light travelling in a transparent 12. Which set of colors will come out in air for a
medium of refractive index µ, falls on a situation shown in figure
surface separating the medium from air at an Air Green
angle of incidence of 45°. For which of the
following value of µ the ray can undergo total White
internal reflection:
(1) µ = 1.33 Glass
(2) µ = 1.40
(1) Yellow, Orange and Red
(3) µ = 1.50 (2) All
(4) µ = 1.25 (3) Orange, Red and Violet
(4) Blue, Green and Yellow
9. A small coin is resting on the bottom of a
beaker filled with a liquid. A ray of light from 13. White light is incident on the interface of
the coin travels up to the surface of the liquid glass and air as shown in the figure. If green
and moves along its surface (see figure). How light is just totally internally reflected then
fast is the light travelling in the liquid: the emerging ray in air contains:-

3cm
Air Green
Glass
4cm

White
(1) Yellow, orange, red
(2) Violet, indigo, blue
Coin
(3) All colours
8
(1) 1.8 × 10 m/s (4) All colours except green
8
(2) 2.4 × 10 m/s
8
(3) 3.0 × 10 m/s 14. A point source of light is place 4 m below the
(4) 1.2 × 10 m/s
8 surface of water of refractive index 5/3. The
minimum diameter of a disc which should be
10. 'Mirage' is a phenomenon due to: placed over the source on the surface of
(1) Reflection of light water to cut-off all light coming out of water
(2) Refraction of light is (µ = 5/3):
(3) Total internal reflection of light (1) 2 m (2) 6 m
(4) Diffraction of light (3) 4 m (4) 3 m

11. If C1, C2 and C3 are the critical angle of glass 15. Refractive index of an optical fiber is 2 / 3 .
air interface for red, violet and yellow color, Maximum acceptance angle is equal to
then: –1
(1) sin (1/4) (2) sin
–1
(2 / 3 )
(1) C3 > C2 > C1 (2) C1 > C2 > C3
(3) C= C= C3 (4) C1 > C3 > C2
(
(3) sin−1 1 / 3 ) (4) sin−1 (2 / 5 )
1 2

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6. PRISM
Prism is a transparent medium bounded by refracting surfaces, such that the incident surface and
emergent surface are plane and non-parallel.
Ray Diagram through a prism

A
δ
e
i r1 r2
A

µ
Here : ‘i’ is angle of incidence, ‘e’ is angle of emergence, ‘A’ is angle of prism or refracting angle of
prism, ‘r1’ and ‘r2’ are angles of refraction, ‘δ’ is angle of deviation

General Formula
(i) Angle of prism : A = r1 + r2
(ii) Total deviation : δ = δ1 + δ2 ⇒ δ = (i – r1) + (e – r2) ∴ δ=i+e–A

Deviation through a thin prism

Total deviation : δ=i+e–A
For thin prism, i = µ r 1 & e = µ r2
So, δ = (µ – 1) A
Deviation by thin prism depends upon angle of prism (A) and refractive index of prism (µ)
Deviation is different for different colour of light
since µR < µO < µY < µG < µB < µI < µV
So, δR < δO < δY < δG < δB < δI < δV

6.1 Minimum Deviation

• It is found that the angle of deviation (δ) varies with angle of incidence (i).
• There are two angle of incidence for which δ is same.
• For one angle of incidence it has a minimum value (δm).
• The variation of (δ) versus (i) is shown in diagram.
δ

δmax
δ
δmin
δmin

imin i=e i=90°

(e=90°) e = imin
i=y i=y
e=x e=x

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At minimum deviation (δm),

The ray passes symmetrically through the prism.
Important results
A A + δm
(i) i = e (ii) r1 = r2 (iii) r = (iv) i =
2 2
A + δm
sin
sini 2
(v) µ = =
sinr A
sin
2
(vi) Ray inside the prism is parallel to the base of prism for equilateral and isosceles prism

Example 26:
Refracting angle of a prism A = 60° and its refractive index is, n = 3/2, what is the angle of incidence i
to get minimum deviation. Also find the minimum deviation. Assume the surrounding medium to be air
(n = 1).
Solution:
For minimum deviation,
A
r 1 = r2 = = 30°.
2
st
applying Snell's law at 1 surface
3 3
1 × sin i = sin 30° ⇒ i = sin−1  
2 4
–1 3 π
⇒ δmin = 2sin  –
4 3

Example 27:
A
For a prism if µ = cosec   then find δm
2
Solution:
 A + δm   A + δm 
sin   sin  
 2  ; 1  2 
µ= =
A A A
sin   sin   sin  
 
2  
2 2
A + δm
90° = ⇒ 180 – A = δm.
2

Example 28:
3
Find the deviation caused by a prism having refracting angle 4° and refractive index . if angle of
2
incidence is very small
Solution: 4°
3
δ = ( – 1) × 4° = 2°
2 3/2

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Example 29:
Find refractive index of the prism if light retraces its path.

30°
60°
r1
n=?
Solution:
For retrace, the path angle of incidence at reflecting surface is 0. So r2 = 0
A = r1 + r2 ⇒ A = r1 = 30°
3 1
sin 60 = n sin 30 ⇒ =n   ⇒n= 3
2 2

Example 30:
If incident ray is horizontal & plane mirror is vertical, find angle by which plane mirror should be rotated
so that reflected ray should be horizontal

6° θ

Solution:
3 
Deviation of ray by prism δ = (µ – 1) A =  − 1  6° = 3°
2  3°
so to keep the ray horizontal
the deviation produced by the mirror should be 3° but in opposite direction so as
3°
to keep dnet = 0
As we know if ray is deviated by 3°, then we apply, if mirror is rotated by ‘θ’ then the
ray will rotate by 2θ
so 2θ = 3° (to bring the reflected ray horizontal) ⇒ θ = 1.5

6.2 Condition for no Emergence

For this, TIR must take place at the second surface
For any angle of incidence, A
A ≥ 2C & µ > cosec (A/2) i
Here, A is called Limiting Angle of prism. r1 r2
For normal incidence (i=0),
A ≥ C & µ > cosec (A)

6.3 Dispersion Through Prism

• The splitting & spreading of white light into its Incident Screen
constituent colours is called dispersion of light. White
A δnδy δv
• Dispersion takes place because the refractive index of light R
θ Y
medium for different wavelengths is different.
• The pattern of colour components of light is called the V
spectrum of light.

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6.4 Angular Dispersion (θ)

• It is the angular separation between extreme colours
θ = δv – δR = (µv – µR)A
• It depends upon µ and A.

6.5 Average (mean) Deviation

• Yellow colour is called as mean colour.
µ Y = ( µ V + µR ) 2
• Deviation of yellow colour light is known as mean deviation
δy = (µy – 1) A OR S = (µ - 1)A

6.6 Dispersive Power (ω)

• It is the characteristic of the prism.
• Dispersive power of a prism is defined as ratio of angular dispersion to the average deviation.
θ δ − δR µ V − µR dµ
ω= = V = =
δY δy µy − 1 µ − 1
• It depends µ only and not on A .

6.7 Combination of Prisms

• A single prism produces both deviation and dispersion.
• Consider two prisms (made of crown and flint glass) of refracting angles A & A’ and dispersive
powers ω & ω’ respectively.
• They are placed in contact by two refracting angles are reversed with respect to each other.
• The mean deviation produced
δ1 = (µY – 1) A & δ2 = (µ’Y – 1) A’
δnet = δ1 – δ2 = (µY – 1) A – (µ’Y – 1) A’
• The net angular dispersion produced
θ = δV – δR = (µV – µR) A – (µ’V – µ’R) A’
= (µY – 1) ωA – (µ’Y – 1) ω’A’
Two important combinations

6.7.1 Dispersion without deviation

• It is called chromatic or direct vision prism. Flint
• Here, δ = 0, θ ≠ 0
A' µ' V
A' (µ − 1)
• condition =− Y
A (µ 'Y − 1) R R
µ V A'
• Net dispersion θ = δ1 (ω − ω’)
Crown

6.7.2 Deviation without dispersion

• It is called achromatic prism.
Flint
• Here, θ = 0, δ ≠ 0
A' µ'
A' (µ − µR ) (µ Y − 1) ω
• condition = − V =
A (µ 'V − µ 'R ) (µ 'Y − 1) ω ' R
µ V A'
• Net dispersion δ = δ1 {1 − (ω/ω’)}
Crown
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Example 31:
The refractive indices of flint glass for red and violet light are 1.613 and 1.632 respectively. Find the
0
angular dispersion produced by a thin prism of flint glass having refracting angle 5 .
Solution:
Deviation of the red light is δr = (µr – 1)A and deviation of the violet light is δv = (µv – 1)A.
The dispersion = δv – δr = (µv – µr)A = (1.632 – 1.613) × 5° = 0.095°.

Example 32:
Refractive index of glass for red and violet colours are 1.50 and 1.60 respectively. Find
(a) the ref. index for yellow colour, (approx)
(b) Dispersive power of the medium.
Solution:
µ + µR 1.50 + 1.60
(a) µr = v = = 1.55
2 2
µ − µR 1.60 − 1.50
(b) ω = v = = 0.18.
µr − 1 1.55 − 1

Exercise 1.5

1. A ray incident at 15° on a refracting surface 5. Angle of prism is A and its one surface is
of a prism of angle 30° suffers a deviation of silvered. Light rays falling at an angle of
55°. Find the angle of emergence. incidence 2A on first surface return back
(1) 75° (2) 85°
through the same path after suffering
(3) 70° (4) 80°
reflection at second silvered surface.
2. A ray of light passes through equilateral Prism Refractive index of the material of prism is:-
such that angle of incidence is equal to angle (1) 2 sin A (2) 2 cos A
of emergence and the later is equal to 3/4th of
1
Prism angle. The angle of deviation is: (3) cos A (4) tan A
(1) 60° (2) 30° 2
(3) 45° (4) 120°
6. A light ray is incident normally on the surface
3. A ray of light is incident at angle of 60° on one AB of a prism of refracting angle 60°. If the
face of a prism which has an apex angle of 30°.
light ray does not emerge from AC, then find
The ray emerging out of the prism makes an
angle of 30° with the incident ray. The the refractive index of the prism.
refractive index of the material of the prism is: A
(1) 2 (2) 3 60°
(3) 1.5 (4) 1.6

4. A ray of monochromatic light is incident on

one refracting face of a prism of angle 75°. It B C
passes through the prism and is incident on
the other face at the critical angle. If the 1
(1) (2) 3
refractive index of the material of the prism 3
is 2 , the angle of incidence on the first face 2 3
of the prism is: (3) (4)
3 2
(1) 30° (2) 45°
(3) 60° (4) 0°
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7. White light is passed through a prism of 12. The angle of minimum deviation measured
angle 10°. If the refractive index for red and with a prism is 30° and the angle of prism is
violet colours are 1.641 and 1.659 60°. Find the refractive index of the material
respectively, then find the- of the prism.
(a) angles of deviation for violet and red colours. 1
(1) (2) 2 2
(b) angular dispersion 2
(c) dispersive power (3) 2 (4) 1/2
(1) (a) 6.59°, 6.41°, (b) 0.18°, (c) 0.0276
(2) (a) 7.33°, 6.41°, (b) 20°, (c) 0.22 13. Angle of minimum deviation of a prism of 60°
(3) (a) 6.59°, 5°, (b) 0.11°, (c) 0.117 angle for yellow light is 30°. In this condition,
(4) (a) 7.33°, 7.8°, (b) 0.18°, (c) 0.0276 what is the angle of incidence?
(1) 90° (2) 30°
8. Angle of incidence is 45° in the condition of (3) 45° (4) 15°
minimum deviation for a prism of refracting
angle 60°. Find the angle of deviation. 14. The refractive index of the material of prism
(1) 60° (2) 30°
of 60° angle is 2 . At what angle the ray of
(3) 45° (4) 22.5°
light be incident on it so that minimum
deviation takes place:
9. White light is passed through a prism of
(1) 30° (2) 60°
angle 5°. If the refractive index for red and
(3) 45° (4) 75°
blue colours are 1⋅641 and 1⋅659
respectively, then find the angle of
15. The angle of a glass prism is 4.5° and its
dispersion between them.
refractive index is 1.52. The angle of
(1) 0.090° (2) 0.90°
minimum deviation will be:
(3) 9° (4) 0.009°
(1) 1.5° (2) 2.3°
(3) 4.5° (4) 2°
10. Calculate the refractive index of the material
of an equilateral prism for which the angle of
16. When white light passes through a glass
π prism, one gets spectrum on the other side of
minimum deviation is radian.
3
the prism. In the emergent beam, the ray
(1) 3 (2) 1.5 which is deviating least is:
(3) 2 (4) 2.33 (1) Violet ray (2) Green ray
(3) Red ray (4) Yellow ray
11. A ray of light passing through a prism having
µ = 2 suffers minimum deviation. It is found 17. Prism angle of glass prism is 10°. It's
that angle of incidence is double the angle of refractive index of red and violet colour is
refraction within the prism. Find angle of the 1.51 and 1.52 respectively. Then its
prism. dispersive power will be:
(1) 45° (2) 60° (1) 0.015 (2) 0.020
(3) 90° (4) 15° (3) 0.011 (4) 0.019

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18. For a certain material the refractive indices 20. Figure shows graph of deviation δ versus
for red, violet and yellow colour lights are angle of incidence for a light ray striking a
prism. Angle of prism is :-
1.52, 1.64 and 1.60 respectively. Find the
δ
dispersive power of the material.
30°
(1) 0.54 (2) 0.5
(3) 0.12 (4) 0.2
i
15° 60°
19. A thin Prism P1 with angle 4° and made from (1) 30° (2) 45°
glass of refractive index 1.54 is combined (3) 60° (4) 75°
with another thin Prism P2 made from glass
21. When a ray of light is incident at angle of 35°
of refractive index 1.72 to produce dispersion on an equilateral prism. Then it passes
without deviation. The angle of Prism P2 is: symmetrically. Calculate the deviation of the
(1) 5.33° (2) 4° ray. (Symmetrically means parallel to base)
(1) 30° (2) 15°
(3) 3° (4) 2.6°
(3) 10° (4) 45°

7. REFRACTION AT SPHERICAL SURFACE

• Relation among µ1, µ2, u, v and R i

When object placed in medium µ1
µ 2 µ1 ( µ 2 − µ1 ) P PA
− = O u R C l
v u R
µ1 µ2
where, R = Radius of curvature of surface, µ1 = R.I. of v
incidence medium, µ2 = R.I. of refracted medium
• Magnification
hI R − v  µ1   v 
=
m = =   
h0 R − u  µ2   u 
• Focus
(a) First Focus : When object is placed at first focus, image is formed at infinity
Taking, u = f 1, v = ∞
µ 2 µ1 ( µ 2 − µ1 )
Apply − =
∞ f1 R
 µR 
We get f1 = −  1 
 µ 2 − µ1 
(b) Second Focus : When the rays are coming from a very distant point, they get converged / diverged
at second focus
Taking, u = ∞, v = f2
µ 2 µ1 ( µ 2 − µ1 )
Apply − = ,
∞ f1 R
 µ1R 
We get f2 =  
 ( µ 2 − µ1 ) 
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Example 33:
Light from a point source in air falls on a spherical glass surface (µ = 1.5 and radius of curvature = 30 cm).
The distance of the light source from the glass surface is 90 cm. At what position the image is formed?
Solution:
Here u = –90 cm, v = ?, R = +30 cm, µ1 = 1, and µ2 = 1.5. We then have
1.5 1 1.5 − 1
+ = or v = +270 cm
v 90 30
The image is formed at a distance of 270 cm from the glass surface in the direction of incident light.

Exercise 1.6

1. An object O in glass (µ = 1.5) is situated at a 4. An object is placed at a distance of 20 cm, in

distance of 5 cm from a spherical surface of rarer medium, from the pole of a convex
diameter 40 cm as shown in the figure. Find spherical refracting surface of radius of
the distance of the image from the surface: curvature 10 cm. If the refractive index of the
d=40cm rarer medium is 1 and of the refracting
µ=1.5 medium is 2, then the position of the image is
5 cm µ=1
at:
O
GLASS (1) (40/3) cm from the pole & inside the
(1) 3.63 (2) 2.50 denser medium.
(2) 40 cm from the pole & inside the denser
(3) 2.00 (4) 1.63
medium.
(3) (40/3) cm from the pole & outside the
2. There is a small air bubble inside a glass
denser medium.
sphere (µ = 1.5) of radius 10 cm. The bubble
(4) 40 cm from the pole & outside the denser
is 4 cm below the surface and is viewed
medium.
normally from the outside as shown in figure.
Find the apparent depth of the bubble.
5. The image for the converging beam after
refraction through the curved surface is
µ=1 formed at:
n=1
µ = 1.5 n = 3/2
(1) 3 cm (2) 2 cm O P x
(3) 2.33 cm (4) 40/13 cm 30cm
R = 20 cm
3. What is focal length of this curve surface: (1) x = 40 cm
µ = 1 µ = 1.5 40
(2) x = cm
3
40
(3) x = − cm
3
R = 10 cm
180
(1) 10 cm (2) 5 cm (4) x = cm
7
(3) 20 cm (4) 30 cm

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8. LENS
A lens is a piece of transparent material with two refracting surfaces such that at least one is curved
and refractive index of its material is different from that of the surroundings.

8.1 Types of Lenses

(i) Convex or Converging Lens
• A thin spherical lens with refractive index greater than that of surroundings behaves as a
convergent or convex lens.
• Geometrically its central portion is thicker than marginal one.

(ii) Concave or Diverging Lens

• Geometrically the central portion of a lens is thinner than marginal.
• It diverges parallel rays behaves as divergent or concave lens.
• Concave or convex lens : Geometrical concept
• Converging or diverging lens : Optical concept

Figure shows 4 convex and 4 concave lenses.

R1 R2 R R ∞ R R1 R2 R1 R2 R R R1 R2=∞R1 R2

Bi-convex equi Plano cancavo Bi-convex equi Plano convexo

convex convex convex convex convex convex
• Optical Centre : O is a point for a given lens through which any ray passes undeviated

OA OA

O PA O PA
C2 C1 C1 C2

Convex lens Convex lens

• Principal Axis : C1 C2 is a line passing through optical centre and perpendicular to the lens.
• Optical Axis : It is a line passing through optic centre and perpendicular to the principal axis.
• Principal Focus : A lens has two surfaces and hence two focal points. First focal point is an object
point on the principal axis for which image is formed at infinity.
v =∞

F1 O F1
O
Convex concave
lens lens
While second focal point is an image point on the principal axis for which object lies at infinity.
Second point is known as Principal focus.
Focal length of convex lens is (+ve)
Focal length of concave lens is (–ve)
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u=∞
u=∞
F2 F2
O O
convex concave
lens f f lens
• Focal Length f is defined as the distance between optical centre of a lens and the point where the
parallel beam of light converges or appears to converge.
• Aperture : In reference to a lens, aperture means the effective diameter (light gathering).
Intensity of image formed by a lens which depends on the light passing through the lens will depend
on the square of aperture, i.e.,
2
I ∝ (Aperture)

8.2 Rules for Image Formation

• A ray passing through optical centre proceeds undeviated through the lens.
• A ray passing through first focus F1 or directed towards it, after refraction from the lens, becomes
parallel to the principal axis.
• A ray passing parallel to the principal axis after refraction passes through or appears to pass
through second focus F2.

8.3 Image formation for convex lens

(Convergent lens)
Object Position Image Position Diagram
1. Object is placed at Inverted very small in size
infinity at F real m <<–1 F O F

2. Object is placed in Inverted small in size

between ∞ -2F image (diminished) m < –1 h1 O F 2F
real (F–2F) O 2F F h2
u

3. Object is placed at 2F Inverted equal of same

Image real (at 2F) size (m = –1) O h1 O F 2F
2F F h2
I
u v
4. object is placed between Inverted enlarger m > 1
2F-F Image Real (2F–∞) h1 O F 2F I ∞
2F O F h2
u v
5. object is placed between erected enlarged (m > + 1)
F-O Image virtual (in h2 h1 F 2F
∞ ∞
front 2F I F O O h2
of lens)

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8.4 Image formation for concave lens
Image is virtual, diminished, erect, towards the object, m = +ve
Object is placed at Virtual erected u=∞
infinity at F real diminished (m<<+1)

F F

Object is placed in front Virtual erected

of lens Image between F diminished (m < + 1)
and optical centre
O F I

8.5 Lens Formula and Lens Maker’s formula X

In case of image formation by a lens A B
Image formed by first surface acts as object for the second µM µL µM
surface.
So, from the formula of refraction at curved surface O C2 C1 I I1
R1
µ 2 µ1 µ 2 − µ1 R2 v1
− = u v
v u R
Y
µL µM µL − µM
For first surface A, − = ..... (i)
v1 u R1
[µ2 =µL , µ1 =µM ]
µM µL µM − µL µ − µM
For second surface B, − = =
− L ..... (ii) [ µ2 =µM , µ1 =µ1 , µ1 =µ2 ,u → v 1 ]
v v1 R2 R2
Adding (i) and (ii)
1 1 1 1
µM  −  = ( µL − µM )  − 
v u  R1 R 2 
1 1 µ − µM  1 1  1 1  µL 
⇒ − =L  −  =µ ( − 1)  −  ..... (iii)  µ = 
v u µM  R 1 R 2   R1 R 2   µM 
Now if object is at infinity, Image will be formed at the focus, i.e, u = −∞,v = f ,
1 1 1
So = (µ − 1)  −  ..... (iv)
f  R1 R 2 
1 1 1
This is known as lens makers formula. By equating (iii) and (iv), − = this is known as lens formula
v u f
or Gaussian form of lens equation.

8.6 Magnification
It is the ratio of the size of image to the size of object.
(i) Transverse (Lateral or Linear) Magnification (m)
The object is placed perpendicular to principal axis. It is defined by,
Image Height hI v
=
m = =
Object Height hO u
v f f −v
m= = =
u f +u f
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(ii) Longitudinal (axial) Magnification (mL)
The object is placed along the principal axis.
It is defined by,
Image Length LI v 2 − v 1
m= L = =
Object Length LO u2 − u1
For very small object
2 2 2
dv  v   f   f − v  2
m=
L =  =   =
  =
 m
du  u   f + u   f 
(iii) Areal (area) Magnification (mA)
AI ma ⋅ mb
It is defined by , m=
A = = m2
A0 a ⋅b

Example 34:
Find the focal length of the lens shown in the figure.
ROC = 10cm

µ=1 µ=1 x
µ=3/2
converging lens
Solution:
1  1 1 
 = (nrel – 1)  − 
f  R1 R 2 
1  1 1  1 1 2
⇒ = (3/2 – 1)  −  ⇒ = × ⇒ f = + 10 cm.
f  10 ( −10)  f 2 10

Example 35:
Find the focal length of the lens shown in figure
ROC = 10cm

µ=1 µ=1 x
µ=3/2
Solution:
1  1 1  3   1 1 
= (nrel – 1)  −  = − 1   −  ⇒ f = – 10 cm
f  R1 R2   2   −10 10 

Example 36: ROC = 60cm

Find the focal length of the lens shown in figure ROC = 20cm
(a) If the light is incident from left side.
(b) If the light is incident from right side. µ=1 µ=1 x
Solution: µ=3/2
1  1 1   3  1 1 
(a) = (nrel – 1)  −  = − 1  −  ⇒ f = 60 cm
f  R1 R2   2  −60 −20 
1  1 1   3  1 1 
(b) = (nrel – 1)  −  = − 1  −  ⇒ f = 60 cm
f  R1 R2   2  20 60 
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Example 37:
Focal length of convex lens is 10 cm, its refractive index is 3/2 find its focal length when it is kept in a
medium of refractive index 1.4
Solution:
1  µ − µM  1 1 
=  L  − 
fL  µM  R1 R2 
If a lens is placed into two different mediums then
( fL )1  µL − µM   µM1  10 0.1  1 
= 2
  ⇒ =   ⇒ f = 70 cm
( fL )2  µL − µM
1   µM2  f 0.5  1.4 

Example 38:
Find the position, nature and magnification of image if object is placed in front of converging lens (f =
10 cm). The distance of object from the pole is
(a) 30 cm (b) 5 cm
Solution:
(a) u = –30 cm, f = +10 cm,
uf
by lens formula v = = 15 cm
f +u
v = positive, so image is real,
v 15 1
m= = =−
u −30 2
So, image is small and inverted (m = negative)
(b) u = –5 cm, f = +10 cm,
uf
by lens formula v = = –10 cm
f +u
v = negative, so image is virtual,
v −10
m == = 2
u −5
So, image is magnified and erect (m = positive)

Example 39:
In the following figure, find the position of final image formed.
f = 10cm f = –10cm

15 cm 25 cm
Solution:
For converging lens u = –15cm, f = 10 cm
fu
∴v= = 30 cm
f +u
For diverging lens u = 5 cm; f = –10 cm
fu
∴v= = 10 cm
f +u
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Example 40:
What should be the value of ‘d’ so that its image is formed on the object itself ?
f = 10cm f = 10cm

15 cm d
Solution:
Using lens formula we can obtain position of the image formed by lens as
1 1 1
− =
v −15 10
∴ v = +30 cm
For a point object and the above arrangement it is necessary that the rays must retrace its path for
image to be formed at the object itself. There are two possible cases for retracing. Either the rays fall
normally on the convex mirror or fall at the pole of the mirror.
Case -I : Let the rays strike the mirror normally.
The rays will retrace the point object itself.

20 cm
30 cm
∴ d = 30 – 20 = 10 cm
Case -II : Let the rays strike the pole of the mirror.
θ
The rays will retrace its path back to the object as shown below θ
and the image will be formed on the point object itself.
∴ d = v = 30 cm
v cm

8.7 Displacement Method

(to determine the focal length of a convex lens)
• If the distance D between an object and screen is greater than 4 times the focal length of a convex
lens, then there are two positions of the lens between the object and screen at which a sharp image
of the object is formed on the screen.
• This method is called displacement method
• It is used in laboratory to determine the focal length of convex lens.
x
Object
I2
O I1

D > 4f Screen
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There are following results :
(i) If D < 4f , then no position of the lens is possible.
(ii) If D = 4f then only one position is possible.
(iii) If D > 4f , there are two positions of lens
for which real image is formed on the screen.
D2 − x2 x
=
(iv) Focal length of the lens, f =
4D m1 − m2
I1 I
(v) Magnifications, m1 = & m2 = 2 & m1 ⋅ m2 =
1
O O
(vi) Size of object, O = I1 I2

Exercise 1.7

1. If the radius of curvature of the convex surface 5. An object is located at 10 cm in front of a

of a plano-convex lens is 18 cm and the convex lens of focal length 12 cm. Find the
refractive index of material of the lens is 1.6, position and nature of image?
the focal length of the lens is? (1) 30 cm behind the lens, Real and Inverted
(1) 18 cm (2) 24 cm (2) 60 cm in front of the lens, virtual and erect
(3) 30 cm (4) 40 cm
(3) 40 cm behind the lens, virtual and erect
(4) 60 cm behind the lens, Real and Inverted
2. What is the refractive index of material of a
plano-convex lens, if the radius of curvature of
the convex surface is 10 cm and focal length 6. A beam of light converge at a point P. Now a
of the lens is 30 cm? lens is placed in the path of the convergent
(1) 1.33 (2) 1.5 beam 24 cm from P. If the lens is a convex lens
(3) 1.1 (4) None of focal length 40 cm the beam converge at a
point:-
3. If the radius of curvature of the convex surface (1) 8.5 cm (2) 15 cm
of a plano-convex lens is 18 cm and the (3) 30 cm (4) None of these
refractive index of material of the lens is 1.6,
the focal length of the lens is:
7. An object is placed 15 cm in front of a lens,
(1) 18 cm (2) 24 cm
(3) 30 cm (4) 40 cm such that is real image forms 30 cm away from
lens. Find the focal length of the lens?
4. Find out position and nature of image. (1) 10 cm (2) 30 cm
f = 20cm (3) 25 cm (4) 20 cm

8. A lamp is placed 6.0 m from a wall. On putting

O
a lens between the lamp and the wall, at a
distance of 1.2 m from the lamp, a real image
30cm
of the lamp is formed on the wall. The
magnification of the image is:
(1) 60 cm behind the lens, Real and Inverted
(1) 3 (2) 4
(2) 60 cm in front of the lens, Real and inverted
(3) 40 cm behind the lens, virtual and erect (3) 5 (4) 6
(4) None of these
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9. An object is placed in front of convex lens of 14. A thin linear object of size 1 mm is kept along
focal length 10 cm if two times magnified the principal axis of a convex lens of focal
image is formed on screen then calculate the length 10 cm. The object is at 15 cm from the
distance of object from lens. lens. The length of the image is:
(1) 15 cm (2) 20 cm (1) 1 mm (2) 4 mm
(3) 2 mm (4) 8 mm
(3) 30 cm (4) 40 cm

15. An object is at a distance 60 m from convex

10. A convex lens makes a real image 4 cm long on lens of focal length 20 cm. The lens forms an
a screen. When the lens is shifted to a new image of the object. If the object moves away
position without disturbing the object, we from the lens at a speed 4 cm/s. the speed and
again get a real image on the screen which is direction of the image will be.
16 cm tall. The length of the object must be (1) 1 cm/s toward the lens
(1) 1/4 cm (2) 8 cm (2) 2 cm/s toward the lens
(3) 12 cm (4) 20 cm (3) 1 cm/s away from the lens
(4) None of these
11. An object placed at a distance of 9 cm from
16. In the figure given below, there are two
first principal focus of convex lens, produces a
convex lens L1 and L2 having focal length of f1
real image at a distance of 25 cm from its
and f2 respectively. The distance between L1
second principal focus. Then focal length of
and L2 will be:
lens is:
(1) 9 cm (2) 25 cm
(3) 15 cm (4) 17 cm

12. An object is placed at a distance of 5 cm from L1 L1

a convex lens of focal length 10 cm, then the (1) f1 (2) f2
image is: (3) f1 + f2 (4) f1 – f2
(1) Real, diminished and at a distance of
10 cm from the lens. 17. A concave lens of glass, refractive index 1.5,
(2) Real, enlarged and at a distance of 10 cm has both surfaces of same radius of curvature
R. On immersion in a medium of refractive
from the lens.
index 1.75, it will behave as a :-
(3) Virtual, enlarged and at a distance of 10
(1) Convergent lens of focal length 3.5 R
cm from the lens.
(2) Convergent lens of focal length 3.0 R
(4) Virtual, diminished and at a distance of (3) Divergent lens of focal length 3.5 R
10/3 cm from the lens. (4) Divergent lens of focal length 3.0 R

13. An object is put at a distance of 5 cm from the 18. A convex lens is dipped in a liquid whose
first focus of a convex lens of focal length refractive index is equal to the refractive index
10cm. If a real image is formed, then it’s of the lens. Then its focal length will:
distance from the lens will be:- (1) Become zero
(1) 15 cm (2) 20 cm (2) Become infinite
(3) Become small, but non-zero
(3) 25 cm (4) 30 cm
(4) Remain unchanged

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19. A water drop in air refracts the light ray as: 22. If the central portion of a convex lens is
wrapped in black paper as shown in the figure:
(1)

(1) No image will be formed by the remaining

(2)
portion of the lens.
(2) The full image will be formed but it will be
less bright.
(3) The central portion of the image will be
missing.
(3) (4) There will be two images each produced
by one of the exposed portions of the lens.

23. An object is immersed in a fluid. In order that

the object becomes invisible, it should:
(4) No light (1) behave as a perfect reflection
(2) absorb all light falling on it
(3) have refractive index one
20. A double convex lens, made of a material of (4) have refractive index exactly matching
refractive index µ1, is placed inside two liquids with that of the surrounding fluid
of refractive indices µ2 and µ3, as shown. µ2 >
24. In the displacement method, a convex lens is
µ1 > µ3. A wide, parallel beam of light is placed in between an object and a screen. If
incident on the lens from the left. The lens will one of the magnifications is 3 and the
give rise to: displacement of the lens between the two
µ2 µ2 positions is 24 cm, then the focal length of the
lens is:
µ1
(1) 10 cm (2) 9 cm
µ3 µ3 (3) 6 cm (4) 16/3 cm

(1) a single convergent beam 25. A convex lens forms a real image 9 cm long on
(2) two different convergent beams a screen. Without altering the position of the
(3) two different divergent beams object and the screen, the lens is displaced
(4) a convergent and a divergent beam and we get again a real image 4 cm long on the
screen. Then the length of the object is:
21. Figure shows two convex lenses A and B, each (1) 9 cm (2) 4 cm
made up of three different transparent (3) 6 cm (4) 36 cm
materials. The number of images formed, of an
object kept on the principal axis of each lens 26. A lens is placed between a source of light and
will be: a wall. It forms images of height h1 and h2 on
the wall for its two different positions. The
height of the source of light is:
−1
h +h 1 1
(1) 1 2 (2)  + 
2  h1 h2 
2
 h + h2 
(3) h1h2 (4)  1 
(1) 3 and 3 (2) 3 and 1  2 
(3) 1 and 1 (4) 3 and 2
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8.8 Optical Power
It is the ability of the instrument to deviate the path of rays passing through it.
For converging system power is positive (+ve)
For diverging system power is negative (-ve)
The shorter the focal length of a lens (or a mirror) the more it converges or diverges light.

f1
f2
As shown in the figure. f1 < f2
and hence the power P1 > P2,
as bending of light in case 1 is more than that of case 2.
1
For a lens, P(in dioptre) =
f (metre)
−1
and for a mirror, P(in dioptre) =
f (metre)
The power is expressed in diopters (D).
Thus,
convex lens and concave mirror have positive power or they are converging in nature.
Concave lens and convex mirror have negative power or they are diverging in nature.

8.9 Behaviour of a transparent sphere

• A water drop or glass sphere in air, due to refraction, behaves as a convergent lens.
• While an air bubble in water or spherical cavity in glass behaves as a divergent lens.
• This is illustrated by self explanatory figure (A) and (B) respectively.

D D
R D R R
R D

(A) (B)
Convergent behaviour Divergent behaviour
8.10 Cutting the Lens : A symmetric lens is cut in the following ways
• A symmetric lens is cut along optical axis in two equal parts.
• but the focal length is double the original for each part.

2f 2f
f,P
P P
2 2
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• A symmetrical lens is cut along principal axis in two equal parts.
• Intensity of image by each part will be half compared to that of complete lens,
• but the focal length remains same for each part.

f,p
⇒

f,p
• Combined focal length of parts of a lens.

⇒ ⇒

f
F=f F=f

⇒ ⇒
f
F = f/2 F=∞

8.11 Silvering of Lens

Calculate the focal length of the equivalent mirror of the equiconvex lens silvered at one side.

= + +
O I1 I2 I1 I3

P = PL + PM + PL = 2PL + PM

Example 41:
Let the plane surface of a plano-convex lens be silvered as shown. Find its equivalent power and
focal length.
Solution:
Let the radius of curvature of the curved surface of the lens be R and refractive index be µ.
Focal length of the lens is
1 1 1  µ −1
= (µ – 1)  −  =
fL R ∞  R
Focal length of the plane mirror formed is ∞
Hence power of the combination is
µ −1 µ −1 µ −1
P = PL + PM + PL = +O+ =2
R R R
and equivalent focal length
−1 R
f= =–
P 2(µ − 1)
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8.12 Lens of Different Materials
A lens have number of layers of different R.I.
(i) If the layers are parallel to principal axis then it will have as many focal lengths and will form as
many images as there are number of layers .
(ii) If the layers are parallel to optical axis then it will have only one focal length and will form only one
image.

(iii) If some portion of a lens is covered with black paper full image will be formed by brightness will be
reduced.

Example 42:
Image of a donkey is obtained using a convex lens with black stripes painted on it at regular intervals
will the image of donkey be like a zebra? Explain.
Solution:
As every part of a lens forms complete image if any portion is obstructed, full image will be formed but
brightness (intensity) will be reduced. Therefore, if a lens is painted with black stripes at regular
intervals and a donkey is seen through it, the donkey will not appear as a zebra but will remain a donkey
with reduced intensity.

Exercise 1.8

1. An equiconvex lens has a power of 5 diopter. 4. A biconvex lens (𝛍𝛍=𝟏𝟏.𝟓𝟓) of focal length 0.2 m
If it is made of glass of refractive index 1.5. acts as a divergent lens of power 1D when
then radius of curvature of its each surface immersed in a liquid. Find the refractive
will be: index of the liquid?
(1) 20 cm (2) 10 cm (1) 1.6 (2) 1.46
(3) 40 cm (4) ∞ (3) 1.33 (4) 1.5

2. An object placed 20 cm in front of a convex 5. Two thin converging lenses of focal lengths
lens has its image 40 cm behind the lens. Find 20 cm and 40 cm are placed in contact. Find
the power of the lens. the effective power of the combination.
(1) 5.5 D (2) 5 D (1) 5 D (2) 7.5 D
(3) 14/3 D (4) 7.5 D (3) 2.5 D (4) 1.66 D

3. The radius of curvature of convex surface of 6. Two convex lenses of focal length 20 cm and
a thin plano-convex lens is 15 cm and 25 cm are placed in contact with each other,
refractive index of its material is 1.6. The then power of this combination is:
power of the lens will be: -
(1) + 1 D (2) + 9 D
(1) +1 D (2) –2 D
(3) – 1 D (4) – 9 D
(3) +3 D (4) +4 D
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7. Two lenses of power +2.50 D and –3.75 D are 12. An equiconvex lens having radius of
combined to form a compound lens. Its focal curvature 20 cm. If one of its surface is
length in cm will be: silvered then find out the equivalent focal
(1) 40 (2) –40 length?
(3) –80 (4) 160 µ = 1.5

8. Lenses of powers 3D and -5D are combined to

from a compound lens. An object is placed at
a distance of 50 cm from this lens. Calculate
the position of its image: R = 20cm
(1) −10cm (2) +10cm (1) –5 cm
(3) −25cm (4) + 25cm (2) 6 cm
(3) 5 cm
9. Two thin lenses of power +5D and –2D are (4) –6 cm
placed in contact with each other. Focal
length of the combination will behave like a- 13. The focal length of a plano-concave lens is –
(1) Convex lens of focal length 3 m 10 cm, then its focal length when its plane
(2) Concave lens of focal length 0.33 m surface is polished is (n = 3/2):
(3) Convex lens of focal length 0.33 m (1) 20 cm
(4) None of the above (2) − 5 cm
(3) 5 cm
10. A convex lens and a concave lens, each (4) none of these
having same focal length of 25 cm, are put in
contact to form a combination of lenses. The 14. The plane surface of a plano - convex lens of
power in diopters of the combination is: focal length f is silvered. It will behave as:
(1) plane mirror
(1) 25 (2) 50 (2) convex mirror of focal length 2f
(3) infinite (4) zero (3) concave mirror of focal length f/2
(4) none of the above
11. Two thin lenses of focal length f1 and f2 are in
contact and coaxial. The power of the 15. Ratio of power of lens from side 1 and 2 is-
combination is: 1 2
f1
(1) R µ 2R
f2

f2
(2)
f1 (1) –1
f1 + f2 (2) 1
(3) (3) 2
2
f +f (4) –2
(4) 1 2
f1 f2

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8.13 Defects in Images
• Actual image formed by an optical system is usually imperfect.
• This defect of images is called aberrations.
• The defect may be due to light or optical system.
(i) If the defect is due to light it is called chromatic aberration, and
(ii) If due to optical system monochromatic aberration.

(a) Longitudinal Chromatic Aberration

The image of an object formed by a lens is usually coloured and blurred. This defect of image is
called chromatic aberration. This defect arises due to the fact the focal length of a lens is different
for different colours. For a lens.
red
1 1 1
= (µ –1)  − 
f  R1 R 2  white light O FV FR
As µ is maximum for violet while minimum for
red, violet is focused nearest to the lens while
red farthest from it.
The difference between fR and fv is a measured of fR–fy = ω fY
fV
longitudinal chromatic aberration (LCA). thus, fR
LCA = fR – fv = – df = f.ω
dµ
where ω = = dispersive power
µ −1
For a single lens neither f nor ω can be zero. Thus, we cannot have a single lens free from chromatic
aberration.

(b) Achromatism : If two or more lens combined together in such a way that this combination produce
image at a same point then this combination is known as achromatic combination of lenses.
ω ω' ω ω ω1 f
+ =0 ⇒ 1 + 2 = 0 ⇒ =− 1
fy f'y f1 f2 ω2 f2
1 1 1
For combination of lens. = + (Apply sign convention in numerical)
F f1 f2
(c) Spherical Aberration
Spherical aberration arises due to spherical nature of lens (or mirror).
The paraxial rays (close to principal axis) get focused at IP and marginal rays (away from the
principal axis) are focused at IM. Thus, image of a point object O is not a point.
The inability of the lens to form a point image of an axial point object is called spherical aberration.
Marginal rays Marginal rays
Paraxial rays Paraxial rays

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Exercise 1.9

1. When light rays from the sun fall on a convex 4. An achromatic convergent doublet of two
lens along a direction parallel to its axis: - lenses in contact has a power of +2D. The
(1) Focal length for all colours is the same convex lens has a power +5D. What is the
(2) Focal length for violet colour is the shortest
ratio of the dispersive powers of the
(3) Focal length for yellow colour is the longest
(4) Focal length for red colour is the shortest convergent and divergent lenses:
(1) 2 : 5
2. The dispersive power of material of a lens of (2) 3 : 5
focal length 20 cm is 0.08. Find the (3) 5 : 2
longitudinal chromatic aberration of the
(4) 5 : 3
lens?
(1) 1.2 cm (2) 1.4 cm
(3) 1.3 cm (4) 1.6 cm 5. Lenses applied in achromatic combination
having dispersive power in ratio of 5:3 if focal
3. The dispersive powers of the materials of the length of concave lens is 15 cm, then focal
two lenses are in the ratio 4 : 3. If the
length of another lens will be:
achromatic combination of these two lenses
in contact is a convex lens of focal length (1) -9 cm
60 cm then the focal lengths of the (2) +9 cm
component lenses are: (3) –12 cm
(1) –20 cm and 25 cm (2) 20 cm and –25 cm (4) +12 cm
(3)–15 cm and 40 cm (4) 15 cm and –20 cm

9. OPTICAL INSTRUMENT
9.1 Human Eye
• Light enters the eye through a curved front surface, the cornea, passes through the pupil which is
the central hole in the iris. The size of the pupil can be changed through muscle control.
• The light is further focused by the eye lens on the retina. The retina is a film of nerve fibers covering
the curved back surface of the eye.
• The shape (curvature) and therefore the focal length of the lens can be modified somewhat by the
ciliary muscles. This property of the eye is called accommodation.
• If the object is too close to the eye, the lens cannot curve enough to focus the image on to the retina,
and the image is blurred.
• The closest distance for which the lens can focus light on the retina is called the least distance of
distinct vision 'D' (25 cm for normal eye).

Points to ponder
• Eye-lens forms real, inverted and diminished image at the retina by changing its convexity (the
distance between eye lens and retina is fixed)
• The human eye is most sensitive to yellow green light having wavelength 5550 Å and least to violet
(4000 Å) and red (7000 Å)
• The size of an object as perceived by eye depends on its visual-angle. When object is distant its
visual angle is θ and hence image Ι1 at retina is small and it will appear small and as it is brought
near to the eye its visual angle is θ0 and hence size of image Ι2 will increase.
θ θ θ0
θ0
O X I1 O D I2
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• The far and near point for normal eye are usually taken to be infinity and 25 cm respectively i.e.,
normal eye can see very distant object clearly but near objects only if they are a distance greater
than 25 cm from the eye. The ability of eye to see objects for infinite distance to 25 cm from it is
called Power of accommodation.
• If object is at infinity, the eye is least strained and said to be relaxed.

Relaxed or normal eye

However, if the object is at least distance of distinct vision, eye is under maximum strain and visual
angle is maximum.

D=25 cm
Maximum strained eye
• The limit of resolution of eye is minute = (1/60)°
ie., two objects will not be visible distinctly to the eye if the angle subtended by them on the eye is
lesser than one minute.

9.2 Simple Microscope

B'
A magnifying glass is a simple microscope.
Principle B
P
A simple microscope is based upon the fact that if an object is αβ
placed between the optical centre and the focus of convex lens, it A' F A u C
produces a virtual, erect and magnified image of the object on the f
D
same side of the lens.

Magnifying power (or angular magnification)

Magnifying power of a simple microscope is defined as the ratio of the angle subtended by the image
at the eye to the angle subtended by the object at the eye when both are placed at the least distance of
distinct vision independently.
β
Magnifying power : M =
α
B
When final image is formed at D
The magnifying power becomes
A C
 D
M=D 1 + 
 f
When final image is formed at infinity
The microscope is said to be in normal adjustment
D
M∞ =
f

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Example 43:
A man with normal near point 25 cm reads a book with small print using a magnifying glass, a thin
convex lens of focal length 5 cm. (a) What is the closest and farthest distance at which he can read the
book when viewing through the magnifying glass? (b) What is the maximum and minimum MP possible
using the above simple microscope?
Solution:
(a) As for normal eye far and near point are ∞ and 25 cm respectively, so for magnifier
vmax = –∞ and vmin = –25 cm.
1 1 1 f
However, for a lens as – = i.e., u =
v u f (ƒ / v) −1
So, u will be minimum when, v min = –25 cm
5 25
i.e., (u)min = =– = – 4.17 cm
− ( 5 / 25 ) − 1 6
u will be maximum when v = maximum = ∞
5
i.e. umax = = – 5 cm
5 
 −1
 ∞ 
So the closest and farthest distance of the book from the magnifier (or eye) for clear viewing are 4.17
cm and 5 cm respectively.
(b) As in case of simple magnifier MP = (D/u). So, MP will be minimum when
u = maximum = 5 cm
 D  −25
i.e., (MP)min = 5  =  =
 f −5
And MP will be maximum when u = minimum = (25/6) cm
 D −25
i.e., (MP)max = 6 = 1 +  =
 f  − ( 25 / 6 )

9.3 Compound Microscope

A compound microscope is used to see the minute particles or small objects which are not even seen
by the simple microscope.
Principle
• Compound microscope consists of two convex lenses called objective (O) and the eye piece (E).
• Objective lens is of small aperture and small focal length and faces the object to be seen.
• Eye piece is a convex lens of large aperture and large focal length as compared to objective.
• Both the lenses are placed co-axially at a certain distance apart with a common principal axis.
• The distance between the objective and eyepiece can be adjusted with the help of rack and pinion
arrangement.

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Theory

O
B E
A" F0 A'
A F C1 F0 C2
0
u0 f0 B'

B"
D

• The object is placed beyond first focus of objective, so that an inverted and real image (intermediate
image) is formed by the objective.
• This intermediate image acts as an object for the eye piece and lies between first focus and pole of
eye piece. The final magnified virtual image is formed by the eye-piece.

Magnifying Power (or Angular Magnification)

The magnifying power of a compound microscope is defined as the ratio of the angle subtended by
the final image at the eye (β) to the angle subtended by the object at the eye (α) when both are at
a distance of least distance of distinct vision. Thus,
β
• Magnification : M= = m0 × mE
α
Distance between objective and eye-piece : L = vO + uE
where mO is magnification produced by objective lens and mE is magnification produced by the
eyepiece
v D
m0 = O & mE =
uO uE
• When the final image is formed at infinity
vO  D 
Magnifying power : M∞ =  
uO  fE 
Distance between objective and eye-piece : L=
∞ v O + fE
• When the final image is formed at D
vO  D
Magnifying power =
: MD 1 + 
uO  fE 
DfE
Distance between objective and eye-piece : L=
D vO +
D + fE
• In case of compound microscope, tube length is defined as distance between f0 and fE, final image
is formed at ∞ then
DL
M= − 0
fO fE
Where, L0 → Tube length.
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Example 44:
A compound microscope consists of an objective lens of focal length 2.0 cm and an eye piece of focal
length 6.25 cm, separated by a distance of 15 cm. How far from the objective should an object be placed
in order to obtain the final image at
(a) the least distance of distinct vision (25 cm)
(b) infinity ?
Solution:
Here, f0 = 2.0 cm; fe = 6.25 cm, u0 = ?
(a) ve = – 25 cm
1 1 1
 − =
v e ue fe
1 1 1 1 1 −1 − 4 −5
∴ = − = − = =
ue v e fe −25 6.25 25 25
⇒ ue = – 5 cm
As distance between objective and eye piece = 15 cm.
v0 = 15 – 5 = 10 cm
1 1 1
 − =
v 0 u0 f0
1 1 1 1 1 1−5
∴ = − = − =
u0 v 0 f0 10 2 10
−10
⇒ u0 = = – 2.5 cm
4
Magnifying power
v 0  D  10  25 
= 1 + = 1+ = 20
|u0 |  fe  2.5  6.25 


(b)  ve = ∞, ue = fe = 6.25 cm

∴ v0 = 15 – 6.25 = 8.75 cm.

1 1 1
 − =
v 0 u0 f0
1 1 1 1 1 2 − 8.75
∴ = − = − =
u0 v 0 f0 8.75 20 17.5
−17.5
⇒ u0 = = – 2.59 cm
6.75
v0  D 
Magnifying power = × 1 + 
|u0 |  fe 
v0 D 8.75 25
= × = × =
13.51
u0 ue 2.59 6.25

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9.4 Telescope
To look at distant objects, we use telescopes.
(1) Astronomical Telescope
It is used to see the heavenly bodies.
Construction
It consists of two convex lenses mounted coaxially in two metallic tubes.
The lens facing the object is called objective lens O. It has large aperture and large focal length f0.
The other lens through which the image is observed is called eyepiece E. It is of small aperture and
has small focal length fE.
The tube having eyepiece can be moved in and out of the tube holding objective lens with the help
of rack and pinion arrangement.
Ray Diagram
(a) When the final image is at D
O

E
f0
fe
C1 Fe F0 C
α α A" A'β
2

O B'
B" ue
D

(b) When the final image is at ∞

O

E
f0
A' C2
α C α β
1
B'

Theory
• The intermediate image formed by objective is real, inverted and small.
• The final image formed by eye-piece inverted and small.
Magnifying power (angular magnification)
Magnifying power of an astronomical telescope is defined as the ratio of the angle subtended by
the final image at the eye to the angle subtended by the object at the eye.
If α and β be the angle subtended by the object and image at the eye respectively, then
β f
M= = O
α uE
• When the final image is at infinity
f 
Magnifying power : M∞ =  O  Length of the telescope : L ∞= fO + fE
 fE 

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• When the final image is at D
 f  f  DfE
Magnifying power=: MD  O  1 + E  Length of the telescope : LD= fO +
 fE   D D + fE

(2) Galilean Telescope

• It is used as a terrestrial telescope but of much smaller field of view.
• In such telescope, a convex lens is used as the objective and a concave lens as an eye piece.
• The objective lens forms a real and inverted image but the divergent lens comes in between.
• This intermediate image acts as virtual object for eye-piece.
• The intermediate image is formed at second focus of objective.
• Final image is erect and magnified as shown in figure.
• This telescope suffers from loss of brightness.
f0
O E
fe

• It has same expressions for magnifying power as in the case of astronomical telescope.
f   f  f 
M∞ =  O  = & MD  O  1 + E 
 fE   fE   D
DfE
• But length of telescope is L ∞= fO − fE & LD= fO −
D − fE

(3) Reflecting Type Telescope

To overcome the spherical and chromatic aberration and light gathering capacity, the objective
lens of the telescope is replaced by paraboloidal mirror of large aperture. Such a telescope is known
as reflecting type telescope.
Cassegrain Telescope
It consists of a concave mirror O of large aperture with a circular hole is its centre and a small
convex mirror A placed in front of the objective O of the telescope.
Final image is observed through an eye piece placed in front of the hole of objective.
F0

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Advantages of reflecting type telescope
• Reflecting type telescopes are free from chromatic and spherical aberrations. Hence sharp image
of the object is formed.
• Since the mirrors used in reflecting type telescopes reflect the whole light falling on them, so the
image formed by these telescope is quite bright.
• The paraboloidal mirrors of large aperture can be easily manufactured.
Disadvantages of reflecting type telescope
• These type of telescopes need frequent adjustments and hence inconvenient to use.
• They cannot be used for general purpose.

Example 45:
Focal length of objective is 50 cm and that of eye piece is 2 cm. in astronomical telescope. Find MP and
its length
(i) When final image is at ∞
(ii) When final image is at D
Solution:
f 50
(i) M.P. = – O = − = –25X
fe 2
L = fO + fe = 52 cm
fO  fe 
(ii) M.P. =  1 +  = 27X
fe  D
fe D
L = fO + = 51.8 cm
fe + D

Example 46:
The magnifying power of the telescope is found to be 9 and the separation between the lenses is 20 cm
for relaxed eye. What are the focal lengths of component lenses ?
Solution:
F
Magnification M =
f
Separation between lenses
d=F+f
F
Given = 9 i.e., F = 9f ......(1)
f
and F + f = 20 ......(2)
Putting value of F from (1) in (2), we get
9f + f = 20 ⇒ 10 f = 20
20
⇒ = 2cm
10
∴ F = 9f = 9 × 2 = 18 cm
∴ F = 18 cm, f = 2 cm

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Example 47:
A telescope consists of two convex lens of focal length 16 cm and 2 cm. What is angular magnification
of telescope for relaxed eye? What is the separation between the lenses ?
If object subtends an angle of 0.5° on the eye, what will be angle subtended by its image ?
Solution:
Angular magnification
β F 16
M= = = = 8 cm
α f 2
Separation between lenses
= F + f = 16 + 2 = 18 cm
Here α = 0.5°
∴ Angular magnification subtended by image
β = M α = 8 × 0.5° = 4°

Exercise 1.10

1. Minimum and maximum distance should be 5. The image formed by an objective of a

for clear vision of healthy eye: compound microscope is:
(1) 100 cm & 500 cm (1) virtual and diminished
(2) Infinite & 25 cm (2) real and diminished
(3) 25 cm & 100 cm (3) real and enlarged
(4) 25 cm & infinite (4) virtual and enlarged

2. The focal length of convex lens is 2.5 cm. Its 6. The distance between objective and eyepiece
magnifying power for minimum distance of of the compound microscope is 14 cm. The
distinct vision will be: magnifying power for relaxed eye is 25. If the
(1) 25 (2) 52 focal length of eye lens is 5 cm, then the
(3) 11 (4) 1.1 object distance for objective lens will be:
(1) 1.8 cm
3. Least distance of distinct vision is 25 cm, (2) 1.5 cm
What will be Magnifying power of simple
(3) 2.1 cm
microscope of focal length 5 cm, if final
(4) 2.4 cm
image is formed at minimum distance of
distinct vision:
7. If the focal length of objective and eye lens
(1) 1/5 (2) 5
are 1.2 cm and 3 cm respectively and the
(3) 1/6 (4) 6
object is put 1.25 cm away from the objective
lens and the final image is formed at infinity.
4. Magnification of a compound microscope is
The magnifying power of the microscope is:
30. Focal length of eye piece is 5 cm and the
(1) 150
image is formed at least distance of distinct
(2) 200
vision. Find the magnification of objective.
(3) 250
(1) 30 (2) 6
(4) 400
(3) 5 (4) 1

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8. The powers of the lenses of a telescope are 12. The objective of small telescope has focal
0.5 and 20 diopters. If the final image is length 120 cm and diameter 5 cm. The focal
formed at the minimum distance of distinct length of the eye-piece is 2 cm. The
vision (25 cm) then what will be length of the magnifying power of the telescope for
tube ? distant object is:
(1) 201 cm (2) 200 cm (1) 12 (2) 24
(3) 206.25 cm (4) 204.17 cm (3) 60 (4) 300

9. A telescope consisting of an objective of 13. An astronomical telescope has a magnifying

focal length 60 cm and an eyepiece of focal power 10 for distance object. The focal
length 5 cm is focused to a distant object in length of the eye-piece is 20 cm. The focal
such a way that parallel rays emerge from the length of the objective is:
eye piece. If the object subtends an angle of (1) 2 cm (2) 200 cm
2° at the objective, then find the angular (3) (1/2) cm (4) (1/200) cm
width of the image.
(1) 24° (2) 12° 14. The distance between the objective lens and
(3) 4° (4) 6° the eye lens of an astronomical telescope
when adjusted for parallel light is 100 cm.
10. The focal lengths of the objective and the eye The measured value of the magnification is
piece of an astronomical telescope are 60 cm 19. The focal lengths of the lenses are:
and 5 cm respectively. Calculate the (1) 85 and 15 cm (2) 82 and 18 cm
magnifying power and the length of the (3) 95 and 5 cm (4) 50 and 50 cm
telescope when the final image is formed at
(i) infinity, (ii) least distance of distinct vision 15. In order to increase the magnifying power of
(25 cm). a telescope:
(1) (i) 12, 65 cm (ii) 14.4, 64.17 cm (1) the focal powers of the objective and the
(2) (i) 6, 65 cm (ii) 10, 64.17 cm eye-piece should be large
(3) (i) 12, 60 cm (ii) 14.4, 67 cm (2) objective should have small focal length
(4) (i) 12, 65 cm (ii) 18, 70 cm and the eye-piece should have large
(3) both should have large focal length
11. A telescope consisting of objective of focal (4) the objective should have large focal
length 60 cm and a single lens eye piece of length and the eye-piece should have
focal length 5 cm is focused at a distant small
object in such a way that parallel rays
emerge from the eye piece. If the object 16. An astronomical telescope of magnifying
subtends an angle of 2° at the objective, then power 8 is made using two lenses spaced 45
angular width of image will be: cm apart. The focal length of the lenses used
(1) 10° are
(2) 24° (1) F = 40 cm, f = 5 cm
(3) 48° (2) F = 8 cm, f = 5 cm
(4) 54° (3) F = 5 cm, f = 47 cm
(4) F = 20 cm, f = 5 cm

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10. EXPERIMENTAL
10.1 The focal length of mirror and lens using parallax method;
When an object is placed at a distance u in front of a convex lens/concave mirror, it forms an image at
a distance v from the lens/mirror. The two values u and v are related to each other.
1 1 1
For a lens, the relationship is − = .
v u f
1 1 1
For a mirror, the relationship is + =.
v u f
Arrangement: The lens/mirror is fixed on an optical bench with a scale marked on it to measure the
distance of object and image. The lens or mirror is fixed. There are two other stands in which two pin
shaped objects are fixed. One of these is the object pin. This acts as an object. The other one is called
image pin. It is used to locate the image position. When there is no parallax between the image pin and
image seen in the lens/mirror, the image pin represents the position of the image.
Convex lens

image pin u v
optical bench
object pin lens stand
u v
Fig:1

Concave mirror u

u
u optical bench
image pin object pin mirror stand
v
Fig:2

Procedure : Following steps are to be followed.

1. Fix the lens on the lens stand.
2. Place object pin in front of the lens. Measure the distance between the two. The value of u will be
negative of the above distance.
3. Place the image pin on the other side of the lens at such a distance from the lens, so that there is
no parallax between image pin and image seen in the lens. The value of v will be the distance
between the lens and image pin.
1 1 1
4. Compute the focal length of the lens using lens formula − = .
v u f
1 1
5. Plot a graph between u and v and and .
u v
For a convex lens, the shape of graphs obtained are shown.
v 1/v

(i) u (ii) 1/u

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For a concave mirror, the shape of graphs obtained are shown.
v 1/v

(i) u (ii) 1/u

6. In the u-v curve, we draw a line at 45°C as shown in figure.

v

P B
45°
u
A O

This line intersect the curve at point P. PB and PA are parallel to axes. Here OA = OB = 2f. So, focal
OA
length f =
2
10.2 To find the focal length of a convex mirror using a convex lens.
An object AB is placed at point P' in front of a thin convex lens such that its real, inverted and magnified
image A'B' is formed at position C on the other side of the lens (Fig. (b)). Now a convex mirror is
introduced between the convex lens and point C and so adjusted that the real and inverted image A'B'
coincides with the object AB at point P' (Fig. (a)). This is possible if the light rays starting from the tip
of the object, after passing through the lens, fall normally on the reflecting surface of the convex mirror
and retrace their path. The distance PC is the radius of curvature R and half of it would be the focal
length of the convex mirror. That is,
PC R
=f =
2 2
Image of object L'
pin P1 M'
A'
P' B' P
B O 2F2
R
A Object
pin P1 L M
(a)
L'
A'
Image of
C
B B' object pin P2
2F1 P' F1 O F2 2F2
Object Image
pin P1 A pin P2
L
(b)
Figure: Image formed by (a) convex mirror and convex lens-image A'B' coincides with the object AB at P'
(b) convex lens- image is inverted and magnified
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Procedure:
1. Estimate the approximate value of focal length of convex lens if it is unknown.
2. Place the optical bench on a rigid table or on a platform. Using the spirit level, make it horizontal
with the help of leveling screws provided at the base of the bench.
3. Place the uprights mounted with pin P1 (object pin), convex lens LL', and convex mirror MM' on the
horizontal optical bench.
4. Verify that the lens, mirror, and pin P1 are vertically placed on the optical bench. Also verify that
the tip of the pin, optical centre O of the convex lens LL', and pole P' of the convex mirror MM' lie
on the same horizontal straight line, parallel to the optical bench.
5. Place the object pin P1 from the convex lens LL' at a distance 'slightly greater than the focal length
of the lens.
6. Adjust the position of the convex mirror MM' till a real and inverted image coincides with the object
pin P1. This takes place when the rays starting from the tip of pin P1, after passing through the lens
strike the mirror normally and are reflected back along their original paths. Remove the parallax
between the image and object pins.
7. Read the position of uprights holding the object pin P1, convex lens LL', and convex mirror MM' and
record the observations in the observation table.
8. Remove the convex mirror from its upright and fix image pin P2 on it. Adjust the height of pin such
that the tip of it also lies on the principal axis of the lens. That is, the tips of the pins P1 and P2 and
the optical centre O of the convex lens, all lie on a straight horizontal line parallel to the length of
the optical bench.
9. Using the method of parallax and without changing the position of lens LL' and object pin P1, adjust
the position of image pin P2 on the other side of the lens so that it coincides with the real and
inverted image of the object pin P1 formed by the convex lens. Note the position of the image pin.
10. Repeat the experiment by changing the separation between the pin P1 and lens LL' and the mirror
MM'. In this manner, take five sets of observations.

10.3 The plot of the angle of deviation vs angle of incidence for a triangular prism.
To determine the angle of minimum deviation for a given prism by plotting a graph between angle of
incidence and angle of deviation.
Refraction occurs when a light ray travels R1 N1 R2 N2 R3 N3
from one medium to another resulting in P1

deviation of the emergent ray from that of 35° 40° 45°

P2 P2
the incident ray. Following is the
Q1 A B Q2 A B Q3 A
refractive index of the material used in the x'
x B F F3
prism: 1 F2
S1 S2 S3
 A + δm  C
sin   C D2 C D3
µ= 
2  P3 D1
A K2
sin   P4 K1 K3
2
T1 T2 T3
Where Dm is the angle of minimum
deviation and A is the prism angle.
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Procedure :
1. Place the white sheet of paper on the drawing board and fix it with the help of drawing pins.
2. XX′ is the straight line drawn parallel to the length of the paper such that it is in the middle of the
paper.
3. Mark points Q1 ,Q2 ,Q3 … On the straight line XX' at a distance of 5 cm each.
4. N1Q1 ,N2Q2 ,… are the normal that are drawn on the points Q1 ,Q2 ,… as shown in the ray diagram.

5. Make angles of 35° ,40° ,…60° by drawing straight line R1Q1 ,R2Q2 ,… . with respect to the normal.
6. To take one edge of the prism for all the observations, mark any corner of the prism as A.
7. Place the prism with its refracting face AB on the line XX′ and on the point Q1 and also in the
middle of AB.
8. Mark the boundary of the prism.
9. On the line, R1Q1 , fix office pins vertically and mark them as P1 and P2 the distance between these
pins shouid not be less than 10 cm
10. Through the prism face, AC, look for the images of the points P1 and P2
11. Close your left eye and with the right eye open, bring it in line with the two images.
12. Fix the other two office pins vertically and name them as P3 and P4 . These pins should be 10 cm
apart from each other. P3 and P4 should be in one straight with respect to the images of P1 and P2 .
13. Encircle the pricks of pins P3 and P4 .

14. For points, Q2 ,Q3 ,… for angle 40° ,45° ,60° , repeat the steps 7 to 13.

To measure D in a different case

1. To get emergent rays S1 T1 ,S2 T2 … draw straight lines through P3 and P4 .
2. Inward the boundary of the prism to produce T1 S1 ,T2 S2 … so that they meet incident rays
R1Q1 ,R2Q2 ,… at points F1 ,F2 ,…
3. To obtain the angle of deviation δ1 , δ2 ,… measure the Graph between i and D
angles K 1F1 S1 ,KFS,… 50°
The graph above indicates as the angle of incidence
45°
Angle of deviation (D)

increases; the angle of deviation first decreases to attain the

minimum value of δm and then again increase with the angle
40°
of incidence.
Dm
Let the value of angle of minimum deviation, δm
35°
 A + δm 
sin   i =e
µ= 
2 
30° 35° 40° 45° 50° 55° 60°
A
sin   Angle of incidence (i)
2

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10.4 Refractive index of a glass slab using a travelling microscope.
To determine the refractive index of a glass slab using a travelling microscope.
The principle behind glass slab
When a glass slab is placed in air on a horizontal surface and its bottom surface is viewed from the top,
it appears to be elevated due to refraction. The apparent thickness of the slab is determined by the
distance between the apparent bottom and the top of the glass slab. The refractive index of glass with
respect to the medium, air is given as:
real thickness of the slab
nga =
apparent thickness of the slab

S S S
M
V
M
M V R3

V R2
R1

S
P1
P
(a) (b) (c)
Real and apparent thickness
Procedure
Adjustment of a travelling microscope
1. To get sufficient light, place the travelling microscope (M) near the window.
2. To make the base of the microscope horizontal, adjust the levelling screw.
3. For clear visibility of the cross wire, adjust the position of the eyepiece.
4. For the vertical scale of the microscope, determine the vernier constant.
5. Mark point P on the microscope's base using black ink.
6. To avoid the parallax between the cross-wires and the mark P, make the microscope vertical and
focus on P.
7. Let R1 be the vernier scale and main scale reading on the vertical scale.
8. Place the glass slab with the least thickness over the mark P.
9. Let P1 be the image of the cross mark. Move the microscope upwards and focus on P1.
10. For reading, R2 on the vertical scale repeat step 7 .
11. Sprinkle a few particles of lycopodium powder on the slab's surface.
12. To focus the particle near S, raise the microscope further upward.
13. For reading, R3 on the vertical scale repeat step 7 .
14. Repeat the above steps for different thickness glass slabs.

Result :
R −R
The ratio = = nga (Refractive index of glass slab with respect to air)
: 3 1 constant
R3 − R2
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Exercise 1.11

1. An object is placed in front of a convex mirror 5. A small pin fixed on a table top is viewed from
at a distance 60 cm. A plane mirror is above from a distance of 50cm. The distance
introduced covering the lower half of the the pin appear to be raised if it is viewed from
convex mirror. If the distance between the
object and plane mirror is 40 cm. it is found the same point through a 15 cm thick glass
that there is no parallax between the images slab held parallel to the table is [Refractive
formed by the two mirrors. The radius of index of glass = 1.5]
curvature of convex mirror is (1) 5 cm
(1) 25 cm (2) 60 cm (2) 10 cm
(3) 20 cm (4) 30 cm
(3) 2.5 cm
2. In the arrangement of convex lens and (4) 7.5 cm
convex mirror, shown below. If there is no
parallax between object and image, then the 6. What should be the distance between lens
value of focal length of convex mirror is
and mirror so that image formed on the
f = 20cm
object itself?
f = 20cm
R = 20cm

30 cm A
40cm
20 cm
(1) 40 cm (2) 30 cm d
(3) 20 cm (4) 25 cm between

3. If the angle of prism is 60° and angle of (1) 40 cm

minimum deviation is 30° then the value of (2) 10 cm
angle of incidence and emergence will be (3) 60 cm
respectively (4) both (1) and (3)
(1) 45°, 50° (2) 30°, 45°
(3) 45°, 45° (4) 30°, 30°
7. Find out the value of d such that light rays
4. For an experiment to calculate minimum retrace its path after reflection from mirror?
deviation angle for a triangular glass prism f = 20cm R = 6cm
following setup was made and rays were
traced as shown in the diagram below

60°
e
i r2
r1 R S
Q d
P (1) 26 cm
(2) 14 cm
Choose the correct observation (3) 32 cm
(1) QR is horizontal (2) ∠r1 = ∠r2 = 60°
(4) 34 cm
(3) ∠i =∠e =60° (4) All of these
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Exercise 2

1. To get three images of a single object, one 5. A short linear object of length b lies along the
should have two plane mirrors at an angle of: axis of a concave mirror of focal length f, at a
(1) 60° (2) 90° distance u from the mirror. The size of the
(3) 120° (4) 30° image is approximately:
1/2 1/2
u−f   f 
(1) b   (2) b  
2. Two plane mirrors are inclined to each other  f  u−f 
such that a ray of light incident on the first u−f   f 
2
(3) b   (4) b  
mirror (M1) and parallel to the second mirror  f  u−f 
(M2) is finally reflected from the second
mirror (M2) parallel to the first mirror (M1). 6. A thin rod of length f/3 is placed along the
The angle between the two mirrors will be: optic axis of a concave mirror of focal length
(1) 90° (2) 45° f such that its image, which is real and
(3) 75° (4) 60° elongated, just touches the rod. The
magnification is ………………… :
(1) + 1.5 (2) − 1.5
3. A point source of light, S is placed at a
(3) − 0.67 (4) − 2.5
distance L in front of the centre of plane
mirror of width d which is hanging vertically
7. A instrument uses two mirror as shown in
on a wall. A man walks in front of the mirror
figure. Such instrument is built with the
along a line parallel to the mirror, at a mirrors 20 mm apart. If the radius of
distance 2L as shown below. The distance curvature of the large mirror is 220 mm and
over which the man can see the image of the the small mirror is 140 mm. Where will the
light source in the mirror is: final image from M3 of an object at infinity be:
Objective mirror
d S M1
Secondary
mirror M3
L Eyepiece
M2
2L
(1) 3 d (2) d / 2 (1) 21 cm (2) 31.5 cm
(3) 27.5 cm (4) 19 cm
(3) d (4) 2 d

8. A light ray falls on a square glass slab as

4. You are asked to design a shaving mirror
shown in the diagram. The index of refraction
assuming that a person keeps it 10 cm from of the glass, if total internal reflection is to
his face and views the magnified image of the just occur at the vertical face, is equal to:
face at the closest comfortable distance of 25 45°
cm. The radius of curvature of the mirror Incident ray
would then be:
(1) 60 cm
(2) 24 cm
(3) − 60 cm (1) 32 (2) ( )
2 +1 2
(4) − 24 cm (3) 3/2 (4) 52

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9. A diver looking up through the water sees the 13. What is the position and nature of image
outside world contained in a circular horizon. formed by lens combination shown in figure:
The refractive index of water is 4 3 , and the (f1, f2 are focal lengths)
diver’s eyes are 15 cm below the surface of 20cm
water. Then the radius of the circle is:
A B
(1) 15 × 3 × 5cm (2) 15 × 3 × 7cm o
15 × 7 15 × 3
(3) cm (4) cm
3 7 f2=–5cm
20cm f1=+5cm

10. What should be the maximum acceptance (1) 70 cm from point B at left; virtual
angle at the air-core interface of an optical (2) 40 cm from point B at right; real
fiber if n1 and n2 are the refractive indices of 20
(3) cm from point B at right, real
the core and the cladding, respectively: 3
–1 –1 (4) 70 cm from point B at right, real
(1) sin (n2n1) (2) sin n21 – n22

 n   n  14. A transparent solid cylindrical rod has a

(3)  tan–1 2  (4)  tan–1 1 
 n1   n2  2
refractive index of . It is surrounded by
3
11. A light ray is incident perpendicularly to one air. A light ray is incident at the midpoint of
face of a 90° prism and is totally internally one end of the rod as shown in the figure.
reflected at the glass – air interface. If the
angle of reflection is 45°, we conclude that
θ
the refractive index n:
The incident angle for which the light ray
grazes along the wall of the rod is:
45°
1  3
(1) sin−1   (2) sin−1  
2  2 
θ
 2   1 
(3) sin−1   (4) sin−1  
(1) n < 1/ 2 (2) n > 2  3  3
(3) n > 1/ 2 (4) n < 2
15. A thin glass (refractive index 1.5) lens has
optical power of − 5 D in air. Its optical power
12. The graph between angle of deviation (δ) and
in a liquid medium with refractive index 1.6
angle of incidence (i) for a triangular prism is
will be:
represented by:
(1) − 1 D (2) 1 D
δ δ (3) − 25 D (4) 5/8 D
(1) (2)
16. The focal length of the objective and eye
piece of a microscope are respectively 1cm
O i O i and 2cm. The distance between them is 12
δ δ cm. Where an object should be placed in
(3) (4) order to view it at the least distant of distinct
vision.
(1) 4.05 cm (2) 0.05 cm
O i O i (3) 2.05 cm (4) 1.1 cm
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17. An astronomical telescope of length 50 cm 23. In the No. 22, what is the height of the final
produces a magnification of 9 in normal image of the tower if it is formed at 25 cm is
adjustment. Calculate focal length of its nearly
objective and eye piece. (1) 18.8 cm (2) 32 cm
(1) 4cm, 2cm (2) 30cm, 5cm (3) 28 cm (4) None of these
(3) 55cm, 10cm (4) 45cm, 5 cm
24. A glass prism (µ =1.5) is dipped in water
18. A compound microscope consists of an
objective lens of focal length 2 cm and an eye (µ =4 / 3) as shown in figure. A light ray is
piece of focal length 6.25 cm separated by a incident normally on the surface AB. It
distance of 15 cm. How far from the objective reaches the surface BC after totally
should on object be placed in order to obtain reflected, if
the final image at the least distance of
B A
distinct vision (25 cm): θ
(1) 2.5 cm (2) 1.67 cm
(3) 2 cm (4) 3.3 cm C

(1) sin θ > 8/9 (2) 2/3 < sin θ < 8/9
19. A astronomical telescope has an objective
lens of focal length 140 cm and an eye piece (3) sinθ ≤ 2/3 (4) It is not possible
of focal length 5 cm. What is the magnifying
power of the telescope for viewing distant 25. A vessel is half filled with a liquid of
objects when the telescope is in normal refractive index µ The other half of the
adjustment (i.e. when the final image is at vessel is filled with an immiscible liquid of
infinity): refractive index 1.5 µ . The apparent depth of
(1) 13 (2) 7 vessel is 50% of the actual depth. The value
(3) 6 (4) 28 of µ is
(1) 1.6 (2) 1.67
20. In the No. 19, the final image is formed at the
(3) 1.5 (4) 1.4
least distance of distinct vision (25 cm) then
magnification will be:
26. A bulb is located on a wall. Its image is to be
(1) 28 (2) 33.6
obtained on a parallel wall with the help of
(3) 72 (4) ∞
convex lens. If the distance between parallel
walls is ‘d’ then required focal length of lens
21. In the No. 19, what is the separation between
placed in between the walls is:-
the objective lens and the eyepiece:
(1) 145 cm (2) 135 cm d
(1) Only
(3) 105 cm (4) 75 cm 4
d
(2) Only
22. In the No. 19, if this telescope is used to view 2
a 100 m tall tower 3 km away, what is the d d
(3) More than but lens than
approximate height of the image of the tower 4 2
formed by the objective lens: d
(4) Less than or equal to
(1) 2 cm (2) 6 cm 4
(3) 4.7 cm (4) 7 cm

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27. In compound microscope, the magnification 32. When a biconvex lens of glass having
is 95, and the distance of object from refractive index 1.47 is dipped in a liquid, it
1 acts as a plane sheet of glass. This implies
objective lens cm and focal length of that the liquid must have refractive index:
3.8
1 (1) less than that of glass
objective is cm. What is the angular (2) equal to that of glass
4
(3) less than one
magnification of eye-piece when final image
(4) greater than that of glass
is formed at least distance of distinct vision:
(1) 5 (2) 10 33. A rod of length 10 cm lies along the principal
(3) 100 (4) none of these axis of a concave mirror of focal length 10 cm
in such a way that its end closer to the pole is
20 cm away from the mirror. The length of the
28. Which of these is not due to total internal
image is:
reflection:
(1) 10 cm (2) 15 cm
(1) Working of optical fiber
(3) 2.5 cm (4) 5 cm
(2) Difference between apparent and real
depth of pond 34. A ray of light is incident at an angle of
(3) Mirage on hot summer days incidence, i on one face of a prism of angle A
(assumed to be small) and emerges normally
(4) Brilliance of diamond
from the opposite face. If the refractive index
of the prism is µ, the angle of incidence i, is
29. A biconvex lens has a radius of curvature of
nearly equal to:
magnitude 20 cm. Which one of the following
A
options describes best the image formed of (1) (2) µA
2µ
an object of height 2 cm placed 30 cm from
µA A
the lens: (µ = 1.5) (3) (4)
(1) Virtual, upright, height = 0.5 cm 2 µ
(2) Real, inverted, height = 4 cm 35. A concave mirror of focal length f1 is placed
(3) Real, inverted, height = 1 cm at a distance of d from a convex lens of focal
(4) Virtual, upright, height = 1 cm length f2. A beam of light coming from
infinity and falling on the convex lens-
30. A thin prism of angle 15° made of glass of concave mirror combination returns to
refractive index µ1 = 1.5 is combined with infinity. The distance d must equal:
another prism of glass of refractive index (1) –2f1 + f2 (2) f1 + f2
µ2 = 1.75. The combination of the prism (3) –f1 + f2 (4) 2f1 + f2
produces dispersion without deviation. The 36. For the angle of minimum deviation of a
angle of the second prism should be: prism to be equal to its refracting angle, the
(1) 7° (2) 10° prism must be made of a material whose
(3) 12° (4) 5° refractive index:
(1) lies between 2 and 1
31. A conversing beam of rays is incident on a (2) lies between 2 and 2
diverging lens. Having passed through the (3) is less than 1
lens the rays intersect at a point 15 cm from (4) is greater than 2
the lens on the opposite side. If the lens is 37. The magnifying power of a telescope is 9.
removed the point where the rays will move 5 When it is adjusted for parallel rays the
cm closer to the lens. The focal length of the distance between the objective and eye-piece
lens is: is 20 cm. The focal lengths of lenses are:
(1) –10 cm (2) 20 cm (1) 11 cm, 9 cm (2) 10 cm, 10 cm
(3) –30 cm (4) 5 cm (3) 15 cm, 5 cm (4) 18 cm, 2 cm
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Exercise 3

Matrix-Match Type 2. Four combinations of two thin lenses are

1. An optical component and an object S placed given in Column I. The radius of curvature of
all curved surfaces is r and the refractive
along its optic axis are given in Column I. The
index of all the lenses is 1.5. Match lens
distance between the object and the combinations in Column I with their focal
length in Column II and select the correct
component can be varied. The properties of answer
images are given in Column II. Match all the Column I Column II

properties of images from Column II with the

(a) (p) 2r
appropriate components given in Column I

and choose correct option.

Column I Column II
r
(b) (q)
2

S
(a) (p) Real image
(c) (r) -r

S (d) (s) r
(b) (q) Virtual image

Code:
(1) a-p, b-q, c-r, d-s (2) a-q, b-s, c-r, d-p
(3) a-s, b-p, c-q, d-r (4) a-q, b-p, c-r, d-s
S Magnified
(c) (r)
image For The Question (3 to 8)
In each of the following questions, a
statement of Assertion (A) is given followed
S Image at by a corresponding statement of Reason (R)
(d) (s) just below it. Of the statements, mark the
infinity
correct answer as :
(A) If both assertion and reason are true and
(1) a-p,q,r,s; b-q; c-p,q,r,s; d-p,q,r,s reason is the correct explanation of
(2) a-p, r,s; b-q,p; c-p,s; d-q,r,s Assertion.
(B) If both assertion and reason are true but
(3) a- q,r,s; b-p,q,r; c-p,q,r; d-p reason is not the correct explanation of
(4) a- r,s; b-q,s; c- r,s; d- r Assertion.
(C) If assertion is true but reason is false.
(D) If both assertion and reason are false.

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3. Assertion : The edges of the images of white 6. Assertion : A secondary rainbow have
object formed by a concave mirror on the inverted colours than the primary rainbow.
screen appear white. Reason : The secondary rainbow is formed by
Reason : Concave mirror does not suffer from single total internal reflection.
chromatic aberration. (1) A (2) B
(1) A (2) B (3) C (4) D
(3) C (4) D
7. Assertion : When an object is placed between
4. Assertion : If objective and eye lenses of a two plane parallel mirrors, then all the
microscope are interchanged, then it can images found are of equal intensity.
work as telescope. Reason : In case of plane parallel mirrors,
Reason : The objective lens of telescope has only two images are possible.
small focal length. (1) A (2) B
(1) A (2) B (3) C (4) D
(3) C (4) D
8. Assertion : A ray of light is incident from
5. Assertion : The relation among u, v and f for outside on a glass sphere surrounded by air.
the spherical mirror is valid only for mirrors This ray may suffer total internal reflection at
whose sizes are very small compared to their second interface.
radii of curvature. Reason : If a ray of light goes from denser to
Reason : The laws of reflection are strictly rarer medium, it bends away from the
valid for plane surfaces but not for large normal.
spherical surfaces. (1) A (2) B
(1) A (2) B (3) C (4) D
(3) C (4) D

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Exercise 4 (Previous Year's Questions)

1. The angle of a prism is A. One of its refracting 5. A beam of light consisting of red, green and
surfaces is silvered. Light rays falling at an blue colours is incident on a right-angled
angle of incidence 2A on the first surface prism. The refractive index of the material of
returns back through the same path after the prism for the above red, green and blue
suffering reflection at the silvered surface. wavelengths are 1.39, 1.44 and 1.47,
The refractive index µ of the prism: respectively.
[AIPMT_2014] A
(1) 2 sin A (2) 2 cos A
Blue
1 Green
(3) cos A (4) tan A Red
2

45°
2. If the focal length of objective lens is B C
increased, then magnifying power of:
The prism will: [RE-AIPMT_2015]
[AIPMT_2014]
(1) separate the red colour apart from the
(1) Microscope will increase but that of
green and blue colours
telescope decrease
(2) separate the blue colour apart from the
(2) Microscope and telescope both will
red and green colours
increase
(3) separate all the three colours from one
(3) Microscope and telescope both will
another
decrease
(4) not separate the three colours at all
(4) Microscope will decrease but that of
telescope will increase
6. Two identical thin planoconvex glass lenses
(refractive index 1.5) each having radius of
3. In an astronomical telescope in normal
curvature of 20 cm are placed with their
adjustment a straight black line of length L is
convex surface in contact at the centre. The
drawn on inside part of objective lens. The
intervening space is filled with oil of
eyepiece forms a real image of this line. The
refractive index 1.7. The focal length of the
length of this image is Ι. The magnification of
combination is: [AIPMT_2015]
the telescope is:
(1) –20 cm (2) –25 cm
[AIPMT_2015]
(3) –50 cm (4) 50 cm
L L
(1) (2) + 1
I I
7. The angle of incidence for a ray of light at a
L L+I
(3) – 1 (4) refracting surface of a prism is 45°. The angle
I L−I
of prism is 60°. If the ray suffers minimum
deviation through the prism, the angle of
4. The refracting angle of a prism is A, and
minimum deviation and refractive index of
refractive index of the material of the prism
the material of the prism respectively, are:
is cot(A/2.) The angle of minimum deviation
[NEET-I_2016]
is: [AIPMT_2015]
(1) 45ο ,1 / 2 (2) 30ο , 2
(1) 180° – 3 A (2) 180° – 2 A
(3) 90° – A (4) 180° + 2 A (3) 45ο , 2 (4) 30ο ,1 / 2

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8. A astronomical telescope has objective and 12. An air bubble in a glass slab with refractive
eyepiece of focal length 40 cm and 4 cm index 1.5 (near normal incidence) is 5 cm
respectively. To view an object 200 cm away deep when viewed from one surface and 3 cm
from the objective, the lenses must be deep when viewed from the opposite face. The
separated by a distance: [NEET-I_2016] thickness (in cm) of the slab is 1:
(1) 37.3 cm (2) 46.0 cm [NEET-II_2016]
(3) 50.0 cm (4) 54.0 cm (1) 8 (2) 10
(3) 12 (4) 16
9. Match the corresponding entries of Column -
1 with column-2 (Where m is the 13. A thin prism having refractive angle 10° is
magnification produced by the mirror): made of glass of refractive index 1.42. This
[NEET-I_2016] prism is combined with another thin prism of
Column -1 Column-2 glass of refractive index 1.7. This
(A) m = – 2 (a) Convex mirror combination produces dispersion without
(B) m = –1/2 (b) Concave mirror deviation. The refracting angle of second
(C) m = +2 (c) Real image prism should be: [NEET_2017]
(D) m = +1/2 (d) Virtual image (1) 6° (2) 8°
(1) A → b,c / B → b,c / C → b,d / D → a,d (3) 10° (4) 4°
(2) A → a,c / B → a,d / C → a,b / D → c,d
(3) A → a,d / B → b,c / C → b,d / D → b,c 14. A beam of light from a source L is incident
(4) A → c,d / B → b,d / C → b,c / D → a,d normally on a plane mirror fixed at a certain
distance x from the source. The beam is
10. A person can see clearly objects when they reflected back as a spot on a scale placed just
lie between 50 cm and 400 cm from his eyes. above the source L. When the mirror is
In order to increase the maximum distance of rotated through a small angle θ, the spot of
distinct vision to infinity, the type and power the light is found to move through a distance
of the correcting lens, the person has to use, y on the scale. The angle θ is given by:
will be: [NEET-II_2016] [NEET_2017]
(1) concave, -0.2 diopter y y
(1) (2)
(2) convex, +0.15 diopter 2x x
(3) convex, +2.25 diopter x x
(3) (4)
(4) concave, -0.25 diopter 2y y

11. Two identical glass (µg =3/2) equiconvex 15. An object is placed a distance of 40 cm from a
lenses of focal length f each are kept in concave mirror of focal length 15 cm. If the
contact. The space between the two lenses is object is displaced through a distance of 20 cm
filled with water (µw = 4 / 3) . The focal length towards the mirror, the displacement of the
of the combination is: image will be: [NEET_2018]
[NEET-II_2016] (1) 30 cm away from the mirror
(1) 4f/3 (2) 36 cm away from the mirror
(2) 3f/4 (3) 30 cm towards the mirror
(3) f/3 (4) 36 cm towards the mirror
(4) f

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16. The refractive index of the material of a prism 20. Pick the wrong answer in the context with
is 2 and the angle of the prism is 30°. One rainbow: [NEET_2019]
of the two refracting surfaces of the prism is (1) Rainbow is a combined effect of dispersion,
made a mirror inwards, by silver coating. A refraction and reflection of sunlight.
beam of monochromatic light entering the (2) When the light rays undergo two internal
prism from the other face will retrace its path reflections in a water drop, a secondary
(after reflection from the silvered surface) if rainbow is formed.
its angle of incidence on the prism is: (3) The order of colours is reversed in the
[NEET_2018] secondary rainbow.
(1) 60° (2) 45° (4) An observer can see a rainbow when his
(3) 30° (4) zero front is towards the sun.

17. In total internal reflection when the angle of 21. Which colour of the light has the longest
incidence is equal to the critical angle for the wavelength: [NEET_2019]
pair of media in contact, what will be angle (1) violet (2) red
of refraction: [NEET_2019] (3) blue (4) green
(1) 90°
(2) 180° 22. A ray is incident at an angle of incidence i on
(3) 0° one surface of a small angle prism (with
(4) equal to angle of incidence angle of prism (A) and emerges normally
from the opposite surface. If the refractive
18. Two similar thin equi-convex lenses, of focal index of the material of the prism is µ, then
length f each, are kept coaxially in contact the angle of incidence is nearly equal to:
with each other such that the focal length of [NEET_2020]
the combination is F1. When the space µA
(1) µA (2)
between the two lenses is filled with glycerin 2
(which has the same refractive index (µ = 1.5) A 2A
(3) (4)
as that of glass) then the equivalent focal 2µ µ
length is F2. The ratio F1 : F2 will be:
[NEET_2019] 23. An object is placed on the principal axis of a
concave mirror at a distance of 1.5 f(f is the
(1) 3 : 4 (2) 2 : 1
focal length). The image will be at:
(3) 1 : 2 (4) 2 : 3
[NEET_2020(Covid)]
(1) –3 f (2) 1.5 f
19. An equiconvex lens has power P. It is cut into
(3) –1.5 f (4) 3 f
two symmetrical halves by a plane
containing the principal axis. The power of
one part will be: [NEET_2019(Odisha)] 24. If the critical angle for total internal
(1) 0 reflection from a medium to vacuum is 45°,
then velocity of light in the medium is:
P
(2) [NEET_2020(Covid)]
2
8 3
P (1) 1.5 × 10 m/s (2) × 108 m / s
(3) 2
4
8
(4) P (3) 2 × 108 m / s (4) 3 × 10 m/s

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25. The power of a biconvex lens is 10 dioptre and 28. A convex lens 'A' of focal length 20 cm and a
the radius of curvature of each surface is 10 cm. concave lens 'B' of focal length 5 cm are kept
Then the refractive index of the material of the along the same axis with a distance 'd'
lens is: [NEET_2020(Covid)] between them. If a parallel beam of light
4 9 falling on 'A' leaves 'B' as a parallel beam,
(1) (2)
3 8 then the distance 'd' in cm will be:
5 3 [NEET_2021]
(3) (4)
3 2 (1) 25 (2) 15
(3) 50 (4) 30
26. A point object is placed at a distance of 60 cm
from a convex lens of focal length 30 cm. If a 29. A biconvex lens has radii of curvature, 20 cm
plane mirror were put perpendicular to the each. If the refractive index of the material of
principal axis of the lens and at a distance of the lens is 1.5, the power of the lens is:
40 cm from it, the final image would be [NEET_2022]
formed at a distance of: [NEET_2021] (1) + 2D
(2) + 20D
(3) + 5D
(4) infinity

30. Two transparent media A and B are separated

60 cm 40 cm by a plane boundary. The speed of light in
8 8
(1) 20 cm from the lens, it would be a real those media are 1.5 × 10 m/s and 2.0 × 10
image. m/s, respectively. The critical angle for a ray
(2) 30 cm from the lens, it would be a real of light for these two media is: [NEET_2022]
image. (1) sin
—1
(0.50)
(3) 30 cm from the plane mirror, it would be —1
(2) sin (0.75)
a virtual image. —1
(3) tan (0.50)
(4) 20 cm from the plane mirror, it would be —1
(4) tan (0.75)
a virtual image.

31. Light travels a distance x in time t1 in air and

27. Find the value of the angle of emergence
from the prism. Refractive index of the glass 10x in time t2 in another denser medium.
is 3: [NEET_2021] What is the critical angle for this medium?
[NEET_2023]
t 
90° (1) sin−1  2 
 t1 
 10 t2 
(2) sin−1  
60°  t1 
(1) 60°  t 
(2) 30° (3) sin−1  1 
 10 t2 
(3) 45°
 10 t1 
(4) 90° (4) sin−1  
 t2 

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32. In the figure shown here, what is the 35. ∈0 and µ0 are the electric permittivity and
equivalent focal length of the combination of magnetic permeability of free space
lenses (Assume that all layers are thin)? respectively. If the corresponding quantities
[NEET_2023] of a medium are 2 ∈0 and 1.5µ0 respectively,
n1 = 1.5 the refractive index of the medium will nearly
be: [NEET_2023(Manipur)]
R1 = R2 = 20 cm (1) 2
R1 R2 (2) 3
n2 = 1.6 (3) 3
(1) 40 cm (4) 2
(2) –40 cm
36. A horizontal ray of light is incident on the
(3) –100 cm
(4) –50 cm right angled prism with prism angle 6° . If the
refractive index of the material of the prism
is 1.5, then the angle of emergence will be:
33. Two thin lenses are of same focal lengths (f),
[NEET_2023(Manipur)]
but one is convex and the other one is
concave. When they are placed in contact 6°
with each other, the equivalent focal length of
the combination will be: µ=1.5
[NEET_2023] 90°
(1) Zero
(1) 9°
(2) f/4
(2) 10°
(3) f/2
(3) 4°
(4) Infinite (4) 6°

34. A lens is made up of 3 different transparent 37. An object is mounted on a wall. Its image of
media as shown in figure. A point object O is equal size is to be obtained on a parallel wall
placed on its axis beyond 2f. How many real with the help of a convex lens placed
between these walls. The lens is kept at
images will be obtained on the other side?
distance x in front of the second wall. The
[NEET_2023(Manipur)]
required focal length of the lens will be:
[NEET_2023(Manipur)]
x
(1) less than
O 4
x x
(2) more than but less than
4 2
(1) 2
x
(2) 1 (3)
2
(3) No image will be formed
x
(4) 3 (4)
4

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38. Which set of colours will come out in air for a 41. Given below are two statements:
situation shown in figure? [Re-NEET_2024]
[NEET_2023(Manipur)] Statement I : Image formation needs regular
air green reflection and/or refraction.
Statement II : The variety in colour of objects
white we see around us is due to the constituent
colours of the light incident on them.
In the light of the above statements, choose
glass the most appropriate answer from the
(1) Yellow, Orange and Red options given below :
(2) All (1) Statement I is correct but statement II is
(3) Orange, Red and Violet incorrect
(4) Blue, Green and Yellow (2) Statement I is incorrect but Statement II
is correct
39. A light ray enters through a right angled (3) Both Statement I and Statement II are
prism at point P with the angle of incidence correct
30° as shown in figure. It travels through the (4) Both Statement I and Statement II are
prism parallel to its base BC and emerges incorrect
along the face AC. The refractive index of the
prism is: [NEET_2024] 13. A microscope has an objective of focal length
A 2 cm, eyepiece of focal length 4 cm and the
tube length of 40 cm. If the distance of
P distinct vision of eye is 25 cm, the
30°
magnification in the microscope is
[NEET_2025]
C (1) 150 (2) 250
B
(3) 100 (4) 125
3 3
(1) (2)
4 2 27. In a certain camera, a combination of four
5 5 similar thin convex lenses are arranged
(3) (4)
4 2 axially in contact. Then the power of the
combination and the total magnification in
40. A small telescope has an objective of focal comparison to the power (p) and
length 140 cm and an eye piece of focal magnification (m) for each lens will be,
length 5.0 cm. The magnifying power of respectively - [NEET_2025]
telescope for viewing a distant object? (1) 4p and m
4 4
(2) p and m
4

[NEET_2024] (3) 4p and 4m

4
(4) p and 4m
(1) 17 (2) 32
(3) 34 (4) 28

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ANSWER KEYS

Exercise 1.1
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 1 1 1 2 2 3 2 1 2 2 1 4 3 2 4 4 1 1 3 3

Exercise 1.2
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 3 4 1 1 1 3 2 2 4 4 2 1 2 1 1 3 1 2 2 1
Que. 21 22 23
Ans. 1 3 1

Exercise 1.3
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 2 4 1 3 2 1 3 4 2 2 1 2 3 1 2 1 1 1 1 1

Exercise 1.4
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Ans. 2 3 3 3 2 1 3 3 1 3 4 1 1 2 3

Exercise 1.5
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 3 2 2 2 2 3 1 2 1 1 3 3 3 3 2 3 4 4 3 2
Que. 21
Ans. 3

Exercise 1.6
Que. 1 2 3 4 5
Ans. 1 4 2 2 1

Exercise 1.7
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 3 1 3 1 2 2 2 2 1 2 3 3 4 2 1 3 3 2 2 4
Que. 21 22 23 24 25 26
Ans. 4 2 4 2 3 3

Exercise 1.8
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Ans. 1 4 4 1 2 2 3 3 3 4 4 1 3 3 2

Exercise 1.9
Que. 1 2 3 4 5
Ans. 2 4 4 2 2

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Exercise 1.10
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Ans. 4 3 4 3 3 1 2 4 1 1 2 3 2 3 4 1

Exercise 1.11
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Ans. 2 3 3 1 1 4 2

Exercise 2
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 2 4 1 3 4 2 2 1 4 2 2 3 4 4 2 4 4 1 4 2
Que. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37
Ans. 1 3 3 1 2 4 1 2 2 2 3 2 4 2 1 2 4

Exercise 3
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Ans. 1 2 1 4 3 3 4 4

Exercise 4 (Previous Year's Questions)

Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 2 4 1 2 1 3 2 4 1 4 2 3 1 1 2 2 1 3 4 4
Que. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 2 1 1 2 4 4 1 2 3 2 4 3 4 4 2 1 3 1 4 4
Que. 41 42 43
Ans. 3 4 1

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Chapter

2 WAVE OPTICS

Chapter Overview 1. NEWTON'S CORPUSCULAR THEORY OF LIGHT

– Newton's Corpuscular 1.1 Characteristics of the theory

(i) Extremely minute, very light and elastic particles are
Theory of Light
being constantly emitted by all luminous bodies (light
– Wave Nature of Light
sources) in all directions which are known as corpuscles.
– Huygen’s Principle 8
(ii) These corpuscles travel with the speed of light (3 × 10 m/s
– Interference
in vacuum).
– Principle of Superposition
(iii) When these corpuscles strike the retina of our eye then
– Young's Double-Slit they produce the sensation of vision.
Experiment (iv) The different colours of light are due to different size of
– Diffraction these corpuscles.
– Polarisation (v) The rest mass of these corpuscles is zero.
(vi) The velocity of these corpuscles in an isotropic medium is
same in all directions but it changes with the change of
medium.
(vii) These corpuscles travel in straight lines.
(viii) These corpuscles are invisible.

1.2 The phenomena explained by this theory

(i) Reflection and refraction of light.
(ii) Rectilinear propagation of light.
(iii) Existence of energy in light.

1.3 The phenomena not explained by this theory

(i) Interference, diffraction, polarization, double refraction
and total internal reflection.
(ii) Velocity of light being greater in rarer medium than that
in a denser medium.
(iii) Photoelectric effect.
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2. WAVE NATURE OF LIGHT

• It is based on wave theory of light put forward by Christiaan Huygen (a Dutch Physicist: 1629-95)
in 1678.
• According to wave theory, a body emits light in the form of waves. Each point source of light is a
centre of disturbance from which waves spread in all directions.
Huygens coined a term ‘Wavefront’.

2.1 Wavefronts
The continuous locus of all particles in a medium which are vibrating in same phase at a given instant
is called a wavefront.

2.2 Shape of Wavefront

The shape of wavefront depends on the source producing the wave. It is usually of three types :
Spherical, Cylindrical or Plane Wavefront.
(i) For a point source of light, the wavefront is spherical in shape with source lying at its centre.
(ii) When the source of light is linear, then the wavefront takes the cylindrical shape.
(iii) For a source of light situated far away, the wavefront may be considered to be a plane wavefront.

Comparative Study of Three Types of Wavefront

Diagram of shape
Shape of light Variation of amplitude Variation of intensity
Wavefront of wave
source with distance with distance
front

1 1
Spherical Point source A∝ I∝
r r2

1 1
Cylindrical Linear of slit A∝ I∝
r r

O'

Extended
Plane A = constant I = Constant
large

• The shape or orientation of a wavefront may change when it undergoes reflection or refraction.
• A wavefront travels parallel to itself and perpendicular to the rays.
• A ray of light represents the direction along which light energy travels.
• Wavefront always travels in the forward direction in a medium, with speed of wave.

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3. HUYGEN’S PRINCIPLE
Huygen’s Principle provides geometrical method of finding the successive positions of the wavefront.
It states :
(i) Every point on given wavefront (called primary wave front) acts as fresh source of new disturbance,
(called secondary wavelets).
(ii) The secondary wavelets travel in all the directions with the speed of light in the medium.
(iii) A surface touching these secondary wavelets tangentially in the forward direction at any instant
gives the new (secondary) wavefront at the instant.
A A A'
A A' A'

O O

B B B' B B'
B'

• Huygen’s wave theory could explain reflection, refraction, interference and diffraction of light.
• It failed to explain polarization of light and photoelectric effect.

3.1 Shape of Wavefronts of Reflected & Refracted Wave

Here we are going to draw the shapes of wavefronts associated with reflected as well as refracted
waves.
(A) Reflection from Plane Mirror
Incident
wavefront(plane) Re flected
wavefront(plane)

(B) Reflection from Curved Mirror

Incident wavefront (plane)

Reflected wavefront
Reflected wavefront
Incident wavefront
(Plane)
(sphereical)

Reflection from concave mirror Reflection from convex mirror

(C) Refraction from Plane Surface

Incident wavefront
(Plane) Medium − 1

Medium − 2

Incident wavefront
(Plane)

(D) Refraction Through Prism (Monochromatic Beam)

IWF RWF

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(E) Refraction Through Convex Lens

Emergent
wavefront
Incident wavefront (spherical)
(plane)

(F) Refraction Through Concave Lens

Emergent
Incident wavefront wavefront
(plane) (spherical)

Example 1:
A plane wavefront is incident at angle of 37° with a horizontal boundary of refractive surface from air
3
(µ = 1) to a medium of refractive index µ = . Find the angle of refracted wavefront with horizontal.
2
Solution:
It has been given that incident wavefront makes 37° with horizontal. Hence incident ray makes 37° with
normal as the ray is perpendicular to the wavefront.
Now normal as the ray is perpendicular to the wavefront.
µ=1
Now, by Snell’s law
37°
sin37° 3
= r
sin r 2
2 3 2 –1  2 
sin r = × = ⇒ r = sin   µ = 3/2
3 5 5 5
which is same as angle of refractive wavefront with horizontal

Example 2:
Yellow light with wavelength 0.5 µm in air undergoes refraction in a medium in which velocity of light
8
is 2 × 10 m/s. Find wavelength of the light in the medium.
Solution:
λ1 v
= 1
λ2 v2
8
Here, λ1 = 0.5 µm, v1 = 3 × 10 m/s
8
λ2= ? (x),v2 = 2 × 10 m/s
0.5 3 × 108
= ⇒ x = 0.33 µm
x 2 × 108
Note :The frequency remains unchanged.
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Wave Optics PHYSICS
Exercise 1.1

1. Wavefront means 6. The idea of secondary wavelets for the

(1) All particles in it have same phase propagation of a wave was first given by
(2) All particles have opposite phase of (1) Newton (2) Huygen
(3) Maxwell (4) Fresnel
vibrations
(3) Few particles are in same phase, rest are 7. Which of the following prediction of
in opposite phase corpuscular theory was proved wrong by
(4) None of these Huygens's wave model?
(1) Frequency of the wave remains same
2. Huygen's conception of secondary waves during refraction
(2) Speed of the light increases in denser
(1) Allow us to find the focal length of a thick
medium
lens (3) Angle of incidence is equal to angle of
(2) Is a geometrical method to find a reflection
wavefront (4) All of these
(3) Is used to determine the velocity of light
(4) Is used to explain polarization
8.
air 45°
3. Wavefront of a wave has direction with wave 30°
Liq.
motion
(1) Parallel for the refraction of the wavefront shown in
(2) Perpendicular figure, find refractive index of liquid.
(3) Opposite (1) 1 (2) 3
(4) At an angle of θ (3) 2 (4) 2

4. Ray diverging from a point source forms a 9. Which among the following could not be
wave front that is explained by Huygens wave theory?
(1) Cylindrical (2) Spherical (1) Diffraction (2) Refraction
(3) Polarization (4) Interference
(3) Plane (4) Cubical
10. Which among the following could not be
5. Huygen wave theory allows us to know explained by Newton’s corpuscular theory?
(1) The wavelength of the wave (1) Rectilinear Propagation
(2) The velocity of the wave (2) Reflection
(3) The amplitude of the wave (3) Refraction
(4) Interference
(4) The propagation of wave fronts

4. INTERFERENCE
• The phenomenon of non-uniform distribution of energy in the medium due to superposition of two or
more light waves originated from coherent sources, is called interference of light.
• The interference pattern in which the position of maxima and minima of intensity of light remain fixed
all along on the screen is called sustained or permanent interference pattern.
• At the points where resultant intensity (amplitude, energy) is maximum, interference is said to be
constructive (CI) and fringes are Bright.
• At the points where the resultant intensity (amplitude, energy) is minimum, interference is said to
be destructive (DI) and fringes are Dark.
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4.1 Condition for Coherent Sources
• The two sources are said to be coherent if
(i) they emit light waves have same frequency.
(ii) the emitted waves are either in same phase or a constant phase difference.
(iii) the emitted waves may or may not have same amplitude.
• Two independent light sources can never be coherent.
• They are produced from a single source of light.

4.2 Condition for Sustained Interference

• The two sources should be coherent,
• For good contrast between maxima and minima,
(i) the amplitudes of the two interfering waves should be as nearly equal as possible and
(ii) the background should be dark.
• For a large number of fringes in the field of view, the source should be narrow and monochromatic.

4.3 Method of Producing Coherent Sources

Two coherent sources are produced from a single source of light by two methods namely :

(A) Division of Wavefront

• In this method, the wavefront is divided into two or more parts.
• The Light source is narrow.
• Example : Young's double slit experiment.
P
S1

S2 YDSE

(B) Division of Amplitude

• In this method, the amplitude of incoming beam is divided into two or more parts by partial
reflection or refraction.
• These divided parts travel different paths and finally brought together to produce interference.
• Example :Colour of thin films.

thinfilm

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5. PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION
When two or more waves superimpose over each other at a common point of the medium then the
  
resultant displacement (y) of the particle is equal to the vector sum of the displacement (y1 and y 2 )
  
produced by individual waves =
y y1 + y2
Resultant
Resultant
y2

y1
Constructive Destructive
int erference interference

5.1 Resultant Amplitude and Intensity

Consider two waves with same frequency and different amplitudes
y1 = a1 sin ωt and y2 = a2 sin (ωt + φ)
where a1, a2 are individual amplitudes
and φ is constant phase difference between the waves.
• After superposition, the resultant wave can be written as
y = A sin (ωt + δ)
• The resultant amplitude (A) is
A= a12 + a22 + 2a1a2 cos φ
Amax = a1 + a2 & Amin = a1− a2
For two identical sources
a1 = a2 = a0
∴ A= a20 + a20 + 2a0a0 cos φ
φ
or A = 2a0 cos ∴ Amax = 2a0 & Amin = 0
2
• The Resultant intensity (I) is
2
I = I1 + I2 + 2 I1 I2 cos φ ( I ∝ (A) )

( ) &I ( )
2 2
I=
max I1 + I2 min = I1 – I2
For two identical sources
I1 = I2 = I0∴ I = I0 + I0 + 2 I0I0 cos φ
φ 2
or I = 4I0 cos∴ Imax = 4I0 & Imin = 0
2
• Comparison of Intensities

( )
2
Imax I1 + I2 (a1 + a2 )2
= =
( I )
2
Imin I1 – (a1 –a2 )2
2

2
I1  Imax + Imin 
= 
I2  Imax – Imin 
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Relationship Between Path Difference and Phase Difference
Symbol of path difference = ∆x
Symbol of phase difference = ∆φ
2π λ
=
Phasediff. Pathdiff.
2π λ
⇒ =
∆φ ∆x
The phase difference (2π) is equivalent to path difference (λ).

Example 3:
 π
If two waves represented by y1 = 4 sin ωt and y2 = 3 sin  ωt +  interfere at a point. Find out the
 3
amplitude of the resulting wave.
Solution:
Resultant amplitude
A= a12 + a22 + 2a1a2 cos φ
π
= (4)2 + (3)2 + 2 ⋅ (4)(3)cos ⇒A~6
3

Example 4:
Two beams of light having intensities I and 4I interfere to produce a fringe pattern on a screen. The
phase difference between the beam is π / 2 at point A and 2π at point B. Then find out the difference
between the resultant intensities at A and B.
Solution:
Resultant intensity I= I1 + I2 + 2 I1 I2 cos φ
Resultant intensity at point A is
π
IA = I + 4I + 2 I1 4I cos = 5I
2
Resultant intensity at point B,
IB = I+ 4I+ 2 I 4I cos 2π = 9I
(Ans= 9I – 5I ⇒ 4I)

Example 5:
Two coherent sources each emitting light of intensity I0 interfere in a medium at a point where phase
difference between them is 2π / 3. Then the resultant intensity at that point would be
Solution:
2π 2 π 
Given here, φ = and Ires = 4I0 cos   = I0
3 3

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Example 6:
Consider interference between waves from two sources of Intensities I & 4I. Find intensities at points
where the phase difference is π.
(1) I (2) 5I (3) 4I (4) 3I
Solution:
Inet = I + 4I + 2 (I)(4I) cos π
= 5I – 4I = I

Example 7:
The intensity ratio of two waves is 9 : 1. These waves produce interference. The ratio of maximum to
minimum intensity will be
(1) 1 : 9 (2) 9 : 1 (3) 1 : 4 (4) 4 : 1
Solution:
 I1 
 +1 2
I1 9 I I2  =  9 +1 ⇒ Imax 42 4
= ⇒ max =  = 2 =
I2 1 Imin  I1   9 –1  Imin 2 1
 –1 
 I2 

Example 8:
Two sources with intensity I0 and 4I0 respectively interfere at a point in a medium. Then the maximum
and minimum possible intensity would be
Solution:

( )
2
Imax = I1 + I 2
Here, I1 = I0 and I2 = 4I0

( ) ( )
2 2
∴ Imax = I0 + 4I0 = 9I0 and Imin = I1 − I 2 = I0

Example 9:
Waves emitted by two identical sources produces intensity of K unit at a point on screen where path
difference between these waves is λ, calculate the intensity at that point on screen at which path
λ
difference is .
4
Solution:
2πx 2π 2π λ π
φ1 = = × λ = 2π and φ2 = × =
λ λ λ 4 2
I1 = I0 + I0 + 2 I0 I 0 cos2π = 4I0
π
and I2 = I0 + I0 + 2 I0 I 0 cos
= 2I0
2
I 4I I K
∴ 1 = 0 = 2 ⇒ I2 = 1 = unit
I2 2I 0 2 2
[ I1 = K unit]

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Exercise 1.2

1. Find phase difference if path difference 7. The phenomenon of interference is shown by

between the waves is λ/2. (1) Longitudinal mechanical waves only
(1) 0 (2) π/4 (2) Transverse mechanical waves only
(3) π/2 (4) π (3) Electromagnetic waves only
(4) All the above types of waves
2. Two incoherent sources of light emitting
intensity I0 and 3I0 interfere in a medium. 8. Two coherent monochromatic light beams of
Then the resultant intensity at any point will intensities I and 4I are superposed. The
be. maximum and minimum possible intensities
(1) I0 (2) 3I0 in the resulting beam are
(3) 4I0 (4) I0/2 (1) 5I and I (2) 5I and 3I
(3) 9I and I (4) 9I and 3I
3. If two waves of intensity I0 interfere in a
medium. Then find out the intensity when 9. If the amplitude ratio of two sources
phase difference between them is π/3 producing interference is 3 : 5, the ratio of
(1) I0 (2) 3I0 intensities at maxima and minima is
(3) 4I0 (4) I0/2 (1) 25 : 16 (2) 5 : 3
(3) 16 : 1 (4) 25 : 9
4. Two light sources with intensity I0 each
interfere in a medium where phase 10. If two waves represented by=
y1 4sin ωt and
π  π
difference between them is . Find =y 2 3sin  ωt +  interfere at a point, the
2  3
resultant intensity at that point. amplitude of the resulting wave will be about
(1) I0 (2) 2I0 (1) 7 (2) 6
(3) 4I0 (4) I0/2 (3) 37 (4) 35

5. For the sustained interference of light, the 11. Two waves having intensity in the ratio 25
necessary condition is that the two sources : 4 produce interference. The ratio of the
should maximum to the minimum intensity is
(1) Have constant phase difference
(1) 5 : 2 (2) 7 : 3
(2) Be narrow
(3) 49 : 9 (4) 9 : 49
(3) Be close to each other
(4) Of same amplitude
12. In a wave, the path difference corresponding to
a phase difference of φ is:
6. The equation of two light waves are
y1 = 6cosωt, y2 = 8cos(ωt + φ). The ratio of π π
(1) φ (2) φ
2λ λ
maximum to minimum intensities produced
λ λ
by the superposition of these waves will be (3) φ (4) φ
2π π
(1) 49 : 1 (2) 1 : 49
(3) 1 : 7 (4) 7 : 1

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13. Two coherent sources of intensities, I1 and I2 17. Which of the following is conserved when
produce an interference pattern. The light waves interfere
maximum intensity in the interference pattern (1) Intensity (2) Energy
will be: (3) Amplitude (4) Momentum
(1) I1 + I2 (2) I12 + I22
2
(3) (I1 + I2) (4) ( I1 + I2 )2 18. Two incoherent sources of light each with equal
intensity I0 interfere in a medium, what would be
14. Two beams of light having intensities I and 4I resultant intensity?
interfere to produce a fringe pattern on a
(1) I0 (2) 2I
screen. The phase difference between the
π (3) 4I0 (4) I0/2
beams is at point A and π at point B. Then
2
the difference between the resultant 19. If two light rays of equal intensity
intensities at A and B is superimposes, find out the ratio of maximum
(1) 2I (2) 4I
intensities when sources are coherent and
(3) 5I (4) 7I
when sources are incoherent.
15. Two light sources are coherent when: (1) 1 (2) 1 : 2
(1) their amplitude are equal (3) 2 : 1 (4) 0
(2) their frequencies are equal
(3) their wavelength are equal 20. Which of the following is false for interference
(4) their frequencies are equal and their of light
phase difference is constant
(1) Coherence of the sources is an essential
16. Two light sources are said to be coherent if condition for interference
they are obtained from (2) The minima of the interference pattern
(1) Two independent point sources emitting need not be of zero intensity
light of the same wavelength (3) Interference simply redistributes light
(2) A single point source energy, without destroying any of it
(3) A wide source (4) The minima of the interference pattern
(4) Two ordinary bulbs emitting light of
must always be of zero intensity
different wavelengths

6. YOUNG'S DOUBLE-SLIT EXPERIMENT

• Double-slit experiment is a simple technique to produce interference fringes.
• This experiment was first performed with light by Thomas Young (British scientist : 1773-1829) in
1801.
• In 1927, Davisson and Germer demonstrated that electrons show the same behavior, which was
later extended to atom and molecules.
• A monochromatic (single wavelength) light from a source S fall on two narrow slits S1 and S2 which
are very close together. The light waves are very close together.
• The light waves passing through the two slits are coherent, superpose on each other and form an
interference pattern on the screen.
• The pattern consists of alternate bright and dark fringes. The central fringe at point O is always
bright.

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Second bright

Interference fringes
S1
Second dark
First bright
First dark
S Central bright
Light First dark
First bright
Source
Second dark
S2 Second bright

Screen
• At a point P on screen to find dark or bright fringe, it depends upon path difference between S1P &
S2P light waves.
Path difference, S2P − S1P = ∆x = d sinθ
• If the point P on the screen, situated at a distance y from central point O, is given by
Point position, y = D tan θ
For small angle or D >> d, (sinθ≈ tanθ≈θ)
yd
∆x.D = d.y ⇒ ∆x =
D
P
y
S1 θ
θ
d 0
M
S2
D

6.1 Condition for Constructive Interference

• Amplitude: Amax = a1 + a2

( )
2
• Intensity: Imax = I1 + I2
• Phase difference:
∆φ = 2n π Here n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ...
For CB(φ = 0), for B1(φ = 2π), for B2(φ = 4π),.....
st nd
(where CB is central bright fringe, B1 is 1 Bright fringe, B2 is 2 Bright fringe…)
• Path difference:
∆x = n λ Here n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ...
For CB(x = 0), for B1(x = λ), for B2(x = 2λ),.....
• Fringe position:
xD nλD
=
y = Here n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ...
d d
For CB(y = 0), for B1(y = λD/d),
for B2(y = 2λD/d),...

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6.2 Condition for Destructive Interference
• Amplitude: Amin = a1 –a2

( )
2
• Intensity: Imin = I1 – I2

• Phase difference:
φ = (2n−1) π Here n = 1, 2, 3, ...
st nd
For D1(φ=π), for D2(φ=3π), for D3(φ=5π),... (where D1 is 1 Dark fringe, D2 is 2 Dark fringe…)

• Path difference:
x = (2n−1) λ/2 Here n = 1, 2, 3, ...
For D1(x=λ/2), for D2(x=3λ/2), for D3(x=5λ/2), ...
• Fringe position:
D λD
y=x = (2n – 1) Here n = 1, 2, 3, ...
d 2d
For D1 (y = λD/2d), for D2(y = 3λD/2d), for
D3 (y = 5λD/2d), ...

6.3 Average Intensity

( Imax + Imin )
Iaverage = = Ι 1 + Ι2 = 2 Ι0
2
This shows that energy is simply redistributed in interference. i.e., Energy is conserved in interference

6.4 Slit Width & Intensity

• If W1 and W2 represents width of two slits, then
2
W1 I a 
= 1 = 1
W2 I2  a2 

6.5 Fringe Width

The distance between the centers of two consecutive bright or dark fringes
S1
is called the fringe width.
α β
In Young’s double-slit experiment, all the fringes are of equal width, where
λD S2
Linear width: β=and D
d
β λ
Angular fringe width: α= =
D d
• If YDSE set-up is immersed in a liquid of refractive index µL, then the fringe width changes to
β λ D
βL= = ·
µL µL d

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6.6 Shapes of Fringes
• The interference fringes are usually hyperbolic in shape.
• When distance of screen (D) is very large compared to the distance between the slits (d), then
fringes are straight.

6.7 YDSE With White Light

• If white light is used in place of monochromatic light in young's double slit experiment.
(a)central fringe is white
(b)Coloured fringe around the central white fringe
(c) Adjacent to centre of screen is red and edge of the CB is violet.

6.8 Fringe Visibility

Imax – Imin
• It is defined by the relation V = .
Imax + Imin
The fringe visibility is maximum
when I1 = I2 = I0 or Imin = 0,
i.e., when both slits are of equal width, the fringe visibility is best, equal to 1.

Example 10:
In YDSE wavelength of light is 5000Å, distance between screen & slits is 2m, distance between two slits
is 1mm, then calculate,
(i) Fringe width (ii) Angular fringe width
th th
(iii) Position of 4 bright fringe (iv) Position of 4 dark fringe
Solution:
–7
λ = 5 × 10 m; D=2m
–3
d = 1 × 10 m
λD –3
(i) Fringe width β = = 10 m
d
λ –4
(ii) Angular fringe width θ = = 5 × 10 rad
d
th –3
(iii) Position of 4 bright fringe = 4β = 4 × 10 m (from central maxima)
th β 7 –3
(iv) Position of 4 dark fringe = + 3β = β = 3.5 × 10 m
2 2

Example 11:
In a Young's slit experiment, the separation between the slits is 0.10 mm, the wavelength of light used
is 600 nm and the interference pattern is observed on a screen 1.0 m away. Find the separation between
the successive bright fringes.
(1) 6.6 mm (2) 6.0 mm (3) 6 m (4) 6 cm.
Solution:
The separation between the successive bright fringes is-
Dλ 1 × 600 × 10–9
β= = ; β = 6.0 mm
d 1 × 10–3

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Example 12:
A beam of light consisting of two wavelength 6500 Å & 5200 Å is used to obtain interference fringes in
a young's double slit experiment. The distance between the slits is 2.0 mm and the distance between
the plane of the slits and the screen is 120 cm. What is the least distance from the central maximum
where the bright fringes due to both the wavelengths coincide?
(1) 0.156 cm (2) 0.152 cm (3) 0.17 (4) 0.16 cm.
Solution:
th th
Suppose the m bright fringe of 6500 Å coincides with the n bright fringe of 5200 Å
mλ1D nλ 2D
yn = =
d d
m × 6500 × D n × 5200 × D
⇒ =
d d
m 5200 4
= = =
n 6500 5
∴ distance y is
mλ1D 4 × 6500 × 1010 × 1.2
y= =
d 2 × 10–3
= 0.156 cm

Example 13:
A double slit is illuminated by light of wave length 6000Å. The slit are 0.1 cm apart and the screen is
placed one meter away. Calculate :
th
(i) The angular position of the 10 maximum in radian and
(ii) Separation of the two adjacent minima.
Solution:
–7 –3
(i) λ = 6000 Å = 6 × 10 m, d = 0.1 cm = 1 × 10 m, D = 1m, n = 10
nλ 10 × 6 × 10–7
Angular position, θn = =
d 10–3
(ii) Separation between two adjacent minima = fringe width β
λD 6 × 10–7 × 1 –4
β= = = 6 × 10 m = 0.6 mm
d 1 × 10–3

Example 14:
4
Find the percentage decrease in fringe width when YDSE experiment is performed in water (µ = )
3
Solution:
λ 0D λ
β0 = In water λw = 0
d µ
β0 3
⇒βw = = β0 = 75%β0
µ 4
So, percentage decrease in fringe width = 25%

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Example 15:
Find the total no. of bright fringes formed on the screen.
Screen

S1 S2
4λ

Solution:
As shown in the diagram total no. of bright fringes will be 16.
λ 0 λ
2λ 2λ
3λ 3λ
S1 S2
4λ 4λ
4λ
3λ 3λ
2λ 2λ
λ 0 λ

6.9 Thin Slab in Front of Slit

• If a thin glass plate or mica sheet is placed in front of one of the slits, then the central fringe shifts
towards the slit in front of which the glass plate is placed. shifted central
• If t is the thickness of glass of mica sheet and is the refractive fringe P
t
index of the material of sheet, then extra path difference
introduced by the sheet is S1
∆x = (µ – 1) t. d O
S2 central

• In this situation, the fringe pattern shifts by path difference (µ –1)t fringe
D
D β
yshift = (µ – 1)t = (µ – 1)t
d λ

• If the shift is equivalent to n fringes, then

y (µ –1)t
N = shift =
β λ
• If the central fringe now appears at the location of previously formed nth bright fringe, then
∆x = (µ – 1)t = nλ
• If the central fringe appears at the position of previously formed nth dark fringe, then
(2n–1)λ
(µ –1)t =
2

Example 16:
In YDSE λ = 5000 Å, D = 2m, d = 1mm, A thin sheet of refractive index 1.5 and thickness 100 µm is placed
on the upper source find
(i) Path diff. introduced by sheet
(ii) Shift in the fringe pattern
(iii) No. fringes crossing the central point
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Solution:
(i) Path difference
1 –6 –4
∆x = (µ – 1)t = × 100 × 10 = 0.5 × 10 m
2
(ii) Shift in fringe pattern
D 2m –4 –1
∆y = ∆x = × 0.5 × 10 = 10 m
d 1 × 10–3

∆y 10–1 × 10–3 2
(iii) No. of fringes crossing = = = 10 m
β 5000 × 10 × 2
–10

Exercise 1.3

1. In Young’s double-slit experiment, an 5. The slits in a Young’s double slit experiment

interference pattern is obtained on a screen have equal widths and the source is placed
by a light of wavelength 6000 Å, coming from symmetrically relative to the slits. The
the coherent sources S1 and S2. At certain intensity at the central fringes is I0. If one of
point P on the screen third dark fringe is the slits is closed, the intensity at this point
formed. Then the path difference S1P – S2P in will be
microns is (1) I0 (2) I0/4
(1) 0.75 (2) 1.5 (3) I0/2 (4) 4I0
(3) 3.0 (4) 4.5
6. The figure shows a double slit experiment
2. In young’s double slit experiment with a
where P and Q are the slits. The path lengths
source of light of wavelength 6320 Å, the first
PX and QX are nλ and (n + 2) λ respectively,
maxima will occur when
where n is a whole number and λ is the
(1) Path difference is 9480 Å
wavelength. Taking the central fridge as
(2) Phase difference is 3π radian
zero, what is formed at X
(3) Path difference is 6320 Å
nλ
X
(4) Phase difference is π radian
P (n + 2)λ
3. Young's experiment supports that
(1) Light consists of waves
(2) Light consists of particles Q
(3) Light consists of neither particles nor
(1) First bright (2) First dark
waves
(3) Second bright (4) Second dark
(4) Light consists of both particles and waves

7. In Young's double slit experiment, carried out

4. In Young’s double slit experiment, if one of
with light of wavelength λ = 5000 Å, the
the slits is closed fully, then on screen.
distance between the slits is 0.2 mm and the
(1) No interference pattern will exist
screen is at 200 cm from the slits. The central
(2) The bright fringes will become more bright
maximum is at x = 0. The third maximum will
(3) The bright fringes will become fainter
be at x equal to.
(4) None of the above
(1) 1.67 cm (2) 1.5 cm
(3) 0.5 cm (4) 5.0 cm

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8. Two slits separated by a distance of 1mm are 13. In Young's double slit interference
illuminated with red light of wavelength experiment, the slit separation is made 3
-7
6.5 × 10 m. The interference fringes are fold. The fringe width becomes
observed on a screen placed 1m from the (1) 1/3 times (2) 1/9 times
slits. The distance between third dark fringe (3) 3 times (4) 9 times
& the fifth bright fringe is equal to.
(1) 0.65 mm (2) 1.63 mm 14. Two coherent light sources S1 and S2
(3) 3.25 mm (4) 4.87 mm. (λ= 6000 Å) are 1 mm apart from each other.
The screen is placed at a distance of 25 cm
9. In an interference pattern, at a point we from the sources. The width of the fringes on
th
observe the 16 order maximum for the screen should be
λ1=6000Å. What order maxima will be visible (1) 0.015 cm (2) 0.025 cm
here if the source is replaced by light of (3) 0.010 cm (4) 0.030 cm
wavelength λ2 = 4800 Å.
(1) 40 (2) 20 15. In Young’s double slit interference pattern
(3) 10 (4) 80 the fringe width
(1) Can be changed only by changing the
10. In YDSE light of wavelength λ1 & λ2 is used wavelength of incident light
th
find λ1 / λ2 if 5 bright fringe of λ1 coincides (2) Can be changed only by changing the
th separation between the two slits
with 6 dark fringe of λ2
(3) Can be changed either by changing the
10 11 wavelength or by changing the separation
(1) (2)
11 10 between the two slits
6 7
(3) (4) (4) Is a universal constant, hence cannot be
5 5
changed

11. In Young's double slit experiment the two

16. In a Young’s double slit experiment, 12
slits are illuminated by light of wavelength
fringes are observed to be formed in a certain
5890Å and the distance between the fringes
segment of the screen when light of
obtained on the screen is 0.2°. The whole
wavelength 600 nm is used. If the
apparatus is immersed in water, then find out
wavelength of the light is changed to 400 nm,
angular fringe width, (refractive index of
number of fringes observed in the same
4
water = ). segment of the screen is given by
3
(1) 12 (2) 18
(1) 0.15° (2) 0.4°
(3) 0.20° (4) 0.12° (3) 24 (4) 30

12. What happens to the fringe pattern when the 17. In Young's double slit experiment when
Young’s double slit experiment is performed wavelength used is 6000 Å and the screen is
in water instead or air then fringe width 40 cm from the slits, the fringes are 0.012 cm
wide. What is the distance between the slits
(1) Shrinks (2) Disappear
(3) Unchanged (4) Enlarged (1) 0.024 cm (2) 2.4 cm
(3) 0.24 cm (4) 0.2 cm

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18. In Young’s double slit experiment, the 20. In Young's double slit experiment, a mica slit
wavelength of the light used is doubled and of thickness t and refractive index µ is
distance between two slits is half of initial
distance, the resultant fringe width becomes introduced in the ray from the first source S1.
(1) 2 times (2) 3 times By how much distance the fringes pattern
(3) 4 times (4) 1/2 times will be displaced
19. In Young’s double slit experiment, if d
(1) (µ − 1) t
monochromatic light used is replaced of the D
waves is: D
(1) no fringes are observed (2) (µ − 1) t
d
(2) all bright fringes become white
d
(3) all bright fringes have colours between (3)
violet and red (µ − 1)D
(4) only central fringe is white and all other D
fringes are coloured (4) (µ − 1)
d

7. DIFFRACTION
• Italian scientist F.M. Grimaldi coined the word “diffraction”.
• He was the first to record accurate observations of the phenomenon in 1660.
• Diffraction refers to various phenomena that occur when a wave encounters an obstacle or a slit.
• It is defined as the bending of waves around the corners of an obstacle/aperture in the path of light
into the region of geometrical shadow of the obstacle.
• Diffraction occurs with all waves, including sound waves, water waves, visible light , X-rays and
radio waves.
• Condition : The linear dimension ‘a’ of obstacle/aperture is comparable to the wavelength ‘λ’ of
wave.
• Diffraction effects become more prominent when (λ/a) increases.
• It is further observed that greater the wavelength of waves, higher is the degree of diffraction.
As λsound>λlight,diffraction is more easily observed in sound as compared to light.
• The basic arrangement for observing diffraction effects, three things needed - a source of light, a
diffracting element (an obstacle/aperture-an opening), and a screen.
7.1 Diffraction Pattern
• The illuminated region above the shadow of the object contains alternating bright and dark fringes.
Such a display is called a diffraction pattern.
• In the diffraction pattern, the intensity of successive maxima decreases rapidly.
7.2 Diffraction at a Single Slit (Fraunhoffer Diffraction)
Suppose a plane wavefront is incident on a slit AB(of width ‘a’). Each and every point of the exposed part of
the plane wavefront acts as a source of secondary wavelets spreading in all directions.
The diffraction is obtained on a screen placed at the focal plane of convex lens placed just after the slit.
L2 P
L1 A
x
S d θ θ O
C
B N
D
The diffraction pattern consists of a central bright fringe (central maxima- CB) surrounded by dark
(secondary minima - SD) and bright fringes (secondary maxima -SM).
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7.3 Central Maxima (CM)
At point O on the screen, the central maxima is obtained. The wavelets originating from points A and B
meets in the same phase at this point, hence at O, intensity is maximum.

7.3.1 Minima (D)

• For obtaining nth minima at point P on the screen, path difference between the diffracted waves
a sin θ = nλ, where n = 1, 2, 3, ....
• Angular position of nth dark,
nλ
sin θ ≈ θ =
a
• Distance of nth dark from CM on screen,
nλD nλf
yn = D.θ= =
a a
where, D = f = focal length of convex lens.

7.3.2 Secondary Maxima (SM)

• For obtaining nth secondary maxima at point P on the screen, path difference between the
diffracted waves
λ
a sin=
θ (2n + 1) , where n = 1, 2, 3, ....
2
• Angular position of nth SM,
(2n + 1)λ
sin θ ≈ θ =
2a
• Distance of nth SM from CM on screen,
(2n + 1)λD (2n + 1)λf
yn = D.θ= =
2a 2a

7.3.3 Fringe Width

The distance between two minima formed on two sides of central maximum is known as the width of
central maximum, So
Linear width of CM:
2λD 2λf M2 x2
=
WCM =
2y D1 =
a a M1
x1
2λ
Angular width of CM : θCM =2θSD = θ1
a θ1

λD λf θ2
M'1
Linear width of secondary minima - SD : W=
SD =
a a
λ
Angular width of secondary minima - SD : θSD =
a

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7.3.4 Intensity Distribution Curve
The intensity distribution is shown is figure.
Intensity

(path
difference)
–3λ –2λ –λ 0 λ 2λ 3λ
• Diffraction pattern due to a single slit consists of a central maxima flanked by alternate minima
and secondary maxima.
• If I0be the intensity of central maxima, then intensity of first three secondary maxima is
I0 I0 I
= I1 = , I2 and I3 = 0
22 62 121
• The diffraction fringes are of unequal width and unequal intensities.

Example 17:
In single slit diffraction experiment, width of slit is 1 mm and wavelength of light is 5000 Å; distance of
slit is 2 m from screen find
st
(i) Position of 1 minima
(ii) Width of central maxima
Solution:
(i) d sinθ = nλ
λ 5 × 10–7 –4
sinθ = = = 5 × 10
d 1 × 10–3

–4
θ = 5 × 10 rad.
2λD 2 × 5 × 10–7 –4 –3
(ii) w = = –3
= 20 × 10 = 2 × 10 = 2 mm
d 10

Example 18:
–5
Light of wavelength 6000 Å is incident normally on a slit of width 24 × 10 cm. Find out the angular
position of second minimum from central maximum?
Solution:
a sinθ = 2λ
–7 –5 –2
given λ = 6 × 10 m, a = 24 × 10 × 10 m
2λ 2 × 6 × 10–7 1
sinθ = = = ∴θ = 30°
a 24 × 10–7
2

Example 19:
Light of wavelength 6328 Å is incident normally on a slit of width 0.2 mm. Calculate the angular width
of central maximum on a screen distance 9 m?
Solution:
–7 –3
given λ = 6.328 × 10 m, a = 0.2 × 10 m
2λ 2 × 6.328 × 10–7
w θ= = radian
a 2 × 10–4
6.328 × 10–3 × 180
= = 0.36°
3.14
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Example 20:
0
The first diffraction minima due to a single slit diffraction is at θ = 30 for a light of wavelength 5000 Å.
The width of the slit is-
–5 –4 –5 –5
(1)5 × 10 cm (2)1.0 × 10 cm (3) 2.5 × 10 cm (4)1.25 × 10 cm
Solution:
The distance of first diffraction minimum from the central principal maximum x = λD/d
x λ λ
∴ sin θ = = ⇒d=
D d sin θ
5000 × 10–8 –5 –4
⇒d= = 2 × 5 × 10 ⇒ d = 1.0 × 10 cm,
sin30°

Example 21:
The Fraunhofer diffraction pattern of a single slit is formed at the focal plane of a lens of focal length
1 m. The width of the slit is 0.3 mm. If the third minimum is formed at a distance of 5 mm from the
central maximum then calculate the wavelength of light.
Solution:
nfλ
xn =
a
ax 3 × 10–4 × 5 × 10–3
⇒ λ= n = = 5000 Å [ n = 3]
fn 3×1

Example 22:
A screen is placed 2 m away from the single narrow slit. Calculate the slit width if the first minimum
lies 5 mm on either side of the central maximum. Incident plane waves have a wavelength of 5000 Å.
–4 –3 –2
(1) 2 × 10 m (2) 2 × 10 cm (3) 2 × 10 m (4) None
Solution:
Here distance of the screen from the slit,
D = 2 m, a = ?, x = 5 mm
–3
= 5 × 10 m, λ = 5000 Å
–10
= 5000 × 10 m
for the first minima,
sin θ = λ/a = x/D,
2 × 5000 × 10–10 –4
a = Dλ/x = = 2 × 10 m.
5 × 10–3

Hence correct answer is (1)

7.4 Differences Between Interference & Diffraction

INTERFERENCE DIFFRACTION
It due to superposition of waves from two It due to superposition of wavelets from same
coherent source. wavefront.
All bright fringes are of same intensity. Intensity decreases with the increase in the order
of maxima.
Fringes are of same width. Fringes are not of same width.
The number of bands is large. The number of bands is small.
Bands are equally spaced. Bands are unequally spaced.

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7.5 Validity of Ray Optics
• When a slit or hole of size a is illuminated by a parallel beam, then it is diffracted into an angle of
≈λ/a
• When travelling a distance Z, the size of image is Zλ / a.
Zλ a2
So, taking ≥a⇒Z≥
a λ
2
Now, distance ZF is called Fresnel’s distance. ZF = a /λ
• Spreading due to diffraction is comfortable upto distance ZF/2 and
• Spreading due to diffraction is prominent, for distance much greater than ZF,
• So, image formation can be explained by ray optics for distance less than ZF.
a2
Fresnel’s distance is given by ,
λ

a θ=λ /a

Exercise 1.4

1. The bending of beam of light around corners 5. Red light is generally used to observe
of obstacles is called diffraction pattern from a single slit. If blue
(1) Reflection (2) Diffraction light is used instead of red light, then
(3) Refraction (4) Interference diffraction pattern
(1) Will be more clear
2. Diffraction effects are easier to notice in the (2) Will contract
case of sound waves than in the case of light (3) Will be expanded
waves because (4) Will not be visualized
(1) Sound waves are longitudinal
(2) Sound is perceived by the ear 6. A parallel monochromatic beam of light is
(3) Sound waves are mechanical waves
incident normally on a narrow slit. A
(4) Sound waves are of longer wavelength
diffraction pattern is formed on a screen
placed perpendicular to the direction of
3. The phenomenon of diffraction can be
incident beam. At the first maxima of the
exhibited by:
diffraction pattern the phase difference
(1) infrared waves (2) microwaves
(3) X-rays (4) all of these between the rays coming from the edges of
the slit is
4. The phenomenon of diffraction of light was π
(1) 0 (2)
discovered by 2
(1) Huygen (2) Newton (3) π (4) 3π
(3) Fresnel (4) Grimaldi
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7. Direction of the first secondary maximum in 13. The light of wavelength 6280 Å is incident on
the Fraunhofer diffraction pattern at a single a slit of width 0.2 mm perpendicularly, the
slit is given by (a is the width of the slit) angular width of central maxima will be
λ 3λ (1) 0.36o (2) 0.18o
(1) a sin θ = (2) acos θ =
2 2 (3) 0.72o (4) 0.09o
3λ
(3) a sinθ = λ (4) a sin θ =
2 14. A slit of size 0.15 cm is placed at 2.1 m from
a screen. On illuminated it by a light of
–3
8. In single slit experiment width of slit is 10 –5
wavelength 5 × 10 cm. The width of central
mm wavelength of light is 5000Å, distance of maxima will be
st
screen is 2m, find angular position of 1 (1) 70 mm
minima (2) 0.14 mm
(1) 30° (2) 45° (3) 1.4 mm
(3) 60° (4) 90° (4) 0.14 cm

9. Light of wavelength 5000Å is incident on a 15. Angular width of central maximum of a

slit of width 0.1 mm. Find out the width of the diffraction pattern on a single slit does not
central bright line on a screen at a distance depend on
2m from the slit? (1) Distance between slit and source
(1) 2 mm (2) 20 mm (2) Wavelength of light used
(3) 5 mm (4) 50 mm (3) Width of the slit
(4) Frequency of light used
10. Width of slit is 0.3mm. Fraunhofer diffraction
is observed at distance 1 m. If third minima is
16. A single slit of width 0.20 mm is illuminated
at 5 mm distance from central maxima, then
with light of wavelength 500 nm. The
wavelength of light is-
observing screen is placed 80 cm from the
(1) 7000Å (2) 6500Å
slit. The width of the central bright fringe will
(3) 6000Å (4) 5000Å
be
11. A diffraction pattern is produced by a single (1) 1 mm
slit of width 0.5mm with the help of a convex (2) 2 mm
lens of focal length 40cm. If the wave length (3) 4 mm
of light used is 6000Å. then the distance of (4) 5 mm
first dark fringe from the axis will be-
(1) 1.44 mm (2) 1.44 cm 17. A beam of light of wavelength 600 nm from a
(3) 1.44 m (4) 14.4 mm distant source falls on a single slit 1 mm wide
and the resulting diffraction pattern is
12. A slit of width a is illuminated by white light. observed on a screen 2m away. The distance
For red light (λ = 6500 Å), the first minima is between the first dark fringes on either side
obtained at θ =30o . Then the value of a will of the central bright fringe is
be (1) 1.2 mm
–4 (2) 1.2 cm
(1) 1.3 µm (2) 6.5 × 10 mm
–4 (3) 2.4 cm
(3) 1.24 mm (4) 2.6 × 10 cm
(4) 2.4 mm

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18. Light of wavelength λ = 5000 Å falls normally 20. Light of wavelength 2 × 10−3 m falls on a slit
on a narrow slit. A screen placed at a distance
of width 4 × 10−3 m . The angular width of the
of 1 m from the slit and perpendicular to the
direction of light. The first minima of the central maximum will be:
diffraction pattern is situated at 5 mm from (1) 30° (2) 60°
the centre of central maximum. The width of
(3) 90° (4) 180°
the slit is
(1) 0.1 mm (2) 1.0 mm
(3) 0.5 mm (4) 0.2 mm 21. Wavelength of light is 500 nm and width of
each slit is 4 µm. If slits are separated by 20
19. A slit of width a is illuminated by white light.
The first minimum for red light (λ = 6500 Å) µm then find no. of interference fringes
will fall at θ = 30°, when a will be: inside central maxima of diffraction pattern.
–4
(1) 3250 Å (2) 6.5 × 10 cm (1) 10 (2) 5
–4
(3) 1.3 micron (4) 2.6 × 10 cm (3) 4 (4) 50

8. POLARISATION
Light is an electromagnetic wave in which Electric and Magnetic field vectors vary sinusoidally
perpendicular to each other as well as perpendicular to the direction of propagation of light.
The magnitude of electric field vector is much larger as compared to the magnitude of magnetic field
vector.
Thus, we prefer to describe light in terms of electric field oscillations.

8.1 Unpolarized Light

• In ordinary light, the electric field vectors are distributed uniformly in all the possible directions
perpendicular to the direction of propagation of light.
Such light is known as the “unpolarized light”.
• The unpolarized light is symmetrical about the direction of propagation.
• An unpolarized light is equivalent to superposition of two mutually perpendicular identical plane
polarized light.

8.2 Ray Diagram of UPL & PL

Unpolarized Light

Polarized Light

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8.3 Polarization / Plane Polarized Light
• If vibrations of electric field vector are limited in one direction in a plane perpendicular to the
direction of propagation of light wave, then this light is called the “plane polarized light”.
• The phenomenon of the restriction of the vibrations to a particular direction is called
“polarization”.
• The crystal doing polarization known as “polarizer”.
• Tourmaline crystal acts as polarizer.
• The lack of symmetry of vibration around the direction of wave propagation is called polarization.
• Polarization of light waves shows that they are transverse waves.
A plane of vibration B
plane
E polarised light

O'
unpolarised G
F plane of
light
D C polarisation
• The plane is which vibrations of polarized light are confined is called plane of vibration (ABCD).
• A plane perpendicular to the plane of vibration is called plane of polarization(EFGH).
• The angle between plane of vibration and direction of propagation of wave is 90°.
• The angle between plane of polarization and direction propagation of wave is 90°.
• If an unpolarized light is converted into plane polarized light, its intensity reduces to half.

8.4 Polaroid
• These are artificially prepared polarizing materials (like iodosulphate of quinone) in the form of
sheets or plates capable of producing strong beam of plane polarized light.
• It is a very big polarizing film mounted between two glass plates and is used to obtain plane-
polarized light for commercial purposes.
• Polaroid allow the light oscillations parallel to the transmission axis to pass through them.
• The crystal or polaroid on which unpolarized light is incident is called polarizer.
• The crystal or polaroid on which polaroised light is incident is called analyser.
Detector
θ

Unpolarised
light
Analyser

Polariser

If intensity of unpolarized light falling on the polarizer is I0 then only half of it I0/2 is transmitted
by the polarizer

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8.5 Malus’s Law
When a beam of completely plane polarized light (intensity I0) is incident on an analyser, the resultant
intensity of light (I) transmitted from the analyser varies directly as the square of the cosine of the
angle between plane of transmission of analyser and polarizer.
2 2
I ∝ cos θ & I = I0 cos θ
This law is called Malus’s law.
It is named after E. L. Malus (1775-1812), a French Physicist.
plane of
polariser

A A

θ θ
θ

• If light of intensity I1 emerging from one polaroid (called polarizer) is incident on a second polaroid
(usually called analyser) the intensity of the light emerging from the second polaroid will be given
by
2
I2 = I1 cos θ′
where θ' is the angle between the transmission axis of the two polaroids.
(i) if the two polaroids have their transmission axes parallel to each other, i.e., θ′ = 0°,
2
I2 = I1 cos 0° = I1
(ii) if the two polaroids are crossed, (transmission axes perpendicular to each other), i.e.,
θ′ = 90°.
2
I2 = I1 cos 90° = 0

Parallel polaroids Crossed polaroids

So, if an analyser is rotated from 0° to 90° with respect to polarizer, the intensity of emergent light
changes from maximum value I1 to minimum value zero.

Example 23:
A polarizer and an analyser are oriented so that maximum light is transmitted, what will be the intensity
of outcoming light when analyser is rotated through 60°.
Solution:
2
2 1  I
2
According to Malus Law I = I0 cos θ = I0 cos 60° = I0   = 0
2 4

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8.6 Methods of Polarization
Plane polarized light can be produced by the following methods:
(a) by reflection
(b) by dichroism (Polaroids)
(c) by scattering.

8.6.1 By Reflection
Brewster discovered that when light is incident at a particular angle on a transparent substance, the
reflected light is completely plane polarized with vibrations in a plane perpendicular to the plane of
incidence. UPL PPL
This specific angle of incidence is called polarizing angle θP and is
i = θp r
related to the refractive index µ of the material through the relation:
tan θp = µ
This is known as Brewster's law.
It is named after Sir D. Brewster (1781-1868), a British Scientist.
In case of polarization by reflection: PL
Partially
• For i = θp, refracted light is plane polarized.
• For i = θp, reflected and refracted rays are perpendicular to each other.
• For i< or >θp, both reflected and refracted light become partially polarized.

8.6.2 By Scattering y
When a beam of white light passes through a medium consisting of small Unpolarised
particles of dust, smoke, air molecules etc. (having size of the order of light

wavelength of light), it is absorbed by the particle and is re-radiated in all

directions. This phenomenon is called as scattering. Polarised Polarised
light
Light scattered in a direction at right angles to the incident light is always light

plane-polarized. z x
Unpolarised
light
Example 24:
If light beam is incident at polarizing angle (56.3°) on air-glass interface, then what is the angle of
refraction in glass?
Solution:
 ip + rp = 90°
∴ rp = 90° – ip
= 90° – 56.3° = 33.7°

Example 25:
When light of a certain wavelength is incident on a plane surface of a material at a glancing angle 30°,
the reflected light is found to be completely plane polarized. Determine
(a) refractive index of given material and
(b) angle of refraction.
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Solution:
Angle of incident light with the surface is 30°. Hence angle of incidence = 90° – 30° = 60°. Since reflected
light is completely polarized, therefore, incidence takes place at polarizing angle of incidence θp.
(a) ∴ θp = 60°
Using Brewster's law
µ = tan θp = tan 60°
∴ µ= 3
(b) From Snell's law
sin60º
µ =∴ = 3 =
sinr
3 1 1
or sinr= × =
2 3 2
r = 30°

Exercise 1.5

1. Light waves can be polarized as they are 5. Polarization of light proves the:
(1) Transverse (1) corpuscular nature of light
(2) Of high frequency (2) quantum nature of light
(3) Longitudinal (3) transverse wave nature of light
(4) Reflected (4) longitudinal wave nature of light

2. A polarizer is used to 6. A polarizer and an analyser are oriented so

(1) Reduce intensity of light that maximum light is transmitted, what will
(2) Produce polarized light be the intensity of outcoming light when
(3) Increase intensity of light
analyser is rotated through 30°.
(4) Produce unpolarized light
3I
(1) 0
2
3. Polarized glass is used in sun glasses
3I
because (2) 0
4
(1) It reduces the light intensity to half an
account of polarization 3I 0
(3)
(2) It is fashionable 2
(3) It has good colour 3I 0
(4)
(4) It is cheaper 4

4. In case of linearly polarized light, the 7. Two polaroids as oriented with their planes
magnitude of the electric field vector perpendicular to incident light and
(1) Does not change with time transmission axis making an angle of 30°
(2) Varies periodically with time with each other. What fraction of incident
(3) Increases and decreases linearly with unpolarized light is transmitted?
time (1) 3/8 (2) 5/8
(4) Is parallel to the direction of propagation (3) 3/4 (4) 1/4

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8. Two polaroids P1 & P2 are placed with their 13. Refractive index of a medium is 3 . Find the
axis perpendicular to each other. angle of incidence to polarize the incoming
Unpolarized light I0 is incident on P1. A third
light after reflection.
polaroid P3 is kept in between P1& P2 such
(1) 60° (2) 40°
that its axis makes an angle 30° with that of
(3) 20° (4) 80°
P1. Find the intensity of transmitted light
through P2 ?
14. Image of Sun formed due to reflection at air
3I 0 3I 0
(1) (2) water interface is found to be very highly
32 16 polarized.
3I 0 3I 0
(3) (4) Refractive index of water being µ = 4/3, find
8 4
the angle of Sun above the horizon.
9. Plane polarized light is passed through a (1) 37° (2) 53°
polaroid. On viewing through the polaroid we (3) 60° (4) 30°
find that when the polaroid is given one
complete rotation about the direction of the 15. When the angle of incidence on a material is
light, one of the following is observed 60°, the reflected light is completely
(1) The intensity of light gradually decreases
polarized. The velocity of the refracted ray
to zero and remains at zero –1
(2) The intensity of light gradually increases inside the material is (in ms )
to a maximum and remains at maximum  3 
(1) 3 × 108 (2)   × 10
8

 2
(3) There is no change in intensity
(4) The intensity of light is twice maximum (3) 3 × 108 (4) 0.5 × 108
and twice zero
16. The angle of incidence at which reflected
10. Two polarisers are oriented with their light is totally polarized for reflection from
principal planes making an angle of 60°. The air to glass (refraction index n) is
percentage of incident unpolarized light
(1) sin−1 (n)
which passes through the system is
(1) 50% (2) 100% 1
(2) sin−1  
(3) 12.5% (4) 37.5% n
1
11. Refractive index of material is equal to (3) tan−1  
tangent of polarizing angle. It is called n
(1) Brewster’s law (2) Lambert’s law (4) tan−1 (n)
(3) Malus’s law (4) Bragg’s law
17. The angle of polarization for any medium is
12. A ray of light is incident on the surface of a o
glass plate at an angle of incidence equal to 60 , what will be critical angle for this
Brewster’s angle φ. If µ represents the
represents the refractive index of glass with (1) sin−1 3
respect to air, the angle between the
(2) tan−1 3
reflected and refracted rays is:
(1) ( 90 + φ ) (2) sin−1 ( µ cos φ ) (3) cos −1 3
 sin φ  1
(3) 90° (4) sin−1  (4) sin−1
 3
 µ 

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Exercise 2

1. In a double-slit experiment, two parallel 5. In Young’s experiment monochromatic light

slits are illuminated first by light of is used to illuminate the two slits A and B.
wavelength 400 nm. The fourth-order dark Interference fringes are observed on a
fringe resulting from the known screen placed infront of the slits, Now, if a
wavelength of light falls in the same place thin glass plate is placed normally in the
on the same place on the screen as the path of the beam coming from the slit A,
second-order bright fringe from the
then:
unknown wavelength. The value of
unknown wavelength of the light is A
(1) 900 nm (2) 700 nm
(3) 300 nm (4) none of these
B
2. In Young’s double-slit experiment, the slits
(1) the fringes will disappear
are 2 mm apart and are illuminated with a
(2) the fringe width will increase
mixture of two wavelength λ 0 =750 nm and
(3) the fringes width will increases
λ =900 nm. The minimum distance from
(4) there will be no change in fringe width
the common central bright fringe on a
but fringe pattern shifts
screen 2 m from the slits, where a bright
fringe from one interference pattern
coincides with a bright fringe from the 6. In Young’s double slit experiment, the two
other, is slits act as coherent sources of equal
(1) 1.5 mm (2) 3 mm amplitude a and of wavelength λ in another
(3) 4.5 mm (4) 6 mm experiment with the same setup, the two
slits are sources of equal amplitude ‘A’ and
3. One of the two slits in YDSE in painted over, wavelength ‘λ’. But are incoherent. The
so that it transmits only light waves having ratio of the intensity of light at the mid-
intensity half of the intensity of the light point of the screen in the first case to that
waves through the other slit. As a result of in the second case is:
this
(1) 2 : 1 (2) 1 : 2
(1) fringe pattern disappears
(3) 3 : 4 (4) 4 : 3
(2) bright fringes becomes brighten and
dark ones become darker
7. In Young’s double slit, experiment,
(3) dark and bright fringes get fainter
(4) dark fringes get brighter and bright illuminated by yellow light, one slit is
fringes get darker covered with plane transparent thin glass
plate and the other slit by blue filter. Then:
4. The central fringe of the interference (1) there will be yellow and blue interference
pattern produced by light of wavelength fringes formed on the screen
th
6000 Å is found to shift to the position of 4 (2) there will be uniform illumination on
bright fringe after a glass plate of refractive the screen
index 1.5 is introduced. The thickness of the (3) the maximum intensity fringes will be
glass plate would be: doubly coloured
(1) 4.8 µm (2) 8.23 µm (4) the minimum intensity fringes will be
(3) 14.98 µm (4) 3.78 µm dark

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8. Two polaroids are kept crossed to each 12. The maximum number of possible
other. Now one of them is rotated through interference maxima for slit-separation
an angle of 45°. The percentage of incident equal to twice the wavelength in Young's
light now transmitted through the system double-slit experiment, is :
is: (1) infinite (2) five
(1) 15% (2) 25%
(3) three (4) zero
(3) 50% (4) 60%

9. Two polaroids are placed in the path of 13. A Young's double slit experiment uses a
unpolarized beam of intensity I0 such that monochromatic source. The shape of the
no light is emitted from the second interference fringes formed on a screen is:
Polaroid. If a third Polaroid whose (1) hyperbola (2) circle
polarization axis makes an angle θ with the (3) straight line (4) parabola
polarization axis of first polaroid, is placed
between these polaroids then the intensity 14. In a Young's double slit experiment the
of light emerging from the last polaroid will intensity at a point where the path
be difference is λ / 6 (λ being the wavelength
I  I  of the light used) is I. If I0 denotes the
(1)  0  sin2 2θ (2)  0  sin2 2θ
8 4 maximum intensity, I/I0 is equal to:
I 
(3)  0  cos 4 θ (4) I0 cos θ
4
1 3
2 (1) (2)
2 2
10. In a Young’s double slit experiment, the 1 3
(3) (4)
intensities at two points, for the path 2 4
λ λ
difference and ( λ being the
4 3 15. In Young's double slit experiment, one of
wavelength of light used) are I1 and I2 the slit is wider than other, so that the
respectively. If I0 denotes the intensity amplitude of the light from one slit is
produced by each one of the individual slits, double of that from other slit. If Im be the
I +I maximum intensity, the resultant intensity
then 1 2 = .....
I0 I when they interfere at phase difference φ
(1) 2 (2) 4 is given by:
(3) 3 (4) None of these
Ιm  2 φ Ιm
(1)  1 + 8cos  (2) (4 + 5cos φ)
9 2 9
11. Two polaroids A and B are placed in such a
way that the pass-axis of polaroids are Ιm  2 φ Ιm  2 φ
(3)  1 + 2cos  (4)  1 + 4cos 
perpendicular to each other. Now, another 9 2 5 2
polaroid C is placed between A and B
bisecting angle between them. If intensity 16. The maximum number of possible
of unpolarised light is I0 then intensity of interference maxima slit separation equal
transmitted light after passing through to 1.8λ , where λ is the wavelength of light
polaroid B will be: used, in a Young's double slit experiment is:
I I
(1) 0 (2) 0 (1) Zero (2) 3
4 2
(3) Infinite (4) 5
I0
(3) (4) Zero
8
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17. This question has Statement-1 and 21. A single slit of width b is illuminated by a
Statement-2. Of the four choices given after coherent monochromatic light of wavelength
the Statements, choose the one that best λ. If the second and fourth minima in the
describes the two Statements. diffraction pattern at a distance 1 m from the
Statement-1: In young's double slit slit are at 3 cm and 6 cm respectively from the
experiment, the number of fringes observed central maximum, wheat is the width of the
in the field of view is small with longer central maximum? (i.e. distance between first
wavelength of light and is large with minimum on either side of the central
shorter wavelength of light. maximum):
Statement-2: In the double slit experiment (1) 1.5 cm (2) 3.0 cm
the fringe width depends directly on the (3) 4.5 cm (4) 6.0 cm
wavelength of light.
(1) Statement-1 is true, Statement-2 is 22. When an unpolarized light of intensity I0 is
true and the Statement-2 is correct incident on a polarizing sheet, the intensity of
explanation of the Statement-1 the light which does not get transmitted is:
(2) Statement-1 is false and the I I
(1) 0 (2) 0
Statement-2 is true 2 4
(3) Statement-1 is true Statement-2 is true (3) Zero (4) I0
and the Statement-2 is not correct
explanation of the Statement-1 23. Two Polaroids have their polarizing
(4) Statement-1 is true and the Statement-2 directions parallel so that the intensity of a
is false transmitted light is maximum. The angle
through which either polaroid must be turned
18. In a Young's double slit experiment with if the intensity is to drop by one-half is:
light of wavelength λ the separation of (1) 135° (2) 90°
slits is d and distance of screen is D such (3) 120° (4) 180°
that D  d  λ . If the fringe width is β , the
24. Two beams, A and B, of plane polarized light
distance from point of maximum intensity
with mutually perpendicular planes of
to the point where intensity falls to half of
polarization are seen through a polaroid.
maximum intensity on either side is:
From the position when the beam A has
β β
(1) (2) maximum intensity (and beam B has zero
6 3 intensity), a rotation of polaroid through 30°
β β makes the two beams appear equally bright.
(3) (4)
4 2 If the initial intensities of the two beams are
IA and IB respectively, then IA /IB equals:
19. If I0 is the intensity of the principle
(1) 3 (2) 3/2
maximum in the single slit diffraction
(3) 1 (4) 1/3
pattern, then what will be its intensity
when the slit width is doubled: 25. Unpolarized light of intensity I is incident
(1) 2I0 (2) 4I0 on a system of two polarizers, A followed by
(3) I0 (4) I0 / 2 B. The intensity of emergent light is I/2. If a
third polarizer C is placed between A and B,
20. In a Young's double slit experiment, the the intensity of emergent light is reduced to
distance between the two identical slits is I/3. The angle between the polarizers A and
6.1 times larger than the slit width. Then C is θ, then
the number of intensity maxima observed 1/4 1/4
2  1
within the central maximum of the single (1) cos θ =  (2) cos θ = 
3  3
slit diffraction pattern is:
1/2 1/2
(1) 3 (2) 6 1 2
(3) cos θ =  (4) cos θ = 
(3) 12 (4) 24 3 3
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 PHYSICS Wave Optics

Exercise 3

1. In YDSE, match the column-I & column-II 3. Match the column :

Column-I Column-II Column I Column II
Interference
(A) =I I0 cos2 θ
(1)
3λD of light
(i) Fringe width (a)
d Brewster’s obstacle/aperture
(B) (2)
Law of size = 1
7λ D
(ii) Angular fringe width (b) Diffraction of
2d (C) (3) µ =tan ip
light
Position of 3rd bright λ
(iii) (c) (D) Law of Malus (4) Coherent sources
w.r.t. centre d
(1) (A) → (3); (B) → (4); (C) → (2); (D) → (1)
Position of 4 dark λD
(iv) (d) (2) (A) → (1); (B) → (2); (C) → (3); (D) → (4)
w.r.t. centre d
(3) (A) → (4); (B) → (3); (C) → (2); (D) → (1)
(1) (i) – a, (ii) - b, (iii) - c, (iv) - d
(4) (A) → (4); (B) → (3); (C) → (2); (D) → (1)
(2) (i) - d, (ii) - c, (iii) - a, (iv) - b
(3) (i) - d, (ii) - c, (iii) - b, (iv) - a 4. Match Plane wave incident on different
(4) (i - c, (ii) - d, (iii) - a, (iv) – b surfaces. In column I with the emergent
wavelength in Column II.
2. Match the column : Column I Column II
Column-A Column-B
Spherical
Fresnel distance equal (A) (1) wavefront
(A) (P) θ =90
to of radius of R

In a single slit
a2 Spherical wave
(B) experiment, when ∆ a, (Q)
λ (B) (2) front of
then angular width radius R/2
In single slit
experiment, angular
(C) (R) nλ
width for first dark (C) (3) Tilted
fringe. wavefront

Path difference for

λ
(D) dark fringe in single (S) Spherical
a
slit diffraction (D) (4) wavefront
of radius of R
(1) A → Q, B → P, C → S, D → R
(2) A → R, B → Q, C → P, D → S (1) (A) → (1); (B) → (3); (C) → (2); (D) → (4)
(3) A → P, B → R, C → Q, D → P (2) (A) → (3); (B) → (4); (C) → (2); (D) → (1)
(4) A → S, B → S, C → R, D → Q (3) (A) → (2); (B) → (4); (C) → (3); (D) → (1)
(4) (A) → (4); (B) → (2); (C) → (1); (D) → (3)
120 Sarvam Career Institute
Wave Optics PHYSICS
From the (5 to 12) 9. Assertion (A) : In case of single slit
Read the Assertion and Reason carefully and diffraction intensity of higher order maxima
mark the correct options. decreases.
(A) Both Assertion and Reason are true and
Reason (R) : Higher order maxima are at
Reason is the correct explanation of
larger distance.
Assertion.
(B) Both Assertion and Reason are true but (1) A (2) B
Reason is not correct explanation of (3) C (4) D
Assertion.
(C) Assertion is true but Reason is false. 10. Assertion (A) : Out of radio waves and
(D) Assertion is false and Reason is true. microwaves, the radio waves are more
diffracted in daily life.
5. Assertion (A) : Wave nature can be proved by
Reason (R) : Practically diffraction is more
phenomena of interference and diffraction.
Reason (R) : Only transverse wave can show for waves which have longer wavelength.
the phenomena of polarization. (1) A (2) B
(1) A (2) B (3) C (4) D
(3) C (4) D
11. Assertion (A) : Diffraction takes place for all
6. Assertion (A) : When width of one of the slits types of waves mechanical or non-
in Young's double slit experiment is four
mechanical, transverse or longitudinal.
times that of the other, then brighter fringes
are nine times brighter than the dark fringes. Reason (R) : Diffraction's effects are
Reason (R) : The amplitude of the wave is perceptible only if wavelength of wave is
proportional to the width of the slit. comparable to dimensions of diffracting
(1) A (2) B device.
(3) C (4) D (1) A
(2) B
7. Assertion (A) : In the figure shown zero order
(3) C
maxima will be above point "O".
(4) D

12. Assertion (A) : If three polarisers are

O
arranged such that the axis of any two
successive polarisers make equal angle of
Reason (R) : Zero order maxima means a 45° with each other. If unpolarised light of
point where the phase difference is zero. intensity I0 incident on first polariser then
(1) A (2) B
(3) C (4) D intensity of emergent light after 3rd
I
polariser is 0 .
8. Assertion (A) : If white light is used in place 8
of monochromatic light in YDSE then central Reason (R) : In given condition each time
point is white. Although at other places intensity becomes 50% by Malus law.
coloured fringes will be obtained. (1) A
Reason (R) : At centre, path difference is zero
(2) B
for each wave length. Hence all wave will
interfere constructively. (3) C
(1) A (2) B (4) D
(3) C (4) D

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 PHYSICS Wave Optics
13. (A) Phase difference between various 15. When incident light is polarized in a plane
particles on a wave front is zero perpendicular to the plane of incidence and it
is incident at the angle of polarization
(B) Normal to the wave front represents a ray
(A) Reflected light is perfectly polarized
of light. (B) Refracted light will be partially polarized
(C) A point source of light gives rise to (C) Reflected light is partially polarized
spherical wavefronts. (D) There will be no reflection
(1) (A, B) (2) (B, C)
(D) A wave front always travels in forward
(3) (B, D) (4) (D)
direction in a medium.
Correct statements are – 16. When sun light is incident on water surface
(1) A and B only (2) A, B and C only at an angle of incidence 53 , the reflected ray
(3) C and D only (4) A, B, C and D is found to be completely polarized then
(A) The angle of refraction is 37°
3
14. In a single slit diffraction, for first maxima: (B) The refractive index of water is
2
(i) ∆x = λ (ii) ∆φ = 2π (C) The angle of refraction is 53°
3λ 4
(iii) ∆x= (iv) ∆φ = 3π (D) The refractive index of water is
2 3
(1) A, B (2) B, C
(1) (i) and (ii) (2) (i) and (iv)
(3) C, D (4) A, D
(3) (ii) and (iii) (4) (iii) and (iv)

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Exercise 4 (Previous Year's Questions)

1. In the Young’s double slit experiment, the 5. For a parallel beam of monochromatic light
intensity of light at a point on the screen of wavelength ' λ ', diffraction is produced by
where the path difference is λ is K, (λ being a single slit whose ‘a’ is of the wavelength of
the wave length of light used). The intensity the light. If ’D’ is the distance of the screen
at a point where the path difference is λ / 4 , from the slit, the width of the central maxima
will be : [NEET_2014] will be [NEET_2015]
(1) K (2) K/4 Da 2Da
(1) (2)
(3) K/2 (4) zero λ λ
Dλ 2Dλ
(3) (4)
2. A parallel beam of fast moving electrons is a a
incident normally on a narrow slit. A
fluorescent screen is placed at a large 6. At the first minimum adjacent to the central
distance from the slit. If the speed of the maximum of a single slit diffraction pattern,
electrons is increased, which of the following the phase difference between the Huygen’s
statements is correct? [NEET_2014] wavelet from the edge of the slit and the
(1) The angular width of the central wavelet from the midpoint of the slit is:
maximum of the diffraction pattern will [NEET_2015]
increase π
(1) radian (2) π radian
(2) The angular width of the central 2
maximum will decrease π π
(3) radian (4) radian
(3) The angular width of the central 8 4
maximum will be unaffected
(4) Diffraction pattern is not observed on the 7. A beam of light of λ =600 nm from a distant
screen in case of electrons source falls on a single slit 1 mm wide and
the resulting diffraction pattern is observed
3. In a double slit experiment, the two slits are on a screen 2 m away. The distance between
1 mm apart and the screen is placed 1 m first dark fringes on either side of the central
away. A monochromatic light wavelength bright fringe is [NEET_2015]
500 nm is used. What will be the width of (1) 1.2 cm (2) 1.2 mm
each slit for obtaining ten maxima of double (3) 2.4 cm (4) 2.4 mm
slit pattern? [NEET_2015]
(1) 0.1 mm (2) 0.5 mm 8. The intensity at the maximum in a Young’s
(3) 0.02 (4) 0.2 mm double slit experiment is I0 . Distance
between two slits is d = 5λ , where λ is the
4. Two slits in Young’s experiment have widths wavelength of light used in the experiment.
in the ratio 1:25. The ratio of intensity at the What will be the intensity in front of one of
maxima and minima in the interference the slits on the screen placed at a distance
I D = 10 d? [NEET_2016]
pattern, max is [NEET_2015]
Imin I
(1) I0 (2) 0
(1) 49/21 (2) 4/9 4
(3) 121/49 (4) 9/4 3 I
(3) I0 (4) 0
4 2
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 PHYSICS Wave Optics
9. In a diffraction pattern due to a single slit of 13. In a Young's double slit experiment if there is
width ‘a’, the first minimum is observed at an no initial phase difference between the light
o
angle 30o when light of wavelength 5000 A from the two slits, a point on the screen
is incident on the slit. The first secondary corresponding to the fifth minimum has path
maximum is observed at an angle of: difference. [NEET_2019(Odisha)]
[NEET_2016] λ
(1) 5
1 2 2
(1) sin–1   (2) sin–1  
2 3 λ
(2) 10
1
  3 2
(3) sin–1   (4) sin–1  
4 4 λ
(3) 9
2
10. Two Polaroids P1 and P2 are placed with their λ
(4) 11
axis perpendicular to each other. 2
Unpolarized light I0 is incident on P1 . A third
Polaroid P3 is kept in between P1 and P2 such 14. Angular width of the central maxima in the
Fraunhofer diffraction for l = 6000 Å is µ0.
that its axis makes an angle 45o with that of
P1 . The intensity of transmitted light through When the same slit is illuminated by another
monochromatic light, the angular width
P2 is: [NEET_2017]
decreases by 30%. The wavelength of this
I I
(1) 0 (2) 0 light is, [NEET_2019(Odisha)]
4 8
(1) 1800 Å (2) 4200 Å
I0 I0
(3) (4) (3) 6000 Å (4) 420 Å
16 2
15. The Brewsters angle i0 for an interface should
11. Light is incident on a polarizer with intensity
I0. A second prism called analyzer is kept at a be: [NEET_2020]
angle of 15°, from the first polarizer then the (1) i0 = 90°
intensity of final emergent light will be (2) 0° <i0< 30°
[NEET_2018] (3) 30° <i0< 45°
(1) Ι 0 ( 2 − 1) (4) 45° <i0< 90°
(2) Ι 0 ( 3 − 1)
Ι 16. In a Young's double slit experiment, if the
(3) 0 (2 + 3)
8 separation between coherent sources is
Ι halved and the distance of the screen from
(4) 0 (2 − 3)
8 the coherent sources is doubled, then the
fringe width becomes: [NEET_2020]
12. In a double slit experiment, when light of (1) one-fourth (2) double
wavelength 400 nm was used, the angular (3) half (4) four times
width of the first minima formed on a screen
placed 1 m away, was found to be 0.2°. What 17. Two coherent sources of light interfere and
will be the angular width of the first minima, produce fringe pattern on a screen. For
if the entire experimental apparatus is
central maximum, the phase difference
immersed in water (mwater = 4/3)
between the two waves will be:
[NEET_2019]
[NEET_2020(Odisha)]
(1) 0.266° (2) 0.15°
(1) zero (2) λ
(3) 0.05° (4) 0.1°
(3) 3λ/2 (4) λ/2

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Wave Optics PHYSICS
18. In a Young's double slit experiment, a student 21. An unpolarised light beam strikes a glass
observes 8 fringes in a certain segment of surface at Brewster's angle. Then
screen when a monochromatic light of 600 [NEET_2024]
nm wavelength is used. If the wavelength of (1) both the reflected and refracted light will
light is changed to 400 nm, the number of be completely polarised.
fringes he would observe in the same region (2) the reflected light will be completely
of the screen is: [NEET_2022] polarised but the refracted light will be
(1) 6 partially polarised.
(2) 8 (3) the reflected light will be partially polarised
(4) the refracted light will be completely
(3) 9
polarised
(4) 12

22. If the monochromatic source in Young's

19. A linearly polarized monochromatic light of
double slit experiment is replaced by white
intensity 10 lumen is incident on a polarizer.
light, then [NEET_2024]
The angle between the direction of
(1) there will be a central bright white fringe
polarization of the light and that of the surrounded by a few coloured fringes.
polarizer such that the intensity of output (2) all bright fringes will be of equal width.
light is 2.5 lumen is: [NEET_2022(Dubai)] (3) interference pattern will disappear.
(1) 75° (4) there will be a central dark fringe
(2) 30° surrounded by a few coloured fringes.
(3) 45°
(4) 60° 23. Two slits in Young’s double slit experiment
are 1.5 mm apart and the screen is placed at
20. For Young's double slit experiment, two a distance of 1 m from the slits. If the
–9
statements are given below: wavelength of light used is 600 × 10 m then
Statement I: If screen is moved away from the fringe separation is : [Re-NEET_2024]
–5 –8
the plane of slits, angular separation of the (1) 4 × 10 m (2) 9 × 10 m
fringes remains constant. (3) 4 × 10 m
–7 –4
(4) 4 × 10 m
Statement II : If the monochromatic source is
replaced by another monochromatic source 24. A beam of unpolarized light of intensity I0 is
of larger wavelength, the angular separation passed through a polaroid A, then through
of fringes decreases. another polaroid B, oriented at 60° and
In the light of the above statements, choose finally through another polaroid C, oriented
the correct answer from the options given at 45° relative to B as shown. The intensity of
below: [NEET_2023] emergent light is: [Re-NEET_2024]
(1) Both Statement I and Statement II are B C
true. I0 45°
A I1 60°
(2) Both Statement I and Statement II are
false.
(3) Statement I is true but Statement II is
false. I0 I0
(1) (2)
(4) Statement I is false but Statement II is 16 4
true. I I
(3) 0 (4) 0
2 32
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 PHYSICS Wave Optics

ANSWER KEYS
Exercise 1.1
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Ans. 1 2 2 2 4 2 2 3 3 4

Exercise 1.2
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 4 3 2 2 1 1 4 3 3 3 3 3 4 2 4 2 2 2 3 4

Exercise 1.3
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 2 3 1 1 2 3 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 3 2 4 3 4 2

Exercise 1.4
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 2 4 4 4 2 4 4 1 2 4 1 1 1 3 1 3 4 1 3 2
Que. 21
Ans. 1

Exercise 1.5
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
Ans. 1 2 1 2 3 2 1 1 4 3 3 3 1 1 3 4 4

Exercise 2
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 2 3 4 1 4 1 2 2 1 3 3 3 1 4 1 2 1 3 2 3
Que. 21 22 23 24 25
Ans. 2 1 1 4 2

Exercise 3
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Ans. 2 1 4 2 2 3 1 1 2 1 2 1 4 4 4 4

Exercise 4 (Previous Year's Questions)

Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 3 2 4 4 4 2 4 4 4 2 3 2 3 2 4 4 1 4 4 3
Que. 21 22 23 24
Ans. 2 1 4 1

126 Sarvam Career Institute

Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter, Atom PHYSICS

Chapter
DUAL NATURE OF
3 RADIATION AND
MATTER, ATOM

Chapter Overview 1. DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION

(Electromagnetic Wave):
– Dual Nature of Radiation Electromagnetic radiation is an emission with a dual nature, i.e.
– Photon Theory it has both wave and particle aspects.
– Momentum, Force and 2. PHOTON THEORY
Radiation Pressure According to quantum theory, light consists of photons as
– Photoelectric Effect energy packets having following properties:
2
– De-Broglie Wavelength of (i) Each photon is of energy E = hν = hc/λ = mc
Matter Wave 12400
E= eV
– Atomic Structure λ(Å)
–34
– Calculation of Recoil Speed Where h is Planck's constant. Where h = 6.63×10 J-sec
–15
of Atom on Emission of A = 4.14×10 eV–sec,
Photon (ii) All photons travel in straight line with the speed of light
in vacuum.
(iii) Photons are electrically neutral.
(iv) Photons have zero rest mass.
(v) Photons are not deflected by electric and magnetic fields.
(vi) The equivalent mass of a photon while moving is given by
E hν hc h
m= 2 = 2 = 2 =
c c c λ cλ
(vii) Momentum of the photon ⇒ p = E/c = hν/c = h/λ
(viii) Number of photons per second of wavelength λ emitted
from a lamp of power P is-
Pλ
n=
hc
(ix) Velocity of photon in vacuum is always c & it's
independent from frame of reference.
energy of photon(E) hv
(x) Equivalent mass m = 2
⇒m= 2
c c
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 PHYSICS Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter, Atom
Example 1:
12
Find the number of photons in 6.63 joule of radiation energy of frequency 10 Hz?
Solution:
No. of photons
Total Energy E 6.63 22
n= = = = 10
Energy of one Photon hν 6.63 × 10 × 10
–34 12

Example 2:
Calculate the energy and momentum of a photon of wavelength 6600Å.
Solution:
Energy of photon
hc 6.6 × 10–34 × 3 × 108 –19
E= = = 3 × 10 J
λ 6600 × 10 –10

Momentum of photon
h 6.6 × 10–34 –27
p= = = 10 kg m/sec.
λ 6600 × 10 –10

3. MOMENTUM, FORCE AND RADIATION PRESSURE

The electromagnetic wave transports not only energy but also momentum, and hence can exert a
radiation pressure and force on a surface due to the absorption or reflection.
• The energy of photons is given as
hc 2
E = hν = = mc
λ
where ν is frequency, λ is wavelength, h is Planck's constant.
• The photon is a chargeless particle of zero rest mass.
• Photons are electrically neutral. They are not deflected by electric or magnetic fields.
• If E is the energy of source in joule then number of photons emitted is
total energy radiated E Eλ
n= = =
energy of each photon hν hc
• Intensity of photons is defined as amount of energy carried per unit area per unit time. Or power
carried per unit area
Energy Power
Intensity (Ip) = =
area × time area
N
Ip = nhν = P
4πr 2
where n = number of photons per unit area per unit time
N = number of photons, P = power of source
N
e.g. (a) For a point source Ip = nhν = P
4πr 2
S
E hv r
P= =
t t P

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Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter, Atom PHYSICS

N
(b) For a line source Ip = nhν = P
2πr

r
P
According to Newton's second law the force exerted by an electromagnetic wave on a surface may be
related by the equation,
∆P
F= …(i)
∆t
∆P 1  ∆E 
From Eq. (i), =  
∆t c  ∆t 
1  ∆E 
∴ F=   ...(ii).
c  ∆t 
Intensity (I) of a wave is the energy transported per unit area per unit time.
 1  ∆E ∆E
or I=   ∴ = IA
 A  ∆t ∆t
ΙA
Substituting in Eq. (ii), F =
c
F Ι Ι
or = pressure = or Prad =
A c c
Ι
is also equal to the energy density (energy per unit volume) u.
c
If absorption and reflection coefficient be 'a' and 'r'
Case 1. a = 1, r = 0
F ΙA
Prad = = = I/c
A cA
Case 2. r = 1, a = 0
F 2ΙA 2Ι
Prad = = =
A cA c
Case 3. 0 < r < 1 a+r=1
F ΙA 1 Ι
Prad = = (1 + r) × = (1+r)
A c A c
Case 4. General case When 0 < r < 1
a + r = 1 & angle of incidence makes an angle θ with normal θ
F ΙA 1 Ι 2 θ
Prad = = (a + r) × cosθ = (a + r) cos θ
A c A c

Example 3:
2
The intensity of direct sunlight before it passes through the earth's atmosphere is 1.4 kW/m . If it is
completely absorbed find the corresponding radiation pressure.
Solution:
For completely absorbing surface,
Ι 1.4 × 103 –6 –2
Prad = = = 4.7 × 10 Nm
c 3.0 × 10 8

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 PHYSICS Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter, Atom
Example 4:
2
Monochromatic light of wavelength 3000 Å is incident normally on a surface of area 4 cm . If the
–2 2
intensity of the light is 15 × 10 W/m , determine the rate at which photons strike the surface.
Solution:
Rate at which photons strike the surface
ΙA 6 × 10–5 J / s 13
= = = 9.05 × 10 photon/s.
hc / λ 6.63 × 10 J / photon
–19

Example 5:
A plate of mass 10 g is in equilibrium in air due to the force exerted by light beam on plate.
Calculate power of beam. Assume plate is perfectly absorbing.
Solution:
Since plate is in air, so gravitational force will act on this
Fgravitational = mg (downward)
–3 –1
= 10 × 10 × 10 = 10 N
for equilibrium force exerted by light beam should be equal to Fgravitational.
Fphoton = Fgravitational
Let power of light beam be P
P P –1
∴ Fphoton = ∴ = 10
c c
8 –1 7
P = 3.0 × 10 × 10 ⇒ P = 3 × 10 W
I E A P
=
F = A .=
C At C C

Example 6:
Radiation of wavelength 200 nm propagating in the form of a parallel beam, fall normally on a plane
2
metallic surface. The intensity of the beam is 5 mW and its cross-sectional area is 1.0 mm . Find the
pressure exerted by the radiation on the metallic surface if the radiation is completely reflected.
Solution:
P 5 × 10–3 3 2
I= = = 5 × 10 W/m
A 1 × 10 –6

2Ι 2 × 5 × 103 –5 2
p= = = 3.3 × 10 N/m
c 3 × 108

Example 7:
A parallel beam of monochromatic light of wavelength 663 nm is incident on a totally reflected plane
mirror. The angle of incidence is 60° and the number of photons striking the mirror per second is
19
1.0 × 10 . Calculate the force exerted by the light beam on the mirror.
Solution:
h
2N cos θ
∆P λ 2nh
=
F = = cos θ
∆t t λ 60°
−34
2 × 1 × 10 × 6.6 × 10
19
1 60°
×
663 × 10−9 2
−8
F = 10 N

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Example 8:
A beam of white light is incident normally on a plane surface absorbing 70% of the light and reflection
the rest. If the incident beam carries 10 W of power, find the force exerted by it on the surface.
Solution:
F = 2 P/c, if light is completely reflected
F = P/c, if light is completely absorbed
Here, in this problem, 70% light is absorbed and 30% is reflected.
70 P 30 2P P 1.3 × 10 –8
F= × + × = 1.3 = = 4.3 × 10 N
100 c 100 c c 3 × 10 8

Exercise 1.1

1. Momentum of photon of energy 3 keV in kg-m/s 6. Who discovered photo electric effect ?
will be (1) Hertz (2) Lenard
–19
(1) 1.6 × 10 (3) Hallwach (4) Einstein
–21
(2) 1.6 × 10
(3) 1.6 × 10
–24 7. A TV station is operated at 100 MW with a
–27 signal frequency of 10 MHz. Calculate the
(4) 1.6 × 10
number of photons radiated per second by its
antenna.
2. The wavelength of photon is 0.01 Å, its 34 33
momentum in Kg m/sec is (1) 1.5 × 10 (2) 3 × 10
33 34
(1) 6.6 × 10
–22
(2) 6.6 × 10
–20 (3) 1.2 × 10 (4) 2.2 × 10
–46 –27
(3) 6.6 × 10 (4) 6.6 × 10
8. Calculate number of photons passing through
3. The wavelength of photon is 5000 Å, its energy a ring of unit area in unit time if light of
–2
will be : intensity 100 Wm and of wavelength
(1) 2.5 eV (2) 50 eV 400 nm is falling normally on the ring.
18
(3) 5.48 eV (4) 7.48 eV (1) 5 × 10
20
(2) 2 × 10
4. Photon of frequency ν has a momentum (3) 4 × 10
19

associated with it. If c is the velocity of light, 21

(4) 3 × 10
the momentum is
(1) hν / c
9. A special kind of light bulb emits
(2) ν / c
monochromatic light of wavelength 700 nm.
(3) hνc Electrical energy supply to it at the rate of
2
(4) hν / c 60 W and the bulb is 50% efficient at
converting that energy to light energy. How
5. Let p and E denote the linear momentum and many photons are emitted by the bulb during
the energy of a photon. For another photon of its life time of 1 day.
smaller wavelength (in same medium) 23
(1) 6 × 10
(1) both p and E increase 22
(2) 4 × 10
(2) p increases and E decreases 25
(3) p decreases and E increases (3) 8 × 10
24
(4) both p and E decreases (4) 9 × 10

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4. PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
When light of an appropriate frequency (or correspondingly of an appropriate wavelength) is incident
on a metallic surface, electrons are liberated from the surface. This observation is known as
photoelectric effect. Photoelectric effect was first observed in 1887 by Hertz. Attempts to explain the
effect by classical electromagnetic failed. In 1905, Albert Einstein presented an explanation based on
the quantum concept of Max Planck. The effect is based on the principle of conservation of energy.
Quartz
window S

Photosensitive
plate Electrons
C A

Commutator
µA
V

+ –

Threshold Frequency (ν0):

The minimum frequency of incident radiations required to eject the electron from metal surface is
known as threshold frequency.
If incident frequency ν < ν0 ⇒ No photoelectron emission.
Threshold Wavelength (λ0):
The maximum wavelength of incident radiations required to eject the electrons from a metallic surface
is known as threshold wavelength.
If incident wavelength λ > λ0 ⇒ No photoelectron emission.
Work Function (W or φ):
The minimum energy of incident radiation, required to eject the electrons from metallic surface is
known as work function of that surface.
hc
φ = hν0 = (Joule) ; ν0 = Threshold frequency ; λ0 = Threshold wavelength
λ0
hc 12400
φ= = eV
eλ 0 λ 0 (Å)
Maximum Kinetic Energy (Kmax): According to Einstein maximum of kinetic energy is –
Kmax = E – φ
where E is energy of incident photon and φ is work function.
And also Kmax = hν – hν0
 hc hc 
or Kmax =  – 
 λ λ0 

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Example 9:
–19
The kinetic energies of photoelectrons range from zero to 4.0 × 10 J when light of wavelength 3000 Å
falls on a surface. What is the stopping potential for this light ?
Solution:
–19 1eV
Kmax = 4.0 × 10 J× = 2.5 eV
1.6 × 10–19 J
Then, from eVs = Kmax, Vs = 2.5 V

Example 10:
What is the threshold wavelength for the material in above problem ?
Solution:
12400eV 12400eV
2.5 eV = –
3000Å λ th
Solving, λth = 7590 Å

Example 11:
A metallic surface is irradiated with monochromatic light of variable wavelength. Above a wavelength
of 5000 Å, no photoelectrons are emitted from the surface. With an unknown wavelength, stopping
potential is 3 V. Find the unknown wavelength.
Solution:
Using equation of photoelectric effect
Kmax = E – φ (Kmax = eVs)
12400 12400 12400
∴ 3 eV = – = – 2.48 eV
λ 5000 λ
or λ = 2262 Å

Exercise 1.2

1. Photo electric effect is the phenomenon in 2. When an electro–magnetic radiation is

which incident on the surface of metal, maximum
(1) Photons come out of a metal when it is hit kinetic energy of photoelectron depends on:
by a beam of electrons. (1) Frequency of radiation
(2) Photons come out of the nucleus of an (2) Intensity of radiation
atom under the action of an electric field. (3) Both the frequency and intensity
(3) Electrons come out of metal with a (4) Polarization of radiation
constant velocity depending on
frequency and intensity of incident light. 3. The work function of a metal is :
(4) Electrons come out of a metal with (1) the energy for the electron to enter into
different velocity not greater than a the metal
certain value which depends only on the (2) the energy for producing X-ray
frequency of the incident light wave and (3) the minimum energy for the electron to
not on its intensity. come out from metal surface
(4) none of these
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4. Sodium and copper have work functions 11. The maximum wavelength of radiation that
2.3 eV and 4.5 eV respectively. Then the ratio can produce photoelectric effect in a certain
of threshold wavelengths is nearest to: metal is 200 nm. The maximum kinetic
(1) 1 : 2 (2) 4 : 1 energy acquired by electron due to radiation
(3) 2 : 1 (4) 1 : 4 of wavelength 100 nm will be
(1) 12.4 eV (2) 6.2 eV
(3) 3.4 eV (4) 7.0 eV
5. If the threshold wavelength for sodium is
5420 Å, then the work function of sodium is
12. The photoelectrons emitted from a metal
(1) 4.58 eV (2) 2.28 eV
surface:
(3) 1.14 eV (4) 0.23 eV (1) Are all at rest
(2) Have the same kinetic energy
6. If the threshold wavelength of light for (3) Have the same momentum
photoelectric effect from sodium surface is (4) Have speeds varying from zero up to a
6800 A° then, the work function of sodium is certain maximum value
(1) 1.8 eV (2) 2.9 eV
(3) 1.1 eV (4) 4.7 eV 13. Light of wavelength 5000 Å falls on a
sensitive plate with photoelectric work
7. If wavelength = 5400 Å is threshold value for function of 1.9 eV. The kinetic energy of the
a certain metal, then its work function would photoelectron emitted will be :
(1) 0.58 eV (2) 2.48 eV
be:
(3) 1.24 eV (4) 1.16 eV
(1) 2.3 eV (2) 0.025 eV
(3) 10 eV (4) 0.23 eV
14. If light of wavelength 4000 Å falls on a metal
which has a stopping potential 1.4 volt
8. The work function of a substance is 4.0 eV. against photoelectric emission then what is
The longest wavelength of light that can the work function of the metal.
cause photoelectron emission from this [Take h = 6.6 × 10
–34 8 –1
Js and c = 3 × 10 ms ]
substance is approximately (1) 2.1 eV (2) 2.8 eV
(1) 540 nm (2) 400 nm (3) 1.7 eV (4) 1.2 eV
(3) 310 nm (4) 220 nm
15. The kinetic energy of the fastest moving
photo electron from a metal of work function
9. The photoelectric work function of a metal is 2.8 eV is 2 eV. If the frequency of light is
3.3 eV. The threshold frequency for this metal doubled, then find the maximum kinetic
is approximately : energy of photo electron.
13 14 (1) 3.4 eV (2) 6.8 eV
(1) 3.3 × 10 Hz (2) 8.0 × 10 Hz
15 15
(3) 2.9 eV (4) 5.3 eV
(3) 1.65 × 10 Hz (4) 9.9 × 10 Hz
16. Threshold frequency of a surface is ν0. It is
10. A light of wavelength 5000 Å falls on a sensitive illuminated by 3 ν0 frequency, then maximum
plate with photoelectric work function 1.90 eV.
speed of photo electrons is V m/sec. What
Kinetic energy of the emitted photoelectrons will be maximum speed if incident frequency
–34
will be (Given, h = 6.62 × 10 J - s) is 9 ν0 ?
(1) 0.1 eV (2) 2 eV (1) V (2) 2V
(3) 0.58 eV (4) 1.581 eV (3) 3V (4) 4V
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17. The work function of a metal is 4 eV if 5000 Å 23. Graph is plotted between maximum kinetic
wavelength of light is incident on the metal. energy (EK) of electron with frequency of
Is there any photo electric effect?
incident photon (ν) in Photo electric effect.
(1) Yes (2) No
The slope of curve will be–
(3) may be (4) None of the above
Ek
18. In a photo cell 4 unit photo electric current is
flowing, the distance between source and
cathode is 4 unit. Now distance between
source and cathode becomes 1 unit. What ν
O
will be photo electric current now ?
(1) 1 unit (2) 4 unit (1) Charge of electron
(3) 16 unit (4) 64 unit (2) Work function of metal
(3) Planck’s constant
19. Light of wavelength 4000 Å is incident on a (4) Ratio of Planck constant and charge of
metal plate whose work function is 2 eV. electron
What is maximum kinetic energy of emitted
photoelectron?
24. A photo sensitive metallic surface has work
(1) 0.5 eV (2) 1.1 eV
(3) 2.0 eV (4) 1.5 eV function hν0. If photons of energy 2hν0 fall on
this surface, the electrons come out with a
20. Two identical photocathodes receive light of 6
maximum velocity of 4 × 10 m/s. When the
frequencies f1 and f2. If the velocities of the photon energy is increased to 5 hν0, then
photo electrons (of mass m) coming out are
maximum velocity of photo electrons will be–
respectively v1 and v2, then 6 7
(1) 2 × 10 m/s (2) 2 × 10 m/s
2h
(1) v 12 − v=2
2 ( f1 − f2 ) (3) 8 × 10 m/s
5
(4) 8 × 10 m/s
6
m
1/2
 2h 
(2) v 1 += v 2  ( f1 + f2 )  25. A metal surface is illuminated by a light of
m 
2h given intensity and frequency to cause
(3) v 12 + v=2
2 ( f1 + f2 ) photoemission. If the intensity of
m
1/2 illumination is reduced to one fourth of its
 2h 
(4) v 1 −= v 2  ( f1 − f2 )  original value, then the maximum kinetic
m 
energy of the emitted photoelectrons would
21. The work functions of tungsten and sodium be :
are 5.06 eV and 2.53 eV respectively. If the (1) unchanged
th
threshold wavelength for sodium is 5896 Å, (2) 1/8 of original value
then the threshold wavelength for the (3) twice the original value
tungsten will be (4) four times the original value
(1) 11792 Å (2) 5896 Å
(3) 4312 Å (4) 2948 Å
26. When the distance of a point light source
22. The maximum energy of the electrons from a photocell is r1, photoelectric current is
released in photocell is independent of I1, If the distance becomes r2, then the
(1) Frequency of incident light current is I2, The ratio (I1 : I2) is equal to
(2) Intensity of incident light 2 2
(3) Nature of cathode surface (1) r 2 : r 1 (2) r2 : r1
(4) None of these 2
(3) r1 : r2
2
(4) r1 : r2

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Stopping Potential (V0):
At a particular negative potential of Anode no electron will reach the plate and the current will become
zero, this negative potential is called stopping potential denoted by V0.
• If we apply negative potential equal to stopping potential then photoelectric effect takes place but
no photo current are observed.
⇒ Kmax = eV0
⇒ hν – hν0 = eV0
hν hν
⇒ V0 =  – 0 
 e e 
The stopping potential V0 depends only on the metal and frequency of incident photon and does not
depend on the intensity of incident light.
Saturation Current (Is): This is the current in the circuit for which all the electron emitted by cathode
are able to reach anode.

Graphs

Photocurrent
Photoelectric current

I3 > I2 > I1
I3
I2
I1
Stopping potential

Intensity of light –V0 O

Retarding potential Collector plate
potential
Variation of Photoelectric current with Variation of photocurrent with collector plate potential
intensity of light. for different intensity of incident radiation.

Photoelectric
current Stopping
v3 > v2 > v1 potential Metal A
Saturation current (V0) ν > ν0 Metal B
v3 v2 v
1 ν0 ν'0 ν > ν'0
–V03 –V02 –V01 0 Collector plate potential 0 Frequency of incident radiation (ν)
Retarding potential
Variation of photoelectric current with collector Variation of stopping potential V0 with frequency ν
plate potential for different frequencies of of incident radiation for a given photosensitive
incident radiation. material.

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Example 12:
In an experiment on photo electric emission, following observations were made;
–7
(i) Wavelength of the incident light = 1.98 × 10 m
(ii) Stopping potential = 2.5 volt
Find :
(a) Kinetic energy of photoelectrons with maximum speed
(b) Work function and
(c) Threshold frequency
Solution:
(a) Since Vs = 2.5 V, Kmax = eVs
so, Kmax = 2.5 eV
(b) Energy of incident photon
12400
E= = 6.26 eV
1980
W = E – Kmax = 3.76 eV
–19
(c) hνth = W = 3.76 × 1.6 × 10 J
3.76 × 1.6 × 10–19
J 14
∴ νth = ≈ 9.1 × 10 Hz
6.6 × 10–34
14
≈ 9.1 × 10 Hz

Example 13:
Illuminating the surface of a certain metal alternately with light of wavelengths λ1 = 0.35 µm and
λ2 = 0.54 µm, it was found that the corresponding maximum velocities of photo electrons have a ratio
η = 2. Find the work function of that metal.
Solution:
Using equation for two wavelengths
1 hc
mv 12 = –φ ....(i)
2 λ1
1 hc
mv 22 = –φ ....(ii)
2 λ2
Dividing Eq. (i) with Eq. (ii), with v1 = 2v2, we have
hc
–φ
λ1
4=
hc
–φ
λ2
 hc   hc 
⇒ 3φ = 4   –  
 λ 2   λ1 
4 × 12400 12400
⇒ 3φ = – = 5.64 eV
5400 3500
φ = 1.88 eV

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Example 14:
1 mW of light of wavelength 456 nm is incident on a cesium surface. Calculate the photoelectric current
produced, if the quantum efficiency of the surface for photoelectric emission is only 0.5%.
Solution:
hc
P=n , n : number of photons/sec
λ
Pλ
n=
hc
Quantum efficiency
number of electron sejected / sec n'
η= =
number of photonsincident / sec n
n' = ηn
Photoelectric current
 Pλ 
i = n'e = (η n)e = η   e
 hc 
 0.5  (10–3 )(456 × 10–9 ) –19 –6
=  × 1.6 × 10 = 1.84 × 10 A = 1.84 µA
 100  (6.6 × 10 )(3 × 10 )
–34 8

Example 15:
In a experiment on photoelectric effect, light of wavelength 400 nm is incident on a cesium plate at the
rate of 5.0 W. The potential of the collector plate is made sufficiently positive with respect to the
emitter so that the current reaches its saturation value. Assuming that on the average one out of every
6
10 photons is able to eject a photoelectron, find the photocurrent in the circuit.
Solution:
1 Pλ
Here ; η = 6
;i=η e
10 hc
1 5 × 400 × 10–9 –19 –6
= × × 1.6 × 10 = 1.6 × 10 A = 1.6 µA
106 6.6 × 10–34 × 3 × 108

Example 16:
Light described at a place by the equation
15 –1 15 –1
E = (100 V/m) [sin (5 × 10 s ) t + sin (8 × 10 s )t]
falls on a metal surface having work function 2.0 eV. Calculate the maximum kinetic energy of the
photoelectrons.
Solution:
The light contains two different frequencies. The one with larger frequency will cause photoelectrons
with largest kinetic energy. This larger frequency is
ω 8 × 1015 s–1
=v=
2π 2π
The maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons is
Kmax = hυ – W
–15  8 × 1015 –1 
= (4.14 × 10 eV-s) ×  s  – 2.0 eV = 5.27 eV – 2.0 eV = 3.27 eV
 2π 
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Exercise 1.3

1. The emission of electrons is possible by 6. The collector plate in an experiment on

(1) photoelectric effect photoelectric effect is kept vertically above
(2) thermionic effect the emitter plate. Light source is put on and
(3) both (1) and (2) a saturation photocurrent is recorded. An
(4) none of the above electric field is switched on which has
vertically downward direction
2. The slope of a graph drawn between (1) The photocurrent will increase
threshold frequency and stopping potential (2) The kinetic energy of the electrons will
is: increase
(1) e (2) h
(3) The stopping potential will decrease
(3) h/e (4) he
(4) The threshold wavelength will increase

3. When intensity of incident light increases :

7. The stopping potential necessary to reduce
(1) photo - current increases
the photoelectric current to zero-
(2) photo - current decreases
(1) is directly proportional to wavelength of
(3) kinetic energy of emitted photoelectrons
increases incident light.
(4) kinetic energy of emitted photoelectrons (2) uniformly increases with the wavelength
decreases of incident light.
(3) directly proportional to frequency.
4. The stopping potential as a function of (4) uniformly increases with the frequency.
frequency of incident radiation is plotted for
two different photo electric surfaces A and B. 8. If the frequency of light in a photoelectric
The graphs show the work function of A is experiment is doubled then stopping
Vs potential will
(1) be doubled
A B (2) be halved
(3) become more than double
ν (4) become less than double
(1) Greater than that of B
(2) Smaller than that of B 9. When a certain metallic surface is
(3) Same as that of B illuminated with monochromatic light of
(4) No comparison can be done from given wavelength λ, the stopping potential for
graphs photo electric current is 6 V0. When the same
surface is illuminated with light of
5. A point source of light is used in a wavelength 2λ, the stopping potential is 2V0.
photoelectric effect. If the source is moved
The threshold wavelength of this surface for
farther from the emitting metal, the stopping
photoelectric effect is–
potential
(1) 6 λ
(1) will increase
(2) will decrease (2) 4λ/3
(3) will remain constant (3) 4λ
(4) will either increase or decrease (4) 8λ

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 PHYSICS Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter, Atom
10. The work function for aluminium surface is 14. A light beam of power 1.5 mW and 400 nm
4.2 eV. If intensity of photon beam is doubled wavelength incident on a cathode. If
without changing numbers of photons quantum efficiency is 0.1% then, find out
striking per second. Find new cut-off obtained photo current and number of
wavelength. photoelectron per second.
(1) 1000 Å (1) 24 µA (2) 48 µA
(2) 2000 Å (3) 0.24 µA (4) 0.48 µA
(3) 2955 Å
(4) 4200 Å 15. A metalic surface of work function hn is
illuminated by a radiation beam of frequency
11. Which one of the following graphs in figure 5ν. Stopping potential observed is X. What
shows the variation of photoelectric current will be stopping potential if the surface is
(I) with voltage (V) between the electrodes in illuminated by radiations of 7ν frequency?
a photoelectric cell? (1) 15 X (2) 9 X
(3) 3 X (4) 1.5 X
I
I
(1) (2)
16. In photoelectric effect, we assume the
0 V 0 V photon energy is proportional to its
frequency and is completely absorbed by the
I I electrons in the metal. Then the
(3) (4) photoelectric current (ν > νth)
0 V 0 V (1) Decreases when the frequency of the
incident photon increases.
(2) Increases when the frequency of the
12. The wavelength of photons in two cases are incident photon increases.
4000 Å and 3600 Å respectively what is (3) Does not depend on the photon
difference in stopping potential for these frequency but only on the intensity of the
two? incident beam.
(1) 0.17 (4) Depends both on the intensity and
(2) 0.21 frequency of the incident beam.
(3) 0.34
(4) 0.48 17. When stopping potential is applied in an
experiment on photoelectric effect, no
13. When incident wavelength is λ, stopping photocurrent is observed. This means that
potential is 3 V0. If incident wavelength is 2λ (1) the emission of photoelectrons is
then stopping potential is V0. Find out stopped.
(2) the photoelectrons are emitted but are
threshold wavelength in terms of λ.
reabsorbed by the emitter metal.
(1) 2λ
(3) the photoelectrons are accumulated near
(2) 3λ
the collector plate.
(3) 4λ
(4) the photoelectrons are dispersed from
(4) 5λ
the sides of the apparatus.

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5. DE-BROGLIE WAVELENGTH OF MATTER WAVE

As wave behaves like material particles, similarly matter also behaves like waves. According to de-
Broglie, a wavelength of the matter wave associated with a particle is given by
h h h
λ= = = , where m is the mass, v is velocity and K is kinetic energy of the particle.
p mv 2Km
• de-Broglie wavelength for an electron:
If an electron (charge = e) is accelerated by a potential of V volts, it acquires a kinetic energy,
K = eV
Substituting the values of h, m and q in above Eq. we get a simple formula for calculating de-Broglie
wavelength of an electron.
150
λ(in Å) =
V(in volts)

• de-Broglie wavelength of a gas molecule:

Let us consider a gas molecule at absolute temperature T. Kinetic energy of gas molecule is given
by
3
K.E. = kT ; k = Boltzmann constant
2
h
∴ λgas molecule =
3mkT

Example 17:
An electron is accelerated by a potential difference of 50 volt. Find the de-Broglie wavelength
associated with it.
Solution:
For an electron, de-Broglie wavelength is given by,
150 150
λ= = = 3 = 1.73 Å
V 50

Example 18:
Find the ratio of de-Broglie wavelength of molecules of hydrogen and helium which are at temperatures
27°C and 127°C respectively.
Solution:
de-Broglie wavelength is given by
λH2 mHe THe 4 (127 + 273) 8
∴ = = . =
λHe mH2 TH2 2 (27 + 273) 3

Example 19:
Find the de Broglie wavelength of a 0.01 kg pellet having a velocity of 10 m/s.
Solution:
6.63 × 10–34 J.s –23
λ = h/p = = 6.63 × 10 Å
0.01kg × 10m / s
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Example 20:
Determine the accelerating potential necessary to give an electron for de Broglie wavelength of 1 Å,
which is the size of the interatomic spacing of atoms in a crystal.
Solution:
150
V= = 150 V
λ (inÅ)
2

Exercise 1.4

1.
–12
A particle of mass 11 × 10 kg is moving 7. The de Broglie wavelength of an electron
–7 8 –1
with a velocity 6 × 10 m/s. Its de–Broglie moving with a velocity 1.5 × 10 ms is equal
wavelength is nearly : to that of a photon. The ratio of the kinetic
–20 –16
(1) 10 m (2) 10 m energy of the electron to that of the energy of
–12
(3) 10 m
–8
(4) 10 m photon is :
(1) 2 (2) 4
2. The de-Broglie wavelength λ : 1 1
(3) (4)
(1) is proportional to mass 2 4
(2) is proportional to impulse
(3) inversely proportional to impulse 8. An electron and a proton are possessing
(4) does not depend on impulse same amount of kinetic energies. The de-
Broglie wavelength is greater for :
3. The ratio of de-Broglie wavelengths of a (1) electron (2) proton
proton and an alpha particle of same energy is (3) equal (4) can't say
(1) 1 : 1 (2) 2 : 1
(3) 4 : 1 (4) 0.25 : 1 9. If the velocity of a moving particle is reduced
to half, then percentage change in its
4. The ratio of de broglie wavelengths of a wavelength will be
proton and an alpha particle moving with the
(1) 100% decrease (2) 100% increase
same velocity is
(3) 50% decrease (4) 50% increase
(1) 1 : 1 (2) 2 : 1
(3) 4 : 1 (4) 0.25 : 1

5. The ratio of de Broglie wavelengths of a 10. Which one of the following statements is
proton and a neutron moving with the same NOT true for de Broglie waves ?
velocity is nearly (1) All atomic particles in motion have waves of
(1) 1 : 1 (2) 2 : 1 a definite wavelength associated with them
(2) The higher the momentum, the longer is
(3) 1 : 2 (4) None
the wavelength
(3) The faster the particle, the shorter is the
6. Two particles have identical charges. If they
are accelerated through identical potential wavelength
differences, then the ratio of their de-Broglie (4) For the same velocity, a heavier particle
wavelength would be has a shorter wavelength
(1) λ1 : λ2 = 1 : 1
11. The wavelength associated with an electron
(2) λ1 : λ2 = m2 : m1
accelerated through a potential difference of
(3) λ1 : λ2 = m2 : m1 100 V is of the order of :
(4) λ1 : λ2 = m1 : m2 (1) 1.2Å (2) 10.5 Å
(3) 100 Å (4) 1000 Å
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Points to Ponder
Wave – Particle Duality
• Particle can show wave like properties and wave can show particle like properties.
• It is just a matter of experiment that which property will be revealed.
• Only one of the nature will be revealed in a given experiment.
• Both wave nature and particle nature will not be shown simultaneously in a given situation.

6. ATOMIC STRUCTURE
6.1 Thomson's Atomic Model
• Plum-pudding model– In atom positive charge is spread out in space with electron embedded
throughout the region.
• He found the charge to mass ratio of electron for atomic structure.
Q
= 1.7 × 10+11 e / kg
M

6.2 Rutherford's Model of The Atom

• Performed gold foil experiment on bombarding high speed α-particle on thin gold foil.
• Most of the alpha-particles went straight.
- conclusion: atoms are mostly empty space.
• Very few alpha particle (1 in 8000) were deflected by more than 90°.
- conclusion: atoms have a very small, dense positive center called nucleus''.
• Rutherford could not explain
- Stability of atom
- Characteristic spectrum/spectral lines.

6.3 Distance of Closest Approach

When a light charged particle is projected directly on heavy nucleus.
(Changed particle)
(m,v)
Nuclues

rmin

If
Z1e : Charge on projected particle
Z2e : Charge on nucleus
v0 : Speed of charged particle at large distance from nucleus.
m : mass of projected charged particle.
rmin : Distance of closest approach
At minimum distance, whole K.E. will be converted into P.E.
1 2 1 (Z1e)(Z2e) Z1Z2e2
mv 0 = . ; r min =
2 4πε0 rmin 2πε0mv 20

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Example 21:
An α-particle with kinetic energy 10 MeV is heading towards a stationary point-nucleus of atomic
number 50. Calculate the distance of closest approach.
Solution:
 TEA = TEB

6 K × (2e)(50e)
∴ 10 × 10 e =
r0
–14 –4
r0 = 1.44 × 10 m ; r0 = 1.44 × 10 Å

Example 22:
7
A beam of α-particles of velocity 2.1 × 10 m/s is scattered by a gold (z = 79) foil. Find out the distance
of closest approach of the α-particle to the gold nucleus. The value of charge/mass for α-particle is
7
4.8 × 10 C/kg.
Solution:
 2e 
2K   (79e)
1 2 K(2e)(Ze)  mα  2 × (9 × 109 )(4.8 × 107 )(79 × 1.6 × 10–19 )
mαVα = ⇒ r0 = =
2 r0 Vα2 (2.1 × 107 )2
–14
r0 = 2.5 × 10 m

Example 23:
Calculate the nearest distance of approach of an α-particle of energy 2.5 MeV being scattered by a gold
nucleus (Z = 79)
Solution:
T.E1 = T.E2
2
6 1 2e(79)e
2.5 × 10 e =
4πε0 rmin
9 × 109 × 2 × 79 × 1.6 × 10–19 –14
⇒ rmin = = 9 × 10 m
2.5 × 10 6

6.4 Bohr's Atomic Theory

1 2 + ++
• Bohr's theory is applicable for Hydrogen/hydrogen like atoms/ions (1H , 1H , He , Li etc).

V
According to Bohr's Theory:
• An electron moves in circular orbits; necessary centripetal force is provided
by electrostatic attraction between nucleus and electron.
+ ze ( − e)
Mathematically,
mv 2 1 Ze.e
FC = = . 2 ...(1)
r 4πε0 r r
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• The electron revolves only in those (stationary orbits) for which angular momentum of electron is
integral multiple of h/2π (Bohr's quantisation rule).
Mathematically,
nh
mvr = ...(2)
2π
where n = 1, 2,....
This is called Bohr's quantum condition.
• The emission or absorption of energy occurs only when an electron jumps from one of its orbit to
another. The difference in the total energy of electron in the two permitted orbits is absorbed when
the electron jumps from an inner to an outer orbit and emitted when electron jumps from outer to
the inner orbit.
Mathematically,
hf = E2 – E1
This is called Bohr's frequency condition

th
6.5 Radius of Electron in n Orbit
Using eq. (1)
mv 2 1 Ze
2
2 1 Ze2
= ⇒ v = .
r 4πε0 r 2 4πε0 mr
2
Putting value of v in eq. (2) after squaring eq (2)
2
2  1 Ze2  2  nh 
m  r =  
 4πε0 mr   2π 
 h2 ε0  n2
⇒ r = rn =  2 
.
 πme  Z
n2  n2 ε0 
= a0 =
 where a0 = 0.53Å 
Z  πme 2

n2 1
a0 is known Bohr radius rn ∝ , rn ∝
Z m
Graphs:

rn rn rn

Z n n2
th
Speed of Electron in n Orbit
On Solving eq (1) & (2)
 e  Z 6 Z
vn =   = (2.2×10 ) m/s
 2hε0  n n
Z 0
vn ∝ vn ∝ m
n

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Graphs

vn vn

n Z
th
Energy of Electron in n Orbit
1 2 Ze2
Kinetic energy K = mv =
2 8πε0r
1 (Ze)(–e) Ze2
Potential energy U = =–
4πε0 r 4πε0r
Ze2
Total energy E = K + U = –
8πε0r
Ze2
E=–
8πε0r
Putting value of r
 me4  Z2 z2 z2
E = –  2 2  · 2 = –13.6 2 eV = – Rhc 2
 8h ε0  n n n
13.6 me4 7 –1
Where, R = = 3 2 = 1.097 × 10 m
hc 8h ε0c
R is called Rydberg constant.
Rhc = 13.6 eV is known as Rydberg energy.
z2
En ∝ , En ∝ m
n2
Kn = –En, Un = 2 En = –2Kn

Time Period of Revolution

2πrn 2π
Tn = =
vn ωn
n2 Z
Since, rn ∝ , vn ∝
Z n
n3 Z2
Tn ∝ , ωn ∝
Z2 n3

th
Angular Momentum of Electron in n Orbit
nh
Ln =
2π
Angular momentum is independent of Z.

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Example 24:
++
Find the radius of Li ions in its ground state assuming Bohr's model to be valid.
Solution:
th
For H-like ions the radius of the n orbit is
n2
rn = r0
z
++
For Li , Z = 3 and in ground state n = 1
The radius is
12 × 53 × 10–12
r1 = m
3
–11
r1 = 1.76 × 10 m

Example 25:
Find the maximum angular speed of the electron of a hydrogen atom in a stationary orbit.
Solution:
Z
2.2 × 106 m / sec
vn n
ωn = =
rn n2
0.53 Å
Z
For hydrogen atom Z = 1 and ωn will be maximum for n = 1
2.2 × 106 16
ωmax = = 4.1 × 10 rad/sec
0.53 × 10–10

Example 26:
–8
Average lifetime of a H atom excited to n = 2 state is 10 sec. Find the number of revolutions made by
the electron on the average before it jumps to the ground state.
Solution:
Time period of revolution of electron in n = 2, Z = 1
2πrn 2π 2π 2πn3
Tn = = = =
vn ωn 2.2 × 106 Z2 4.1 × 1016 Z2
0.53 × 10–10 n3
2π(2)3 16π –16
T2 = = = 12.25 × 10 sec
4.1 × 1016
4.1 × 1016
t
Number of revolutions =
T2
10–8 6
= = 8.2 × 10
12.25 × 10–16

Example 27:
2
A small particle of mass m moves in such a way that the potential energy U = ar where a is a constant
and r is the distance of the particle from the origin. Assuming Bohr’s model of quantization of angular
th
momentum and circular orbits, find the radius of n allowed orbit.

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Solution:
The force at a distance r is,
dU
F=– = – 2ar
dr
th
Suppose r be the radius of n orbit. The necessary centripetal force is provided by the above force. Thus,
mv 2
= 2ar
r
Further, the quantization of angular momentum gives,
nh
mvr =
2π
Solving Eqs. (i) and (ii) for r, we get
1/4
 n2h2 
r=  2 
 8amπ 
Example 28:
An electron rotates in a circle around a nucleus with positive charge Ze. How is the electrons’ velocity
related to the radius of its orbit ?
Solution:
The force on the electron due to the nucleus provides the required centripetal force
2
1 Ze.e mv
=
4πε0 r 2 r

Ze2
⇒v=
4πε0rm

Example 29:
Calculate the magnetic dipole moment corresponding to the motion of the electron in the ground state
of a hydrogen atom.
Solution:
Magnetic dipole moment M or µ = i A
q e ev
i= = =
T 2πr / v 2πr
2
A = πr
ev 2 erv
M= πr =
2πr 2
6 Z
vn = 2.2 × 10 m/sec
n
n2 –10 n
2
rn = 0.53 Å = 0.53 × 10 m
Z Z
For hydrogen Z = 1, ground state n = 1
ev 1r1 1.6 × 10–19 × 2.2 × 106 × 0.53 × 10–10 –24 2
M= = = 9.2 × 10 A.m
2 2

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Exercise 1.5

1. The radius of first Bohr orbit is 0.5 Å, then 7. Which one of the series of hydrogen
radius of fourth Bohr orbit will be: spectrum is in the visible region ?
(1) 0.03 Å (2) 0.12 Å (1) Lyman series
(3) 2.0 Å (4) 8.0 Å (2) Balmer series
(3) Paschen series
2. According to Bohr’s model of hydrogen atom,
(4) Bracket series
relation between principal quantum number
n and radius of stable orbit:
8. The Rutherford α–particle experiment Shows
1
(1) r ∝ (2) r ∝ n that most of the α–particles pass through
n
almost unsceptered while some are
1 2
(3) r ∝ 2 (4) r ∝ n scattered through large angles. What
n
information does it give about the structure
3. If a0 is the Bohr radius, the radius of (n = 2) of the atom:
electronic orbit in triply ionized beryllium is: (1) Atom is hollow
(1) 4a0 (2) a0 (2) The whole mass of the atom is concentrated
(3) a0/4 (4) a0/16 in a small centre called nucleus
(3) Nucleus is positively charged
4. The energy required to knock out the (4) All the above
electron which is in the third orbit of a
hydrogen atom is equal to 9. An electron makes a transition from orbit
13.6 n = 4 to the orbit n = 2 of a hydrogen atom.
(1) 13.6 eV (2) + eV
9 The wave number of the emitted radiation
13.6 3 (R = Rydberg’s constant) will be
(3) – eV (4) – eV
3 13.6 16 2R
(1) (2)
3R 16
5. The energy of an electron in the excited state 3R 4R
(3) (4)
of H-atom is –1.5 eV, then according to Bohr’ 16 16
model, its angular momentum will be:
–34 –34
(1) 3.15 × 10 J-sec (2) 2.15 × 10 J-sec 10. Which energy state of doubly ionized lithium
–30 –33 ++
(3) 5.01 × 10 J-sec (4) 3.15 × 10 J-sec (Li ) has the same energy as that of the
ground state of hydrogen ? Given Z for
6. The Lyman series of hydrogen spectrum lies lithium = 3 :
in the region (1) n = 1 (2) n = 2
(1) Infrared (2) visible (3) n = 3 (4) n = 4
(3) Ultraviolet (4) of x – rays

Energy in Atom
• Excitation Energy: The energy needed to jump an electron to higher orbit.
• Excitation Potential: The potential through which an electron should be accelerated to acquire
higher state is known as excitation potential.
• Binding Energy of Atom: Energy required to separate electron from nucleus to a large distance.
The binding energy of hydrogen atom in ground state is 13.6 eV.
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Absorption Spectrum
When an electron absorbs a photon it goes to higher orbit. The spectrum of photon is called absorption
spectrum. It means electron can absorb only certain specific value, which is difference of energy of two
orbits.
13.6
n=4 =
E4 = –0.85eV
1275eV 2.55eV 0.66eV 42
n=3 13.6
12.1eV 1.9eV =
E3 = –1.51eV
32
n=2
13.6
=
E2 = –3.4eV
10.2eV 22

n=1 E1 = –13.6eV

• If case of H-atom absorption spectrum will be of energy 10.2 eV, 12.1 eV etc.
• On moving up energy differences decreases.

Excitation of Atom(S) During Collision

• During collision energy loss can only be used to exited the atoms.
• Minimum loss is zero during elastic collision.
• Maximum loss is during perfectly inelastic collision.
• Collision will be inelastic if electron can jump to higher orbit.

Emission Spectrum
–8
Excited electron remains in higher orbit for a time about 10 s, then it tries to return to ground state
by emitting photon. In this way we get emission spectrum.
• For n = 1, we can have only absorption spectrum but not emission spectrum.
n=4
1275eV 2.55eV 0.66eV
n=3
12.1eV 1.9eV
n=2

10.2eV
n=1

• Possible transition of an electron if it returns n = 4 to n = 1

4 → 3, 4 → 2, 4 → 1
3 → 2, 3 → 1
2→1
Total no. of possible emission spectrum = 6
n(n–1) n
• No. of possible emission spectrum from ni = n to nf = 1 = C2
2
(n1 –n2 )(n1 –n2 + 1)
• No. of possible emission spectrum from ni = n1 to nf = n2 =
2
Wavelength of Emitted Radiation
If electron jumps from initial state ni to a final state nf then wavelength of radiation λ is given by Ei – Ef
hc hc 2 1 1 1 1 1 2
= = z Rhc  2– 2 ⇒ = R 2 – 2  z
λ λ  ni n f  λ  ni nf 
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Series Limit : Line of any group having maximum energy of photon is called series limit. In Balmer
series first line is known as Hα line and second line as Hβ line and so on.
First Member
Maximum
Final Wavelength Series Limit Lines
Initial state Second wavelegth
State formula ni → ∞To nf found in
Member (ni + 1)To nf
From ∞ to 1 From 2 to 1
1  1 1=  ni 2=
to nf 1 1 4 UV
Lyman =n 2,3,4,5,6,.. =
nf 1 = R  2 – 2  = λ λ=
λ  1 ni = ni 3=
to nf 1 R 3R Region
λ =911Å λ =1216Å
From ∞ to 2 From 3 to 2
1  1 1=  ni 3=
to nf 2 4 36 Visible
Balmer =n 3,4,5,6,7,.. =
nf 2 = R  2 – 2  = λ = λ
λ  2 ni = ni 4=
to nf 2 R 5R Region
λ =3646Å λ =6563Å
From ∞ to 3 From 4 to 3
1  1 1=  ni 4= to nf 3 9 144 IR
Paschen =n 4,5,6,7,8.. =
nf 3= R  2 – 2  = λ = λ
λ  3 ni 
ni = 5 to n f = 3 R 7R Region
λ =8204Å λ =18753Å
From ∞ to 4 From 5 to 4
1  1 1=  ni 5=
to nf 4 16 400 IR
Brackett =n 5,6,7,8,9,.. =
nf 4 = R  2 – 2  = λ = λ
λ  4 ni = ni 6=
to nf 4 R 9R Region
λ =14585Å λ =40515Å
From ∞ to 5 From 6 to 5
1  1 1=  ni 6=
to nf 5 25 900 Far IR
Pfund =n 6,7,8,9,10,..=
nf 5= R  2 – 2  = λ = λ
λ  5 ni = ni 7=
to nf 5 R 11R Region
λ =22790Å λ =74583Å

Explanation of Bohr Quantization

According to de Broglie electron revolves round the nucleus in the form of
stationary waves λ
6th Bohr
(i. e. wave packet) in the similar orbit

fashion as stationary waves in a vibrating string. Electron can stay in those

circular orbits whose circumference is an integral multiple of de–Broglie wavelength associated with
the electron,
2πr = nλ
h nh
 λ= and 2πr = nλ ∴ mvr =
mv 2π
This is the Bohr quantization’s condition.

equivalent straightened orbit

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7. CALCULATION OF RECOIL SPEED OF ATOM ON EMISSION OF A PHOTON

h
Momentum of photon = mc =
λ
fixed free to move
H − atom in first excited state
hc υ h
= ∆E H − atom
(a) λ (b) λ'

m - mass of atom
According to momentum conservation
h
mv =
λ'
mv = ∆E/c
recoil speed of atom (v) = ∆E/mc

Example 30:
First excitation potential of a hypothetical hydrogen like atom is 15 volt. Find third excitation potential
of the atom.
Solution:
Let energy of ground state = E0
2 E0
E0 = – 13.6 Z eV and En =
n2
E0 E0
n = 2, E2 = given – E0 = 15
4 4
3E E
– 0 = 15 for n = 4, E4 = 0
4 16
E 15
third excitation energy = 0 – E0 = – E0
16 16
15  –4 × 15  75
= – ·  = eV
16  3  4
75
∴ third excitation potential is V
4

Example 31:
+
Calculate the energy of a He ion in its first excited state.
Solution:
–RhcZ2 –(13.6eV)Z2
The energy is En = =
n2 n2
+ +
For He ion, Z = 2 and for the first excited state, n = 2 so that the energy of He ion.
–13.6eV × 22
E2 =
22
E2 = –13.6 eV

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Example 32:
Calculate (a) the wavelength and (b) the frequency of the Hβ line of the Balmer series for hydrogen.
Solution:
(a) Hβ line of Balmer series corresponds to the transition from n = 4 to n = 2 level.
The corresponding wavelength for Hβ line is,
1 7  1 1 7
= (1.097 × 10 )  2 – 2  = 0.2056 × 10
λ 2 4 
–7
∴ λ = 4.9 × 10 m
c 3.0 × 108 14
(b) ν = = = 6.12 × 10 Hz
λ 4.9 × 10–7

Example 33:
Find the largest and shortest wavelengths in the Lyman series for hydrogen. In what region of the
electromagnetic spectrum does each series lie?
Solution:
The transition equation for Lyman series is given by,
1  1 1
=R 2 – 2 n = 2, 3, ......
λ  (1) n 
for largest wavelength, n = 2
1 7 1 1 7
= 1.097 × 10  –  = 0.823 × 10
λmax 1 4
–7
∴ λmax = 1.2154 × 10 m = 1215 Å
The shortest wavelength corresponds to n = ∞
1 7 1 1
∴ = 1.097 × 10  – 
λmax 1 ∞
–7
or λmin = 0.911 × 10 m = 911 Å
Both of these wavelengths lie in ultraviolet (UV) region of electromagnetic spectrum.

Example 34:
Find the kinetic energy, potential energy and total energy in first and second orbit of hydrogen atom if
potential energy in first orbit is taken to be zero.
Solution:
E1 = – 13.60 eV
K1 = – E1 = 13.60 eV
U1 = 2E1 = –27.20 eV
E1
E2 = = – 3.40 eV
(2)2
K2 = 3.40 eV
and U2 = – 6.80 eV
Now U1 = 0, i.e., potential energy has been increased by 27.20 eV while kinetic energy will remain
unchanged. So values of kinetic energy, potential energy and total energy in first orbit are 13.60 eV, 0,
13.60 respectively and for second orbit these values are 3.40 eV, 20.40 eV and 23.80 eV.
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Example 35:
+
Calculate the wavelength of radiation emitted when He makes a transition from the state n = 3 to the
state n = 2.
Solution:
The wavelength λ is given by
7
ni = 3, nf = 2, Z = 2, R = 1.097 × 10 /m
1 1 1 1 5
⇒ = 4R  –  ⇒ = R
λ 4 9 λ 9
9
⇒ λ= = 164.0 nm
5R

Example 36:
If the difference of energies of an electron in the second and the fourth orbits of an atom is E. Find the
ionisation energy of that atom.
Solution:
th
Energy of the atom in n excited state.
–13.6eV·Z2
En =
n2
–13.6eV 2 –13.6eV 2
E4 = Z and E2 = ·Z
16 4
2 3
E = E4 – E2 = 13.6eV × Z ×
16
2 16E
Ionisation energy = 13.6 eV × Z =
3

Example 37:
The excitation energy of a hydrogen-like ion in the first excited state is 40.8 eV. Find the energy needed
to remove the electron from the ion.
Solution:
The excitation energy in the first excited state is
2 1 1
E = 13.6(eV)Z  2 – 2 
 ni nf 
32
E = 13.6 × Z × eV
4
Given that E = 40.8 eV
2 3
⇒ 40.8 eV = 13.6 × Z ×
4
⇒ Z=2
+
So, the ion in question is He . The energy in the ground state is n = 1
13.6(eV)Z2 –13.6 × 22
E= = = –54.4 eV
n2 12
Thus 54.4 eV is required to remove the electron from the ion.
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Example 38:
How many different photons can be emitted by hydrogen atoms that undergo transitions to the ground
state from the n = 5 state ?
Solution:
n(n − 1) 5 × 4
No. of possible transition from n = 5 ⇒ = = 10
2 2

Example 39:
A moving hydrogen atom makes a head on collision with a stationary hydrogen atom. Before collision
both atoms are in ground state and after collision they move together. What is the minimum value of
the kinetic energy of the moving hydrogen atom, such that one of the atoms reaches one of the
excitation state.
Solution:
Let K be the kinetic energy of the moving hydrogen atom and K’, the kinetic energy of combined mass
after collision.
From conservation of linear momentum,
n=2

∆E =10.2eV

n=1

p = p’ or 2Km = 2K '(2m) or K = 2K’ ....(i)

From conservation of energy, K = K’ + ∆E ....(ii)
K
Solving Eqs. (i) and (ii), we get ∆E =
2
Now minimum value of ∆E for hydrogen atom is 10.2 eV.
or ∆E ≥ 10.2 eV
K
∴ ≥ 10.2 ∴ K ≥ 20.4 eV
2
Therefore, the minimum kinetic energy of moving hydrogen is 20.4 eV

Example 40:
The total energy of electron in the first excited state of hydrogen is about –3.4 eV. Find kinetic energy
and potential energy of electron in this state.
Solution:
KZe2 –KZe2
We know kinetic energy of electron = and potential energy of electron =
2r r
P.E. = –2 (K.E.)
Total energy = K.E. + P.E. = K.E. –2 K.E. = –K.E.
⇒ K.E. = – Total Energy = – (– 3.4eV)
K.E. = 3.4 eV
Potential Energy = –2 × KE = –2 × (3.4eV) = –6.8 eV

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Example 41:
Find the ratio of magnetic moment of an electron to its angular momentum in an orbit.
Solution:
Magnetic moment M = ΙA
e 2
M = · pr ......(i)
T
2πr 2πr
We know that velocity of electron v= or T =
T v
Putting the value of T in equation (i)
πr 2 evr
⇒ M=e =
2π / v 2
th
Angular momentum of an electron in n orbit
L = mvr
M evr M e
∴ = ⇒ =
L 2 × mvr L 2m

Exercise 1.6

1. The wavelength of the first line in Balmer 5. An electron makes a transition from orbit
series in the hydrogen spectrum is λ. What is n = 5 to the orbit n = 2 of a hydrogen atom.
the wavelength of the second line : The wave number of the emitted radiation
(R = Rydberg’s constant) will be
20λ 3λ
(1) (2) (1) 16/3R (2) 21R/25
27 16 (3) 21R/100 (4) 4R/16
5λ 3λ
(3) (4) 6. The ground State energy of helium atom is –
36 4 54.4 eV. What is the potential energy of the
electron in this state
2. The wavelength of light emitted due to (1) 54.4 ev (2) –108.8 eV
transition of electron from second orbit to (3) 108.8 eV (4) –54.4 eV
first orbit in hydrogen atom is 7. In Bohr’s model of hydrogen atom, the
(1) 6563 Å (2) 4102 Å centripetal force is provided by the Coulomb
(3) 4861 Å (4) 1215 Å attraction between the proton and the
electron. If a0 is the radius of the ground state
orbit, m is the mass and e the charge of an
3. When an electron in an hydrogen atom
electron and ε0 is the vacuum permittivity,
makes a transition from first Bohr orbit to
the speed of the electron is :
second Bohr orbit, how much energy it
e
absorbs ? (1) zero (2)
ε0a0m
(1) 3.4 eV (2) 10.2 eV
(3) 13.6 eV (4) 1.51 eV e 4πε0a0m
(3) (4)
4πε0a0m e
4. If the binding energy of the electron in a 8. The ionization energy of helium atom is 54.4
hydrogen atom is 13.6 eV the energy required eV. Helium atoms in the ground state are
to remove the electron from the first excited excited by electromagnetic radiation of
3+ energy 51 eV. How many spectral lines will be
state of Be is
emitted by the Helium atoms?
(1) 30.6 eV (2) 13.6eV (1) two (2) four
(3) 3.4 eV (4) 54.4 eV (3) six (4) eight
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Exercise 2

1. A radiation of energy E falls normally on a 7. The anode voltage of a photocell is kept fixed.
perfectly reflecting surface. The momentum The wavelength λ of the light falling on the
transferred to the surface is- cathode is gradually changed. The plate
(1) E/c (2) 2E/c
2 current I of the photocell varies as follows :
(3) Ec (4) E/c
2. According to Einstein's photoelectric I I
equation, the plot of the kinetic energy of the (1) (2)
emitted photoelectrons from a metal Vs the O λ O λ
frequency, of the incident radiation gives a
straight line whose slope-
I I
(1) depends on the nature of the metal used (3) (4)
(2) depends on the intensity of the radiation
O λ O λ
(3) depends both on the intensity of the
radiation and the metal used
(4) is the same for all metals and independent 8. The surface of a metal is illuminated with the
of the intensity of the radiation light of 400 nm. The kinetic energy of the
3. The work function of a substance is 4.0 eV. ejected photoelectrons was found to be
The longest wavelength of light that can 1.68 eV. The work function of the metal is :
cause photoelectron emission from this (hc = 1240 eV-nm)
substance is approximately- (1) 1.51 eV (2) 1.68 eV
(1) 540 nm (2) 400 nm (3) 3.09 eV (4) 1.42 eV
(3) 310 nm (4) 220 nm
4. A photocell is illuminated by a small bright 9. If a source of power 4kW produces
source placed 1 m away. When the same 20
10 photons/second, the radiation belongs
1
source of light is place m away, the to apart of the spectrum called:
2
number of electrons emitted by (1) γ-rays (2) X-rays
photocathode would- (3) ultraviolet rays (4) microwaves
(1) decrease by a factor of 4
(2) increase by a factor of 4 10. According to Einstein’s photoelectric
(3) decrease by a factor of 2 equation, the graph between the kinetic
(4) increase by a factor of 2 energy of photoelectrons ejected and the
5. If the kinetic energy of a free electron frequency of incident radiation is
doubles, its de-Broglie wavelength becomes-
Kinetic energy

Kinetic energy

λ
(1) (2) 2λ
2 (1) (2)
λ
(3) (4) 2 λ
2
6. The threshold frequency for a metallic Frequency Frequency
Kinetic energy
Kinetic energy

surface corresponds to an energy of 6.2 eV

and the stopping potential for a radiation
incident on this surface is 5V. The incident (3) (4)
radiation lies in-
(1) ultra-violet region (2) infra-red region
(3) visible region (4) X-ray region Frequency Frequency

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 PHYSICS Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter, Atom
11. Energy E of a hydrogen atom with principal 16. Light of wavelength λ = 4000 Å is incident on
–13.6 a metal surface. If stopping potential needed
quantum number n is given by E = 2 eV.
n to stop the ejected photoelectrons is 1.4 volt,
The energy of a photon ejected when the then find out the work function of metal
electron jumps from n = 3 state to n = 2 state surface.
of hydrogen is approximately:
(1) 1.69 eV (2) 2.69 eV
(1) 0.85 eV (2) 3.4 eV
(3) 1.9 eV (4) 1.5 eV (3) 3.09 eV (4) None of these

12. The work functions for metals A, B and C are 17. Ionization potential of hydrogen atom is
respectively 1.92 eV, 2.0 eV and 5 eV 13.6 eV. hydrogen atoms in the ground state
According to Einstein’s equation, the metals are excited by monochromatic radiation of
which will emit photo electrons for a photon energy 12.1 eV. According to Bohr’s
radiation of wavelength 4100 Å is /are: theory, the spectral lines emitted by
(1) None (2) A only
hydrogen will be:
(3) A and B only (4) All the three metals
(1) Two (2) Three
13. A photosensitive metallic surface has work (3) Four (4) One
function, hν0. If photons of energy 2hν0 fall
on this surface, the electrons come, out with 18. When photons of energy hν fall on an
6
a maximum velocity of 4 × 10 m/s. when the aluminium plate (of work function E0),
photon energy is increased to 5hν0, then photoelectrons of maximum kinetic energy K
maximum velocity of photo electrons will be: are ejected. If the frequency of the radiation
7 7
(1) 4 × 10 m/s (2) 2 × 10 m/s is doubled, the maximum kinetic energy of
5 6
(3) 8 × 10 m/s (4) 8 × 10 m/s the ejected photoelectrons will be:
(1) K + E0 (2) 2K
14. The total energy of an electron in the first (3) K (4) K + hν
excited state of hydrogen atom is about
- 3.4 eV. Its kinetic energy in this state is:
19. The momentum of a photon of energy 1 MeV
(1) –6.8 eV (2) 3.4 eV
(3) 6.8 eV (4) –3.4 eV in kg m/s, will be:
6 –24
(1) 0.33 × 10 (2) 7 × 10
15. Energy levels A, B and C of a certain atom (3) 10
–22
(4) 5 × 10
–22

correspond to increasing values of energy

i.e., EA < EB < EC. If λ1, λ2 and λ3 are wave 20. A photocell employs photoelectric effect to
lengths of radiations corresponding to convert
transitions C to B, to A and C to A
(1) change in the frequency of light into a
respectively, which of the following relations
change in electric voltage
is correct:
C (2) change in the intensity of illumination
λ1 into a change in photoelectric current
B
(3) change in the intensity of illumination
λ2 λ3 into a change in the work function of the
A photocathode
(1) λ3 = λ1 + λ2 (2) λ1 = λ2 + λ3 (4) change in the frequency of light into a
λλ change in the electric current.
(3) λ 23 = λ12 + λ 22 (4) λ3 = 1 2
λ1 + λ 2
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21. A 5 W source emits monochromatic light of 27. Monochromatic light of wavelength 667 nm
wavelength 5000 Å. When placed 0.5 m away, is produced by a helium neon laser. The
it liberates photoelectrons from a power emitted is 9 mW. The number of
photosensitive metallic surface, When the photons arriving per second on the average
source is moved to a distance of 1.0 m, the at a target irradiated by this beam is:
number of photoelectrons liberated will be 17
(1) 9 × 10
reduced by a factor of: 16
(1) 4 (2) 8 (2) 3 × 10
15
(3) 16 (4) 2 (3) 9 × 10
19
(4) 9 × 10
22. The total energy of electron in the ground
state of hydrogen atom is –13.6 eV. The 28. The figure shows a plot of photo current
kinetic energy of an electron in the first
versus anode potential for a photo sensitive
excited state is:
surface for three different radiations. Which
(1) 3.4 eV (2) 6.8 eV
one of the following is a correct statement ?
(3) 13.6 eV (4) 1.7 eV

14 Photo current
23. Monochromatic light of frequency 6.0 × 10 Hz
is produced by a laser. The power emitted is
–3
2 × 10 W. The number of photons emitted, on
the average, by the source per second is: c b a
15 16
(1) 5 × 10 (2) 5 × 10
Retarding potential Anode potential
17 14
(3) 5 × 10 (4) 5 × 10
(1) Curves a and b represent incident
radiations of different frequencies and
24. The work function of a surface of a
different intensities
photosensitive material is 1.4 eV. The
wavelength of the incident radiation for which (2) Curves a and b represent incident
the stopping potential is 1.4 V lies in the: radiations of same frequencies but of
(1) ultraviolet region (2) visible region different intensities
(3) infrared region (4) X-ray region (3) Curves b and c represent incident
radiations of different frequencies and
25. A particle of mass 1 mg has the same different intensities
wavelength as an electron moving with a (4) Curves b and c represent incident
6 –1
velocity of 3 × 10 ms . The velocity of the radiations of same frequencies having
–31
particle is (Mass of electron = 9.1 × 10 kg) same intensity
–18 –1 –2 –1
(1) 2.7 × 10 ms (2) 9 × 10 ms
–31
(3) 3 × 10 ms
–1
(4) 2.7 × 10
–21
ms
–1
29. The number of photoelectrons emitted for
light of a frequency ν is proportional to
26. A particle moving with velocity that is three (higher than the threshold frequency ν0)
times that of velocity of electron. If ratio of (1) ν – ν0
the de-Broglie wavelength of particle with
-4 (2) threshold frequency (ν0)
respect to electron is 1.8 × 10 . Find of mass
-31 (3) intensity of light
of particle (me = 9.1 × 10 kg)
-27 -13 (4) frequency of light (ν)
(1) 1.6 × 10 kg (2) 1.3 × 10 kg
-27 -34
(3) 2.6 × 10 kg (4) 6.63 × 10 kg
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30. The ionization energy of the electron in the 35. The energy of a hydrogen atom in the ground
+
hydrogen atom in its ground state is 13.6 eV. state is –13.6 eV. The energy of a He ion in
The atoms are excited to higher energy levels the first excited state will be:
to emit radiations of 6 wavelengths. (1) – 13.6 eV (2) – 27.2 eV
Maximum wavelength of emitted radiation (3) – 54.4 eV (4) – 6.8 eV
corresponds to the transition between
(1) n = 3 to n = 2 states 36. A source S1 is producing 10
15
photons per
(2) n = 3 to n = 1 states
second of wavelength 5000Å. Another source
(3) n = 2 to n = 1 states 15
S2 is producing 1.02 × 10 photons per
(4) n = 4 to n = 3 states
second of wavelength 5100 Å. Then
20 (power of S2)/(power of S1) is equal to:
31. Sodium lamp emits 3.14 × 10 photons per
(1) 1.00 (2) 1.02
second. Calculate the distance from sodium
(3) 1.04 (4) 0.98
lamp where flux of photon is one photon per
2
second per cm :
9 9 37. The potential difference that must be applied
(1) 1 × 10 cm (2) 3 × 10 cm
to stop the fastest photoelectrons emitted by
9 9
(3) 5 × 10 cm (4) 4 × 10 cm a nickel surface, having work function
5.01 eV, when ultraviolet light of 200 nm falls
32. In a hydrogen atom, electron moves from on it, must be:
second excited state to first excited state and (1) 2.4 V (2) –1.2 V
then from first excited state to ground state. (3) –2.4 V (4) 1.2 V
Find ratio of wavelengths obtained.
27 5 38. When monochromatic radiation of intensity Ι
(1) (2)
5 27 falls on a metal surface, the number of
1 5 photoelectrons and their maximum kinetic
(3) (4)
27 9 energy are N and T respectively. If the
intensity of radiation is 2Ι, the number of
33. The ground state energy of hydrogen atom is emitted electrons and their maximum kinetic
–13.6 eV. When its electron is in the first energy are respectively
excited state, its excitation energy is: (1) N and 2T (2) 2N and T
(1) 3.4 eV (2) 6.8 eV (3) 2N and 2T (4) N and T
(3) 10.2 eV (4) zero
39. The electron in the hydrogen atom jumps
34. In a Rutherford scattering experiment when from excited state (n = 3) to its ground state
a projectile of charge Z1 and mass M1 (n = 1) and the photons thus emitted irradiate
approaches a target nucleus of charge Z2 and a photosensitive material. If the work
mass M2, the distance of closest approach is function of the material is 5.1 eV, the
r0. The energy of the projectile is: stopping potential is estimated to be (the
th
(1) directly proportional to M1 × M2 energy of the electron in n state
(2) directly proportional to Z1Z2 13.6
En = − eV )
(3) inversely proportional to Z1 n2
(1) 5.1 V (2) 12.1 V
(4) directly proportional to mass M1
(3) 17.2 V (4) 7 V
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1 2 44. Suppose an electron is attracted towards the

40. An alpha nucleus of energy mv bombards
2 k
origin by a force where ‘k’ is a constant and
a heavy nuclear target of charge Ze. Then the r
distance of closest approach for the alpha 'r' is the distance of the electron from the
nucleus will be proportional to- origin. By applying Bohr model to this
th
1 system, the radius of the n orbital of the
(1)
Ze electron is found to be ‘rn’ and the kinetic
2
(2) v energy of the electron to be ‘Tn’. Then which
1 of the following is true?
(3)
m 1
1 (1) Tn ∝ ,rn ∝ n2
(4) 4 n2
v (2) Tn independent of n, rn ∝ n
1
41. If 13.6 eV energy is required to ionize the (3) Tn ∝ , rn ∝ n
n
hydrogen atom, then the energy required to
1
remove an electron from n = 2 is- (4) Tn ∝ , rn ∝ n2
n
(1) 10.2 eV
(2) 0 eV
45. The transition from the state n = 4 to n = 1 in
(3) 3.4 eV
a hydrogen like atom results in ultraviolet
(4) 6.8 eV
radiation. Infrared radiation will be obtained
in the transition from :
42. If the binding energy of the electron in a
(1) 4 → 2 (2) 5 → 4
hydrogen atom is 13.6 eV, the energy
(3) 2 → 1 (4) 3 → 2
required to remove the electron from the first
2+
excited state of Li is-
46. Energy required for the electron excitation in
(1) 30.6 eV ++
Li from the first to the third Bohr orbit is:-
(2) 13.6 eV
(1) 108.8 eV (2) 122.4 eV
(3) 3.4 eV
(3) 12.1 eV (4) 36.3 eV
(4) 122.4 eV

47. Hydrogen atom is excited from ground state

43. Which of the following transitions in
to another state with principal quantum
hydrogen atoms emit photons of highest
number equal to 4. Then the number of
frequency ?
spectral lines in the emission spectra will be:
(1) n = 2 to n = 6 (2) n = 6 to n = 2
(1) 6 (2) 2
(3) n = 2 to n = 1 (4) n = 1 to n = 2
(3) 3 (4) 5

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 PHYSICS Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter, Atom

Exercise 3

For Questions (1 to 9) 6. Assertion: Photons do not carry momentum

Read the Assertion and Reason carefully and Reason: A photon is a material particle.
mark the correct options. (1) A (2) B
(A) Both Assertion and Reason are true and
(3) C (4) D
Reason is the correct explanation of
Assertion.
(B) Both Assertion and Reason are true but 7. Assertion: Photo electric effect
Reason is not correct explanation of demonstrates the wave nature of light.
Assertion. Reason: The number of photoelectrons is
(C) Assertion is true but Reason is false. proportional to the frequency of light.
(D) Assertion and Reason are false. (1) A (2) B
1. A photon and an electron both have energy (3) C (4) D
50 eV.
Assertion: Both have different wavelengths. 8. Assertion: In photoelectric effect, the
Reason: Wavelength depends on energy and number of photoelectrons emitted is always
not on mass. equal to number of photons incident.
(1) A (2) B Reason: All the photons falling on the
(3) C (4) D
surface will eject photoelectrons.
2. Assertion: The stopping potential increases, (1) A (2) B
when frequency of incident rays are increased. (3) C (4) D
Reason: Stopping potential is directly
proportional to the frequency of incident 9. Assertion: Wavelength of Lyman series is
radiation.
less than of Balmer series.
(1) A (2) B
(3) C (4) D Reason: In hydrogen spectrum Balmer series
belongs to visible spectrum.
3. Assertion: Charge of a photon is zero. (1) A (2) B
Reason: Rest mass of a photon is zero. (3) C (4) D
(1) A (2) B
(3) C (4) D
10. Match the Column:
4. Assertion: In photo electric effect, photo Column I Column II
electrons come out from inner orbits of atom. Photoelectric h
Reason: Free electrons of the metal can not a. i. λ=
equation mv
absorb energy of a photon. De-Broglie
(1) A (2) B b. ii. K max= hv − φ0
wavelength
(3) C (4) D
Slope of stopping
K max
5. Assertion: In photoelectric effect, on c. Potential vs iii. = Vstopping
e
increasing the intensity of light, both the frequency graph
number of electrons emitted and kinetic Stopping
energy of each of them get increased but d. iv. h/e
potential
photoelectric current remains unchanged.
(1) a-ii, b-i, c-iii, d-iv
Reason: The photoelectric current depends
only on wavelength of light. (2) a-ii, b-i, c-iv, d-iii
(1) A (2) B (3) a-iii, b-iv, c-i, d-ii
(3) C (4) D (4) a-i, b-ii, c-iii, d-iv
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11. For spectral series of hydrogen atom, match 12. For hydrogen spectral series, Match the
the columns. columns.
Column I Column II Column I Column II
1 1 1 Brackett Brackett
a. = R  2 − 2  i. a. i. Ultraviolet region
λ 1 n  series series
1 1 1 Balmer
b. = R  2 − 2  ii. Lyman series b. ii. Infrared region
λ 2 n  series
1 c. Lyman series iii. Visible region
 1 1
c. = R  2 − 2  iii. Pfund series Paschen
λ 4 n  d.
series
1 1 1 Balmer
d. = R  2 − 2  iv. (1) a-ii, b-i, c-iii, d-iii (2) a-ii, b-iii, c-i, d-ii
λ 5 n  series
(3) a-i, b-ii, c-ii, d-iii (4) a-iii, b-i, c-ii, d-ii
(1) a-iv, b-iii, c-ii, d-i (2) a-iii, b-ii, c-i, d-iv
(3) a-ii, b-iv, c-i, d-iii (4) a-ii, b-i, c-iii, d-iv

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Exercise 4 (Previous Year's Questions)

1. When the energy of the incident radiation is 6. Light of wavelength 500 nm is incident on a
increased by 20%, the kinetic energy of the metal with work function 2.28 eV. The de
photoelectrons emitted from a metal surface Broglie wavelength of the emitted electron
increases from 0.5 eV to 0.8 eV. The work is: [AIPMT_2015]
–12 –10
function of the metal is: [AIPMT_2014] (1) ≤ 2.8 × 10 m (2) < 2.8 × 10 m
–9 –9
(1) 0.65 eV (2) 1.0 eV (3) < 2.8 × 10 m (4) ≥ 2.8 × 10 m
(3) 1.3 eV (4) 1.5 eV
7. A photoelectric surface is illuminated
2. If the kinetic energy of the particle is successively by monochromatic light of
increased to 16 times its previous value, the wavelength λ and λ/2. If the maximum
percentage change in the de-Broglie kinetic energy of the emitted photoelectrons
wavelength of the particle is: [AIPMT_2014] in the second case is 3 times than in the first
(1) 25 (2) 75 case, the work function of the surface of the
(3) 60 (4) 50 material is (h = Plank's constant, c = speed of
light) [AIPMT_2015]
3. Hydrogen atom in ground state is excited by hc hc
(1) (2)
a monochromatic radiation of λ = 975 Å. 3λ 2λ
Number of spectral lines in the resulting hc 2hc
(3) (4)
spectrum emitted will be [AIPMT_2014] λ λ
(1) 3 (2) 2
(3) 6 (4) 10 8. In the spectrum of hydrogen, the ratio of the
longest wavelength in the Lyman series to
rd + the longest wavelength in the Balmer series
4. Consider 3 orbit of He (Helium), using non-
is: [AIPMT_2015]
relativistic approach, the speed of electron in
5 4
this orbit will be: (1) (2)
9 27 9
[Given : K = 9 × 10 constant, Z = 2 and h
9 27
(Planck's Constant) = 6.6 ×10
–34
J s] (3) (4)
4 5
[AIPMT_2015]
6 6
(1) 1.46 ×10 m/s (2) 0.73 ×10 m/s 9. Given the value of Rydberg constant is 10 m ,
7 –1
8 6
(3) 3.0 ×10 m/s (4) 2.92 ×10 m/s the wave number of the last line of the Balmer
series in hydrogen spectrum will be:
5. Which of the following figures represent the [NEET_2016]
4 –1 7 –1
variation of particle momentum and the (1) 0.025 × 10 m (2) 0.5 × 10 m
associated de-Broglie wavelength ? 7
(3) 0.25 × 10 m
–1 7
(4) 2.5 × 10 m
–1

[AIPMT_2015]
P P 10. When an α-particle of mass 'm' moving with
velocity 'v' bombards on a heavy nucleus of
(1) (2) charge 'Ze', its distance of closest approach
λ λ from the nucleus depends on m as:
[NEET_2016]
P P
1 1
(1) (2)
(3) (4) m m
λ λ 1
(3) 2 (4) m
m
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11. An electron of mass m and a photon have 16. When the light of frequency 2ν0 (where ν0 is
same energy E. The ratio of de-Broglie threshold frequency), is incident on a metal
wavelengths associated with them is:
plate, the maximum velocity of electrons
[NEET_2016]
1 1 emitted is v1. When the frequency of the
1  E 2  E 2 incident radiation is increased to 5ν0, the
(1)   (2)  
c  2m   2m 
maximum velocity of electrons emitted from
1
1/2 1  2m  2 the same plate is v2. The ratio of v1 to v2 is:
(3) c(2mE) (4)  
c E  [NEET_2018]
(c is velocity of light) (1) 1 : 2 (2) 1 : 4
(3) 4 : 1 (4) 2 : 1
12. When a metallic surface is illuminated with
radiation of wavelength λ, the stopping 17. An electron of mass ‘m’ with an initial
potential is V. If the same surface is 
velocity v = v 0ˆi (v0 > 0) enters an electric field
illuminated with radiation of wavelength 2λ, 
V E = −E0ˆi (E0 = constant > 0) at t = 0. If λ0 is its
the stopping potential is . The threshold de-Broglie wavelength initially, then its de-
4
wavelength for the metallic surface is: Broglie wavelength at time t is:
[NEET_2016] [NEET_2018]
(1) 3λ (2) 4λ λ0  eE 
(1) (2) λ 0  1 + 0 t 
5  eE0   mv 0 
(3) 5λ (4) λ 1 + t
2  mv 0 
(3) λ0 t (4) λ0
13. The photoelectric threshold wavelength of
–10
silver is 3250 × 10 m. The velocity of the
18. An electron is accelerated through a
electron ejected from a silver surface by
–10 potential difference of 10,000 V. Its de
ultraviolet light of wavelength 2536 × 10 m
Broglie wavelength is (nearly):
is: [NEET_2017] –31
–15 8 –1 (me = 9 × 10 kg) [NEET_2019]
(Given : h = 4.14 × 10 eVs and c = 3 × 10 ms )
–14
5
(1) ≈ 6 × 10 ms
–1
(2) ≈ 0.6 × 10 ms
7 –1 (1) 12.2 × 10 m (2) 12.2 nm
–13 –12
(3) ≈ 61 × 10 ms
3 –1
(4) ≈ 0.3 × 10 ms
6 –1 (3) 12.2 × 10 m (4) 12.2 × 10 m

14. The ratio of wavelengths of the last line of 19. The total energy of an electron in an atom in
Balmer series and the last line of Lyman an orbit is –3.4 eV. Its kinetic and potential
series is: [NEET_2017] energies are respectively : [NEET_2019]
(1) 2 (2) 1 (1) 3.4 eV, –6.8 eV (2) 3.4 eV, 3.4 eV
(3) 4 (4) 0.5 (3) –3.4 eV, –3.4 eV (4) –3.4 eV, –6.8 eV

15. The de-Broglie wavelength of a neutron in 20. An LED is constructed from a p-n junction
thermal equilibrium with heavy water at a diode using GaAsP. The energy gap is 1.9 eV.
temperature T (Kelvin) and mass m, is: The wavelength of the light emitted will be
[NEET_2017] equal to: [NEET_2019]
(1) h / 3mkT (2) 2h / 3mkT (1) 10.4 × 10
–26
m (2) 654 nm
(3) 2h / mkT (4) h / mkT (3) 654 Å (4) 654 × 10
–11
m
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21. The work function of a photosensitive 27. The number of photons per second on an
material is 4.0 eV. This longest wavelength of average emitted by the source of
light that can cause photon emission from monochromatic light of wavelength 600 nm,
–3
the substance is (approximately) when it delivers the power of 3.3 × 10 watt
–34
[NEET_2019] will be : (h = 6.6 × 10 Js) [NEET_2021]
18
(1) 3100 nm (2) 966 nm (1) 10
17
(3) 31 nm (4) 310 nm (2) 10
16
(3) 10
15
22. A proton and an α-particle are accelerated (4) 10
from rest to the same energy. The de Broglie
28. Let T1 and T2 be the energy of an electron in
wavelengths λp and λα are in the ratio:
the first and second excited states of
[NEET_2019]
hydrogen atom, respectively. According to
(1) 2 : 1 (2) 1 : 1 the Bohr's model of an atom, the ratio T1 : T2
(3) 2 :1 (4) 4 : 1 is: [NEET_2022]
(1) 1 : 4 (2) 4 : 1
23. Light of frequency 1.5 times the threshold (3) 4 : 9 (4) 9 : 4
frequency is incident on a photosensitive
29. The graph which show the variation of the de-
material. What will be the photoelectric
Broglie wavelength (λ) of a particle and its
current if the frequency is halved and
associated momentum (p) is: [NEET_2022]
intensity is doubled ? [NEET_2020]
(1) one-fourth (2) zero
(3) doubled (4) four times λ
(1)

24. The energy required to break one bond in

–20
DNA is 10 J. This value in eV is nearly: p
[NEET_2020]
(1) 0.06 (2) 0.006
(3) 6 (4) 0.6 λ
(2)

2
25. Light with an average flux of 20 W/cm falls
p
on a non-reflecting surface at normal
2
incidence having surface area 20 cm . The
energy received by the surface during time
λ
span of 1 minute is: (3)
[NEET_2020]
3 3
(1) 24 × 10 J (2) 48 × 10 J p
3 3
(3) 10 × 10 J (4) 12 × 10 J

26. The de Broglie wavelength of an electron λ

moving with kinetic energy of 144 eV is (4)
nearly: [NEET_2020(Covid)]
–1 –2
(1) 10 nm (2) 10 nm p
–3 –4
(3) 10 nm (4) 10 nm

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Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter, Atom PHYSICS
30. The minimum wavelength of X-rays produced 36. If c is the velocity of light in free space, the
by an electron accelerated through a correct statements about photon among the
potential difference of V volts is proportional following are: [NEET_2024]
to: [NEET_2023] (A) The energy of a photon is E = hν.
1 (B) The velocity of a photon is c.
(1) V (2) hν
V (C) The momentum of a photon, p =
1 2 c
(3) (4) V (D) In a photon-electron collision, both total
V
energy and total momentum are conserved.
(E) Photon possesses positive charge.
31. The work function of Cesium (Cs) Potassium (K)
Choose the correct answer from the options
and sodium (Na) are 2.14 eV, 2.30 eV and 2.75
given below:
eV respectively. If incident electromagnetic
(1) A, C and D only (2) A, B, D and E only
radiation has an incident energy of 2.20 eV,
(3) A and B only (4) A, B, C and D only
which of these photosensitive surfaces may
emit photoelectrons? [NEET_2023] 37. Given below are two statements: [NEET_2024]
(1) Cs only (2) Both Na and K Statement I : Atoms are electrically neutral
(3) K only (4) Na only as they contain equal number of positive and
negative charges.
32. In hydrogen spectrum, the shortest Statement II : Atoms of each element are
wavelength in the Balmer series is λ. The stable and emit their characteristic
shortest wavelength in the Bracket series is: spectrum.
[NEET_2023] In the light of the above statements, choose
(1) 2λ (2) 4λ the most appropriate answer from the
options given below:
(3) 9λ (4) 16 λ
(1) Statement I is correct but Statement II is
incorrect.
33. The radius of inner most orbit of hydrogen
–11
(2) Statement I is incorrect but Statement II
atom is 5.3 × 10 m. What is the radius of is correct.
third allowed orbit of hydrogen atom? (3) Both Statement I and Statement. II are
[NEET_2023] correct.
(1) 0.53 Å (2) 1.06 Å (4) Both Statement I and Statement II are
(3) 1.59 Å (4) 4.77 Å incorrect.

34. The de Broglie wavelength associated with 38. Match List I with List II.
an electron, accelerated by a potential List I List II
difference of 81 V is given by: (Spectral Lines of Hydrogen (Wavelengths
[NEET_2023(Manipur)] for transitions from) (nm)
(1) 13.6 nm (2) 136 nm A. n2 = 3 to n1 = 2 I. 410.2
(3) 1.36 nm (4) 0.136 nm B. n2 = 4 to n1 = 2 II. 434.1
C. n2 = 5 to n1 = 2 III. 656.3
35. The maximum kinetic energy of the emitted
D. n2 = 6 to n1 = 2 IV. 486.1
photoelectrons in photoelectric effect is
Choose the correct answer from the options
independent of: [NEET_2023(Manipur)]
given below: [NEET_2024]
(1) work function of material
(1) A-IV, B-III, C-I, D-II
(2) intensity of incident radiation
(2) A-I, B-II, C-III, D-IV
(3) frequency of incident radiation (3) A-II, B-I, C-IV, D-III
(4) wavelength of incident radiation (4) A-III, B-IV, C-II, D-I
Sarvam Career Institute 167
 PHYSICS Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter, Atom

 1  41. The spectral series which corresponds to the

39. The graph which shows the variation of  2 
λ  electronic transition from the levels n2 =5, 6,
and its kinetic energy, E is (where λ is de …… to the level n1 = 4 is: [Re-NEET_2024]
Broglie wavelength of a free particle): (1) Pfund series
[NEET_2024] (2) Brackett series
(3) Lyman series
1 (4) Balmer series

λ2
(1) 42. If φ is the work function of photosensitive
material in eV and light of wavelength of
O E
hc
numerical value λ = metre, is incident on
e
1 it with energy above its threshold value at an
λ2 instant then the maximum kinetic energy of
(2)
the photo-electron ejected by it at that
O E instant (Take h-Plank's constant, c-velocity
of light in free space) is (in SI units):
1 [Re-NEET_2024]
λ2 (1) e + 2 φ (2) 2e – φ
(3) (3) e – φ (4) e + φ
O E
43. Some energy levels of a molecule are shown
in the figure with their wavelengths of
1
transitions. Then: [Re-NEET_2024]
λ2
(4) –2E
–5E λ3 λ2
O E
2
–3E
40. An electron and an alpha particle are λ1
accelerated by the same potential difference. –4E
Let λe and λα denote the de-Broglie (1) λ3 > λ2, λ1 = 2 λ2
wavelengths of the electron and the alpha (2) λ3 > λ2, λ1 = 4 λ2
particle, respectively, then: [Re-NEET_2024] (3) λ1 > λ2, λ2 = 2 λ3
(1) λe > λα (2) λe = 4λα (4) λ2 > λ1, λ2 = 2 λ3
(3) λe = λα (4)  λe < λα

168 Sarvam Career Institute

Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter, Atom PHYSICS

ANSWER KEYS
Exercise 1.1
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Ans. 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 4

Exercise 1.2
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 4 1 3 3 2 1 1 3 2 3 2 4 1 3 2 2 2 4 2 1
Que. 21 22 23 24 25 26
Ans. 4 2 3 4 1 1

Exercise 1.3
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
Ans. 3 3 1 2 3 2 4 3 3 3 1 3 3 4 4 3 2

Exercise 1.4
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Ans. 2 3 2 3 1 3 4 1 2 2 1

Exercise 1.5
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Ans. 4 4 2 2 1 3 2 4 3 3

Exercise 1.6
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Ans. 1 4 2 4 3 2 3 3

Exercise 2
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 2 4 3 2 3 1 2 4 2 3 3 3 4 2 4 1 2 4 4 2
Que. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 1 1 1 2 1 1 2 2 3 4 3 1 3 2 1 1 2 2 4 3
Que. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47
Ans. 3 1 3 2 2 1 1

Exercise 3
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Ans. 3 3 2 4 4 4 4 4 2 2 3 2

Exercise 4 (Previous Year's Questions)

Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 2 2 3 1 2 4 2 1 3 1 1 1 1 3 1 1 1 4 1 2
Que. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 4 1 2 1 1 1 3 4 4 2 1 2 4 4 2 4 1 4 2 1
Que. 41 42 43
Ans. 2 3 4

Sarvam Career Institute 169

 Notes

Sarvam Career Institute

Nuclei PHYSICS

Chapter

4 NUCLEI

Chapter Overview • Discovery: Ernest Rutherford → Protons

J.J. Thomson → electron
– Some Definitions James Chadwick → Neutrons
– Mass Defect and Binding • Constituents of Nucleus: neutrons (n) and protons (p)
Energy [collectively known as nucleons]
– Radioactivity (i) Neutron: It is a neutral particle. It was discovered by J.
– Nuclear Fission & Fusion Chadwick.
–27
Mass of neutron, mn = 1.6749286 × 10 kg.
(ii) Proton: It has a charge equal to +e. It was discovered by
Goldstein The discovery of the proton is credited to Ernest
Rutherford, who proved that the nucleus of the hydrogen
atom (i.e., a Proton) is present in the nuclei of all other
atoms.
Based on the conclusion drawn from the gold-foil
experiment, Rutherford is also credited with the discovery
of the atomic nucleus.
–27
Mass of proton, mp = 1.6726231 × 10 kg
• Representation:
A A
ZX or ZX

where : X ⇒ symbol of the atom,

Z ⇒ Atomic number = number of protons,
A ⇒ Atomic mass number = total number of nucleons. = no.
of protons + no. of neutrons.
–15
• Size of nucleus : Order of 10 m (fermi)
1/3 –15
Radius of nucleus : R = R0A ; where R0 = 1.1 × 10 m
(which is an empirical constant)
A = Atomic mass number of atom.

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 PHYSICS Nuclei

• Density of Nucleus:
mass Amp Amp 3mp 3 × 1.67 × 10–27 17 3
density = ≅ = = = = 3 × 10 kg/m
volume 4 4 4πR0 3 –15 3
4 × 3.14 × (1.1 × 10 )
πR3 π(R0 A1/3 )3
3 3
Nuclei of almost all atoms have almost same density as nuclear density is independent of the mass
number (A) and atomic number (Z).

Atomic Mass Unit (a.m.u.):

12 –27
1 a.m.u. = 1/12 [mass of one atom of 6C atom at rest and in ground state] = 1.66 × 10 kg
–27 8 2
Energy equivalence of 1 amu = 1.66 × 10 × (3 × 10 ) J = 931.5 MeV

1. SOME DEFINITIONS
(i) Isotopes: The nuclei having the same number of protons but different number of neutrons are
called isotopes.
(ii) Isotones: Nuclei with the same neutron number but different atomic number(Z) are called
isotones.
(iii) Isobars: The nuclei with the same mass number but different atomic number are called isobars.
(iv) Isomers: Nuclei with same mass no., same atomic no. but different radioactive properties.

Example 1:
70
Calculate the radius of Ge Nuclei.
Solution:
We have,
1/3 1/3
R = R0 A = (1.1 fm) (70) = (1.1 fm) (4.12) = 4.53 fm

2. MASS DEFECT & BINDING ENERGY

Mass Defect (Δm)
It the difference between atomic mass and sum of its constituent’s masses.
∆=
m ( Amp + ( A − Z )mn ) − matom
Binding Energy
It is the minimum energy required to break the nucleus into its constituent particles.
or
Amount of energy released during the formation of nucleus by its constituent particles and bringing
them from infinite separation.
2
Binding Energy (B.E.) = ∆mc
BE = ∆m (in amu) × 931 MeV/amu = ∆m × 931 MeV
Binding energy per nucleon: It’s the average energy required to extract a nucleon from the nucleus.
binding energy nucleon is a measure of stability of a nucleus.
Note : If binding energy per nucleon is more for a nucleus then it is more stable.
For example
 B.E   B.E 
If  1  >  2 
 A1   A 2 
then nucleus 1 would be more stable.
172 Sarvam Career Institute
Nuclei PHYSICS
Variation of Binding Energy Per Nucleon with Mass Number
The binding energy per nucleon first increases on an average and reaches a maximum of about 8.8 MeV
for A = 56. For still heavier nuclei, the binding energy per nucleon slowly decreases as A increases.

Binding energy per nucleon (MeV)

10 32 56
16
O S Fe 100
Mo 127
I 184
8 C
12
W 197 An 238
U
4 18
He 14
O
N
6
6
Li
4
3
H
2
2
0 H
0 50 100 150 200 250
Mass number (A)
56
Binding energy per nucleon is maximum for 26Fe , which is equal to 8.8 MeV. Binding energy per
2
nucleon is minimum for deuterium (1H )

Example 2:
Following data is available about 3 nuclei P, Q & R. Arrange them in decreasing order of stability
P Q R
Atomic mass
10 5 6
numebr (A)
Binding Energy
100 60 56
(MeV)
Solution:
 B.E.  100
  = = 10
 A P 10
 BE  60
  = = 12
 Q
A 5
 B.E.  66
  = = 11
 A R 6
∴ Stability order is Q > R > P

Example 3:
20 21 22
The three stable isotopes of neon: 10 Ne , 10 Ne and 10 Ne have respective abundances of 90.51% 0.27%
and 9.22%. The atomic masses of three isotopes are 19.99 u, 20.99 u and 22.00 u respectively. Obtain
the average atomic mass of neon.
Solution:
90.51 × 19.99 + 0.27 × 20.99 + 9.22 × 22
m= = 20.18 u
100

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 PHYSICS Nuclei
Example 4:
A nuclear reaction is given as : A + B → C + D
Binding energies of A, B, C and D are given as B1, B2, B3 and B4. Find the energy released in the reaction
Solution:
(B3 + B4) – (B1 + B2)

Example 5:
Calculate the binding energy of an alpha particle from the following data:
mass of 11 H atom = 1.007826 u, mass of neutron = 1.008665 u, mass of 24 H atom = 4.00260 u
2
Take 1 u = 931 MeV/c
Solution:
The alpha particle contains 2 protons and 2 neutrons. The binding energy is
2 2
B = (2 × 1.007826 u + 2 × 1.008665 u – 4.00260 u)c = (0.03038 u)c = 0.03038 × 931 MeV = 28.4 MeV

Example 6:
56 56 1
Find the binding energy of 26 Fe . Atomic mass of Fe is 55.9349 u and that of H is 1.00783 u, Mass of
neutron = 1.00867 u.
Solution:
56
The number of protons in 26 Fe = 26 and the number of neutrons = 56 – 26 = 30
56
The binding energy of 26 Fe is
2
= [26 × 1.00783 u + 30 × 1.00867 u – 55.9349 u] c
2
= (0.52878 u) c = (0.52878 u) (931 MeV/u) = 492 MeV

Exercise 1.1

1. The stable nucleus that has a radius 1/3 that 4. Two nuclei have their mass numbers in the
189
of Os is - ratio of 1 : 3. The ratio of their nuclear
(1) 3Li
7
(2) 2He
4 densities would be :
10 12 (1) 1 : 3 (2) 3 : 1
(3) 5B (4) 6C 1/3
(3) (3) :1 (4) 1 : 1
2. The mass numbers of nuclei A and B are
respectively 125 and 64. The ratio of their 5. Two substances have different atomic
radii is: masses and same atomic number. They are :
(1) 1 : 3 (2) 5 : 4 (1) isotopes (2) isobars
(3) isotones (4) none of these
(3) 27 : 1 (4) 1 : 27

27 6. Which one of the following pairs of nuclei are

3. If the nucleus 13 Al has a nuclear radius of
isotones:
125
about 3.6 fm, then 52 Te would have its 74 71 84 86
(1) 34Se ,31Ga (2) 38Sr ,38sr
radius approximately as : 92 92 40 32
(3) 42Mo ,40Zr (4) 20Ca ,16S
(1) 6.0 fm (2) 9.6 fm
(3) 12.0 fm (4) 4.8 fm
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Nuclei PHYSICS
7. Masses of nucleus, neutron and protons are 13.
7
The energy of the reaction Li + p → 2 He is
4

M, mn and mp respectively. If nucleus has (the binding energy per nucleon in Li and
7

been divided into neutrons and protons, then 4

He nuclei are 5.60 and 7.06 MeV
(1) M = (A – Z) mn + Zmp
respectively.)
(2) M = Zmn + (A – Z) mp
(1) 17.3 MeV
(3) M < (A – Z) mn + Zmp
(2) 1.73 MeV
(4) M > (A – Z)mn + Zmp
(3) 1.46 MeV
(4) depends on binding energy of proton
8. As the mass number A increases, the binding
energy per nucleon in a nucleus
14. Calculate the binding energy of 17Cl35 if
(1) increases
(2) decreases mass of 17Cl35 nucleus is 34.98 amu, mass of
(3) remains the same neutron is 1.008665 amu and mass of
(4) varies in a way that depends on the actual proton is 1.007277 amu.
value of A. (1) 279 MeV (2) 347 MeV
(3) 182 MeV (1) 405 MeV
9. A nucleus has mass represented by M(A, Z).
If Mp and Mn denote the mass of proton and 15. Calculate the energy released by the fission
neutron respectively and BE the binding of 2 g of 92U235 in kWh. Given that the energy
energy (in MeV), then: released per fission is 200 MeV.
2
(1) BE = [M(A,Z) – ZMp –(A – Z) Mn]c (1) 2.97 × 104 kWh (2) 4.55 × 104 kWh
2
(2) BE = [ZMp +(A – Z) Mn – M (A, Z)]c (3) 7.21 × 104 kWh (4) 8.51 × 104 kWh
2
(3) BE = [ZMp +AMn – M (A,Z)]c
(4) BE = M (A,Z) – ZMp –(A – Z) Mn 16. Determine Q value from the given data and
state whether the reaction is exothermic or
10.
17
If M0 is the mass of an oxygen isotope 8O , Mp endothermic.
12 12 20 4
and Mn are the masses of a proton and a 6 C + 6 C → 10Ne + 2He

neutron, respectively the nuclear binding Atomic masses are given to be

energy of the isotope is m(12
6 C) = 12.000000u
2
(1) (M0 – 8Mp) C 20
2
m(10 Ne) = 19.992439u and mass of He
(2) (8MP + 9Mn – M0) C
atom is 4.0015 amu
2
(3) M0C (1) 5.64 MeV, exothermic
2
(4) (M0 – 17 Mn) C (2) 5.64 MeV, endothermic
(3) 3.64 MeV, exothermic
11. 1 amu is equivalent to : (4) 3.64 MeV, endothermic
(1) 931 MeV (2) 0.51eV
(3) 9.31 MeV (4) 1.02 MeV 17. The masses of neutron and proton are
1.0087 amu and 1.0073 amu respectively. If
12. The mass of a 73 Li nucleus is 0.042 u less than two neutrons and two protons combine to
the sum of the masses of all its nucleons. The form a helium nucleus of mass 4.0015 amu,
binding energy per nucleon of 73 Li nucleus is the B.E. of the helium nucleus will be:
nearly: (1) 28.4 MeV (2) 20.8 MeV
(1) 46 MeV (2) 5.6 MeV (3) 27.1 MeV (4) 14.2 MeV
(3) 3.9 MeV (4) 23 MeV
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 PHYSICS Nuclei

18. The binding energies of the nuclei of 24 He , 19. The binding energy per nucleon of deuteron
2 4
7 12 14 1H is 1.112 MeV and α-particle 2He is 7.047
3 Li , 6 C and 7 N are 28, 52, 90 and 98 MeV,
2 2 4
respectively. Which of these are most stable? MeV. Then in the relation 1H + 1H → 2He
(1) 24 He (2) 73 Li + Q the energy Q released is:
12 14 (1) 1 MeV (2) 11.9 MeV
(3) 6 C (4) 7 N
(3) 23.8 MeV (4) 931 MeV

3. RADIOACTIVITY
It was discovered by Henry Becquerel.
Spontaneous emission of radiations (α, β, γ) from unstable nucleus is called radioactivity. Substances
which shows radioactivity are known as radioactive substance.
Radioactivity was studied in detail by Rutherford.
In radioactive decay, an unstable nucleus emits α particle or β particle. After emission of α or β the
remaining nucleus may emit γ-particle, and converts into more stable nucleus.

α-Particle
It is a doubly charged helium nucleus. It contains two protons and two neutrons.
4
Mass of α-particle = Mass of 2He atom – 2me  4 mp
Charge of α-particle = + 2 e

β-Particle
–
(a) β (Electron)
Mass = me; Charge = –e
+
(b) β (Positron)
Mass = me; Charge = +e
positron is an antiparticle of electron.

γ-Radiation (Photons)
They are energetic photons of energy of the order of MeV and having rest mass zero.
Antiparticle
A particle is called antiparticle of other if on collision both can annihilate (destroy completely) and
converts into energy. for example: (i) electron (– e, me) and positron (+ e, me) are anti particles. (ii)

neutrino (ν) and antineutrino ( ν ) are anti particles.

Radioactive Decay (Displacement Law)

(i) α-Decay
Nuclides decays by emitting α-particles. α-particles are generally emitted by very heavy nuclei
containing too many nucleons to remain stable.
A A–4 4
ZX → Z–2Y + 2He + Q
Q value : Rest mass energy of reactants –Rest mass energy of products
2 2
Q value : [Mx – (My + 2me) – (MHe – 2me)]c = [Mx – My – MHe]c
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Nuclei PHYSICS
• Q-value is the energy released in decay. If initial decaying nucleus is at rest, the Q-values given the
total kinetic energy of all the decay products. i.e., Q = KY + KHe

Calculation of Kinetic Energy of Final Products

Momentum of αparticle (mα v) + momentum of daughter nuclei (pD) = 0
Assuming parent nuclei to be at rest initially
 
pα + pD = 0
  2 He4
|pα | = |pD | recoil

If Q is released energy of Q value of reaction.

A–4 4
⇒ Kα =   Q ; Similarly, KD = Q
 A  A

Note : Experimental result shows α-particle have different kinetic energies and these energies are quantised.
As all daughter nuclei produced are not in their ground state but some are excited state and they emit
photons to acquire their ground state.

(ii) β Decay
When neutron-proton ratio inside a nucleus is not suitable for it to be stable (either less of more),
then β-decay takes place. Due to a special type of interaction called weak interaction a neutron
gets converted into a proton and electron or a proton gets converted into a neutron and a positron.
Electrons or positrons are emitted from the nucleus just after their creation. This emission of
electron or positron from nucleus is called β-decay.
–
(a) Negative β Decay (β Decay)
Neutrons inside nucleus is transformed into proton, electron and an Antineutrino
–
n→p+e + ν (Antineutrino)
A A
ZX → Z+1Y + e + ν + energy released
Equation corresponding to nuclear mass
{ }
∆m = M  Z X A  – M  Z+1 Y A  + Me
Equation corresponding to atomic mass
∆m = M  Z X A  – M  Z+1 Y A 
2
energy released E = ∆mc
+
(b) Positive β decay (β Decay)
Proton inside nucleus is transformed into neutron, Positron and a neutrino produced in p
+
p → n + e (positron) + ν (neutrino)
Positron is anti-particle of electron. It is highly reactive.
A A +
Z X → Z – 1Y + e + ν + energy released.
Equation corresponding to nuclear mass
{ }
∆m = M  Z X A  – M  Z–1 Y A  + Me
Intensity of
Equation corresponding to atomic mass β particles

∆m = M  Z X A  – M  Z–1 Y A  − 2Me
Energy released
2 K.E.
E = ∆mc
Experiments shows that β-particles are emitted with continuous range of kinetic energy.
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 PHYSICS Nuclei
(c) Electron Capture
Nuclei having an excess of protons may capture an electron from one of the orbits which
immediately combines with a proton in the nucleus to form a neutron. This process is called
electron capture (EC.) The electron is normally captured from innermost orbit (the K- shell), and,
consequently, this process is sometimes called K-capture.
0
p + –1e → n + ν
If X and Y are atoms then reaction is written as :

K shell
A A
ZX → Z–1Y + ν + Q + characteristic x-rays of Y.
If X and Y are taken as nucleus, then reaction is written as :
A 0 A
ZX + –1e → Z–1Y + ν

(iii) γ Decay
When α and β-particle are emitted from nucleus then the daughter nucleus in the excited state.
When excited nucleus returns to the ground state then γ-photon is emitted
A A
Z X* → Z X + γ
n=3

γ1
n=2
γ3
γ2
n=1

Points to Ponder
4
(1) When a nuclide emits one α-particle (2He ), its mass number (A) decreased by 4 units and atomic
number (Z) decreases by two units.
A A–4 4
ZX → Z – 2Y + 2He + Energy
(2) When a nuclide emits a β¯particle, its mass number unchanged but atomic number increases by
one unit.
A A 0
ZX → Z + 1Y + –1e + ν + Energy
( v is antineutrino)
+
(3) When a nuclide emits a β particle, its mass number remains unchanged but atomic number
decreases by one unit
A A 0
ZX → Z – 1Y + +1e + ν + Energy
(ν is neutrino)
(4) When a γ produced, both atomic and mass number remain constant.

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Nuclei PHYSICS
Pair Production & Pair Annihilation
Collision of γ-ray photon by a nucleus & production of electron
–
positron pair is known as pair production. The rest mass of each of the electron & positron is 9.1 × 10
31
kg. so, the rest mass energy of each of them is
2 –31 8 2
E0 = m0 c = (9.1 × 10 ) (3 × 10 )
–14
= 8.2 × 10 joule
= 0.51 MeV
Hence for pair-production, it is essential that the energy of γ-photon must be at least
2 × 0.51 = 1.02 MeV.
γ − photon γ − photon
+1 β –1 β
0 0

+1 β0 hv hv
+Ze
hv (Before combining) (After combining)
Nucleus
+1 β0 + –1 β0 = hν + hν
–1 β
0
(positron) (electron) ( γ − photon) ( γ − photon)

Pair Production Pair Annihilation

Neutrino and Anti-Neutrino

(1) It has zero electric charge, hence shows no electromagnetic interaction.
7 
(2) Rest mass is possibly zero. Recent experiments show that mass is neutrino is less than  2 eV  .
 c 
(3) It travels with speed of light.
1 1
(4) It has spin quantum number ± . A spin of ± satisfies the law of conservation of angular
2 2
momentum when applied to β-decay.
(5) It shows very weak interactions with matter.
(6) Whenever a neutron is produced, a neutrino is also produced.
(7) Whenever a neutron is converted into a proton, an antineutrino is produced.

Example 7:
228 212
When 90Th transforms to 83Bi , then find number of the emitted α and β-particles.
Solution:
A A' = 212
Z=90Th → Z' = 83Bi
Number of α-particles emitted
A – A ' 228–212
nα = = =4
4 4
Number of β-particles emitted
nβ = 2nα – Z + Z’
= 2 × 4 – 90 + 83 = 1

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Example 8:
200
A stationary Pb nucleus emits an α-particle with K.E. = 5.77 MeV. Find the recoil velocity of daughter
nucleus. What fraction of the total energy liberated in this decay is accounted for the recoil energy of
the daughter nucleus?
Solution:
The momentum of the α-particle is given by,
Pd = Pα = 2mαK ....(i)
Let the recoil momentum of the daughter nucleus be Pd = md vd, where md and vd are the mass and
velocity of daughter nucleus. Using the principle of conservation of momentum, we get,
Pd = Pα = 2mαK
2mαK
⇒ Vd = .....(ii)
md
1 2 × 4 ×K 2 2K
⇒ Vd = =
196 mP 196 mP
Where mP is the mass of proton
5
⇒ Vd = 3.39 × 10 m/s
Let the K.E. of the daughter nucleus be K’ then
K ' mα
=
K md
As the momenta are same
K' mα
∴ =
K mα + md
mα 4
⇒ K' = Kt = Kt
mα + md 196 + 4
⇒ K’ = 0.02 Kt
K'
⇒ = 0.02
Kt

Example 9:
Calculate the-
238
(a) energy released in α-decay of U
(b) maximum KE of the emitted α-particle. The atomic A masses of thorium, uranium and α-particle are
234.04364u, 238.05084u and 4.0026u respectively.
Solution:
The reaction can be given as
238 234
U → Th + α
(X) (Y)
(a) The energy of reaction is
Q = [mX – (mY + mα)] 931.5 meV] = [238.0508 – (234.0436 + 4.0026)] × 931.5 MeV = 4.28 MeV
(b) The KE of the α-particle is
mY 234.0436
Kα = Q= (4.28) MeV = 4.03MeV
mY + mα 234.0438 + 4.0026

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Example 10:
Neon-23 decays in the following way
23 23 0
10 Ne →11 Na +–1 e+ν
0
Find the minimum and maximum kinetic energy that the beta particle ( –1 e ) can have. The atomic
23 23
masses of Ne and Na are 22.9945 u and 22.9898 u respectively.
Solution:
Here, atomic masses are given (not the nuclear masses), but still we can use them for calculating the
mass defect because mass of electron get cancelled both sides. Thus, Mass defect
∆m = (22.9945 – 22.9898) = 0.0047 u
∴ Q = (0.0047 u) (931.5 MeV/u) = 4.4 MeV
Hence, the energy of beta particles can range from 0 to 4.4 MeV

Exercise 1.2

1. Alpha particles are : 6.

m
A nucleus nX emits one α and two β
(1) 2 free protons particles. The resulting nucleus is :
(2) helium atoms (1) nX
m–4
(2) n –2 y
m–4

(3) singly ionized helium atoms m–4

(3) n – 4 Z (4) none of these
(4) doubly ionized helium atoms

7. A nuclear reaction given by

2. In one α and 2β emissions : A A 0
zX z+1Y + –1e + represents
(1) mass number reduces by 2
(1) β-decay (2) γ-decay
(2) mass number reduces by 6
(3) fusion (4) fission
(3) atomic number reduces by 2
(4) atomic number remains unchanged 234 222
8. In the reaction 92X 87Y How many

3. Which ray contain (+Ve) charge particle :- α-particles and β-particles are emitted ?
(1) 3 and 5 (2) 5 and 3
(1) α-rays (2) β-rays
(3) 3 and 3 (4) 3 and 1
(3) γ-rays (4) X-rays
9. A nucleus of mass number 232 and z = 90.
4. Which of the followings is a correct statement? After many disintegrations of α and
(1) beta rays are same as cathode rays. β radiations, decays into other nucleus
(2) gamma rays are high energy neutrons. whose mass number is 220 and atomic
(3) alpha particles are singly-ionized helium number is 86. The numbers of α and β
atoms. radiations will be :
(4) protons and neutrons have exactly the (1) 4, 0 (2) 3, 6
same mass. (3) 3, 2 (4) 2, 1

5. An α – particle is bombarded on 7N
14
As a 10. Thorium isotope 90Th232 emits some
17 α–particles and some β–particles and gets
result, a 8O nucleus is formed and a particle
transformed into lead isotope 82Pb200. Find
X is emitted. The particle X is : the number of α and β particles emitted.
(1) neutron (2) proton (1) α = 8, β = 8 (2) α = 6, β = 8
(3) electron (4) positron (3) α = 8, β = 10 (4) α = 6, β = 6
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11. A radioactive nucleus undergoes a series of 12. b −β

0
α
→ 
0
_β
→ C Y 215 → d
Find a,
aX 110 Y
decays according to the following scheme : b, c and d.
−
α β α γ
A → A1  → A 2 → A 3 → A4 (1) 108,219,108,217 (2) 110,218,108,217
If the mass number and atomic number of A (3) 108,218,109,215 (4) 110,219,109,215
are 180 and 72 respectively, what are these
numbers for A4? 13. 238 α
 +β
→ →
0
b
92 U a X , find a & b.
172 170
(1) 70A (2) 70A (1) 90,233 (2) 89,234
172 170
(3) 69A (4) 69A (3) 91,234 (4) 90,233

Nuclear Force
• Strong nuclear force is created between nucleons by exchange of particles called mesons.
• It is strongest force within nuclear dimensions
• It is short range force (acts only inside the nucleus)
• It is not due to mass or charge of the particle
• It is not due to interaction of particles with field.
• Nuclear force is not a central force. It does not act along the line joining the particle.
• It is non-conservation in nature.
• If distance between nucleons is smaller than 1 fm then nuclear force is repulsive.
• Strong nuclear force is responsible for binding of nucleus.
• Nuclear force is same for all nucleons at same distance.
FPP = FNN = FNP
• The nuclear force is stronger if spins of nucleons are parallel (i.e both nucleons ms = + 1/2 or – 1/2)
and is weaker if the spins are anti-parallel.

Conservation Laws
(1) Conservation of mass & energy: In nuclear reaction, mass and energy are not conserved separately.
Mass is a form of energy. Total mass and energy will be conserved.
mass + energy → conserved
(2) Conservation of linear momentum: In any nuclear reaction, total linear momentum is always
conserved.
(3) Conservation of angular momentum: In any nuclear reaction, total angular momentum remains
conserved.
(4) Conservation of charge: In any nuclear reaction, total charge is always conserved.
(5) Conservation of mass no.: In any nuclear reaction, sum of no. of neutrons and protons remains
conserved.

4. NUCLEAR FISSION & FUSION

(i) Nuclear Fission
The splitting of heavy nucleus into two or more fragments of comparable masses, with an enormous
release of energy is called nuclear fission.
235
• When slow neutrons are bombarded on 92U , the fission takes place according to reaction
235 1 141 92 1
92U + 0n →56 Ba + 36Kr + 3(0n ) + 200 MeV

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(a) In nuclear fission the sum of masses before reaction is greater than the sum of masses after
reaction, the difference in mass being releases in the form of fission energy.
(b) The phenomenon of nuclear fission was discovered by Otto Hans and F. Strassmann in 1939 and
was explained by N. Bohr and J.A. Wheeler on the basis of liquid drop model of nucleus.
(c) It may be pointed out that it is not necessary that in each fission we get same daughter nuclides. if
141 92
uranium breaks in two fragments Ba and Kr are formed but they may be any stable isotopes of
middle weight atoms. The most probable division is into two fragments containing about 40% and
60% of the original nucleus with the emission of 2 or 3 neutrons per fission. So, average number of
neutrons produced per fission is 2.5.
(d) Most of energy released appears in the kinetic energy of fission fragments.
238
(e) The fission of U takes place by fast neutrons.

Chain Reaction
If on average more than one of the neutrons produced in each fission are capable of causing further
fission, the number of fissions taking placed at successive stages goes increasing at a rapid rate, giving
rise to self-sustained sequence of fission known as chain reaction. the chain reaction takes place only
if the size of the fissionable material is greater than a certain size the critical size.

Uncontrolled Chain Reaction

In this process the number of fissions in a given interval on the average goes on increasing and the
system will have the explosive tendency. This forms the principle of atom bomb. If a nuclear reaction is
3
uncontrolled then in about 1 µs, energy of order of 2 × 10 J is released.

Controlled Chain Reaction

In this process the number of fissions in a given interval is maintained constant by absorbing a desired
number of neutrons. This forms the principle of nuclear reactor, consisting of the following parts:
235 233 239
(a) Fuel: The fuel is U or U or Pu
(b) Moderator: A moderator is a suitable material to slow down neutrons produced in the fission. The
best choice as moderator are heavy water (D2O) and graphite (C).
(c) Controller: To maintain the steady rate of fission, the neutron absorbing material known as
controller is used. The control rods are made of cadmium or Boron-steel.
(d) Coolant: To remove the considerable amount of heat produced in the fission process, suitable
cooling fluids known as coolants, are used. The usual coolants are water, carbon-dioxide, air etc.
(e) Reactor shield: The intense neutrons and gamma radiation produced in nuclear reactors are
harmful for human body. To protect the workers from such radiations, the reactor core is
surrounded by concrete wall, called the reactor shield.
238
(f) U is non - fissile, it cannot support a chain reaction.
By contrast, the binding energy released by uranium-238 absorbing a thermal neutron is less than the
critical energy, so the neutron must possess additional energy for fission to be possible. Consequently,
uranium-238 is fissionable but not fissile.

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Critical Mass
If the amount of uranium is too small, then the liberated neutrons have large scope to escape from the
surface and the chain reaction may stop before enough energy is released for explosion. Therefore, in
order for explosion to occur, the mass uranium has to be greater than some minimum value, called the
critical mass.
Reproduction Factor
It is the ratio of the rate of neutron production and the rate at which the neutrons disappear. Whether a
mass of active material will sustain a chain reaction or not is determined by the reproduction factor (K).
• If K = 1, the chain reaction will be sustained. If K = 1, the mass is said to be critical.
(ii) Nuclear Fusion
The phenomenon of combination of two or more light nuclei to form a heavy nucleus with release of
enormous amount of energy is called the nuclear fusion. The sum of masses before fusion must be
greater than the sum of masses after fusion, the difference in mass appearing as fusion energy. The
fusion of two deuterium nuclei into helium is expressed as
2 2 4
1H + 1H → 2He + 23.8 MeV
It may be pointed out that fusion reaction does not actually occur. Due to huge quantity of energy
4
release, the helium nucleus 2He has got such a large value of excitation energy that it breaks up by the
emission of a proton or a neutron as soon as it is formed, giving rise to the following reactions.
2 2 3 1
1H + 1H → 2He + 0n + Q(= 3.26 MeV)
2 2 3 1
1H + 1H → 1H + 1H + Q(= 4.04 MeV)
The fusion process occurs at extremely high temperature and high pressure just as it takes place at sun
7
where temperature is 10 K. So, fusion reactions are also called Thermo-nuclear reactions.
• Nuclear fusion has the possibility of being a much better source of energy than fission due to the
following reasons.
(a) In fusion there is no radiation hazard as no radioactive material is used.
(b) The fuel needed for fission (U-235 etc.) is not available easily whereas hydrogen needed for fusion
can be obtained in huge quantity.
(c) The energy released per nucleon is much more in fusion than in fission.
However, the very high temperature and pressure required for fusion cannot be easily created and
maintained and as such it has not been possible as yet to use fusion for power generation.
Example 11:
235
In a nuclear reactor, fission is produced in 1 g for U (235.0439) in 24 hours by slow neutrons (1.0087
92 141
u). Assume that 35Kr (91.8973 u) and 56Ba (140.9139 amu) are produced in all reactions and no
energy is lost.
(i) Write the complete reaction (ii) Calculate the total energy produced in kilowatt hour.
Given 1 u = 931 MeV.
Solution:
235 1 141 92 1
The nuclear fission reaction is 92U + 0n → 56Ba + 36Kr + 30n
Mass defect ∆m = [(mu + mn) – (mBa + mKr + 3 mn)] = 236.0526 – 235.8373 = 0.2153 u
Energy released Q = 0.2153 × 931 = 200 MeV.
6.02 × 1023 21
Number of atoms in 1 g = = 2.56 × 10
235
235 21 23
Energy released in fission of 1 g of U is E = 200 × 2.56 × 10 = 5.12 × 10 MeV
23 –13 10
= 5.12 × 10 × 1.6 × 10 = 8.2 × 10 J
8.2 × 1010 4
= kWh = 2.28 × 10 kWh
3.6 × 106
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Exercise 1.3
14
1. An α-particle is bombarded on N. As a 7. Let Fpp, Fpn and Fnn denote the magnitudes of
17
result, a O nucleus is formed and a particle the nuclear force by a proton on a proton, by
is emitted. This particle is a a proton on a neutron and by a neutron on a
(1) neutron (2) proton neutron respectively. When the separation is
1 fm,
(3) electron (4) positron
(1) Fpp> Fpn = Fnn (2) Fpp= Fpn = Fnn
(3) Fpp> Fpn > Fnn (4) Fpp< Fpn = Fnn
2. A free neutron decays into a proton, an
electron and :
−
(1) A neutrino (2) An antineutrino 8. When a β -particle is emitted from a nucleus,
the neutron-proton ratio :
(3) An α-particle (4) A β-particle
(1) is decreased (2) is increased
(3) remains the same (4) first (1) then (2)
3. If mass of the fissionable material is less than
the critical mass, then
9. A free neutron decays to a proton but a free
(1) fission and chain reactions both are proton does not decay to a neutron. This is
impossible. because
(2) fission is possible but chain reaction is (1) neutron is a composite particle made of a
impossible. proton and an electron whereas proton is
(3) fission is impossible but chain reaction is fundamental particle.
possible. (2) neutron is an uncharged particle
(4) fission and chain reaction both are whereas proton is a charged particle.
possible. (3) neutron has larger rest mass than the
proton.
4. Which of the following materials is used for (4) weak forces can operate in a neutron but
not in a proton.
controlling the fission?
(1) heavy water (2) graphite
10. Complete the equation for the following
(3) cadmium (4) Beryllium oxide
fission process :
235 1 90
235 92U + on → 38Sr + .......
5. 92U nucleus absorbs a slow neutron and 143 1 145
(1) 54Xe + 3 0n (2) 54Xe
139 94
undergoes fission into 54X and 38Sr 142 142 1
(3) 57Xe (4) 54Xe + 0n
nuclei. The other particles produced in this
fission process are 11. When a proton is accelerated through 1 V its
(1) 1 β and 1 α (2) 2 β and 1 neutron kinetic energy will be :
(3) 2 neutrons (4) 3 neutrons (1) 1540 eV (2) 13.6 eV
(3) 1 eV (4) zero
6. Fusion reaction is possible at high
temperature because - 12. Mn and Mp represent the mass of neutron and
(1) atoms are ionised at high temperature proton respectively. An element having mass
(2) molecules break-up at high temperature M has N neutron and Z-protons, then the
(3) nuclei break-up at high temperature correct relation will be :
(4) kinetic energy is high enough to (1) M < {N.mn + Z.Mp} (2) M > {N.mn + Z.Mp}
overcome repulsion between nuclei. (3) M = {N.mn + Z.Mp} (4) M = N {.mn + Mp}

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13. If the energy released in the fission of one 15. The mass defect in a nuclear fusion reaction
nucleus is 3.2 × 10–11 J, then find number of is 0.3 percent. What amount of energy will
nuclei required per second in a power plant be liberated in one kg fusion reaction ?
14 13
of 16 kW. (1) 2.7 × 10 J (2) 2.1 × 10 J
14 12
(1) 3 × 10
12
(3) 3.8 × 10 J (4) 4.1 × 10 J
13
(2) 5 × 10
14 16. Which of the following is a wrong description
(3) 5× 10
14 of binding energy of a nucleus?
(4) 3 × 10
(1) It is the energy required to break a
nucleus into its constituent nucleons.
14. Find out the mass of Uranium required per (2) It is the energy released when free
day to generate 10 MW power from the nucleons combine to from a nucleus.
fission of 92U235. (3) It is the sum of the rest mass energies of
(1) 22 gm its nucleons minus the rest mass energy
(2) 10.5 gm of the nucleus.
(3) 18.2 gm (4) It is the sum of the kinetic energy of all
(4) 5.7 gm the nucleons in the nucleus.

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Exercise - 2

1. At a specific instant emission of radioactive 7. The binding energy per nucleon of deuteron
compound is deflected in a magnetic field. (12 H) and helium nucleus ( 24 He) is 1.1 MeV
The compound can emit- and 7 MeV respectively. If two deuteron
(i) electrons (ii) protons nuclei react to form a single helium nucleus,
2+
(iii) He (iv) neutrons then the energy released is:
The emission at the instant can be- (1) 13.9 MeV (2) 26.9 MeV
(1) i, ii, iii (2) i, ii, iii, iv (3) 23.6 MeV (4) 19.2 MeV
(3) iv (4) ii, iii

238
8. A nuclear transformation is denoted by
2. When U nucleus originally at rest, decays 7
X(n, α) → 3 Li . Which of the following is the
by emitting an alpha particle having a speed
u, the recoil speed of the residual nucleus is- nucleus of element X ?
12 10
4u 4u (1) 6 C (2) 5 B
(1) (2) –
238 234 (3) 59 B (4) 11
4 Be
4u 4u
(3) (4) –
234 238
9. The energy spectrum of β-particles [number
N(E) as a function of β-energy E] emitted
3. A nucleus with Z = 92 emits the following in
– – – – from a radioactive source is:
a sequence : α, α, β , β , α, α, α, α, β , β , α,
+ +
β , β , α. The Z of the resulting nucleus is-
(1) 76 (2) 78 (1) N(E)
(3) 82 (4) 74 E
E0

4. Which of the following cannot be emitted by

radioactive substances during their decay ? (2) N(E)
(1) Protons (2) Neutrinos E
E0
(3) Helium nuclei (4) Electrons

(3) N(E)
5. In the nuclear fusion reaction, 12 H + 13H → 24He + n
E
given that the repulsive potential energy E0
–14
between the two nuclei is 7.7 × 10 J, the
temperature at which the gases must be heated (4) N(E)
to initiate the reaction is nearly [Boltzmann's E
–23 E0
constant k = 1.38 × 10 J/K]
7 5
(1) 10 K (2) 10 K
3 9 10. In gamma ray emission from a nucleus
(3) 10 K (4) 10 K
(1) both the neutron number and the proton
number change
6. A nucleus disintegrates into two nuclear
(2) there is no change in the proton number
parts which have their velocities in the ratio
and the neutron number
2 : 1 The ratio of their nuclear sizes will be:
1/3 1/2 (3) only the neutron number changes
(1) 2 :1 (2) 1 : 3
1/2 1/3 (4) only the proton number changes
(3) 3 :1 (4) 1 : 2
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11. This question contains Statement-1 and 14. Assume that a neutron breaks into a proton
Statement-2. Out of the four choices given and an electron. The energy released during
after the statements, choose the one that this process is :
–27
best describes the two statements. (Mass of neutron = 1.6747 × 10 kg
Statement-1 : Energy is released when heavy –27
Mass of proton = 1.6725 × 10 kg
nuclei undergo fission or light nuclei –31
Mass of electron = 9 × 10 kg)
undergo fusion.
(1) 5.4 MeV (2) 0.73 MeV
Statement-2 : For heavy nuclei, binding
(3) 7.10 MeV (4) 6.30 MeV
energy per nucleon increases with increasing
Z while for light nuclei it decreases with 2 3 4 1
15. In the reaction 1 H + 1 H → 2 He + 0 n. If the
increasing Z. 2 3 4
(1) Statement-1 is false, Statement-2 is true. binding energies of 1 H, 1 H and 2 He are
(2) Statement-1 is true, Statement-2 is true; respectively a, b and c (in MeV), then the
Statement-2 is a correct explanation for energy (in MeV released in this reaction is)
Statement-1. (1) a + b + c (2) c + a + b
(3) Statement-1 is true, Statement-2 is true; (3) c – (a + b) (4) a + b + c
Statement-2 is not a correct explanation
for Statement-1. 16. In any fission process the ratio
(4) Statement-1 is true, Statement-2 is false. massof fission products
is:
massof parentnucleus
12. The above is a plot of binding energy per (1) Greater than 1
nucleon Eb, against the nuclear mass M; A, B, (2) Depends on the mass of the parent nucleus
C, D, E, F correspond to different nuclei. (3) Less than 1
Consider four reactions : (4) equal of 1

17. Fission of nuclei is possible because the

Eb C D E binding energy per nucleon in them:
B
A F (1) Decreases with mass number at low mass
numbers
M (2) Increases with mass number at low mass
(i) A + B → C + ε (ii) C → A + B + ε numbers
(iii) D + E → F + ε (iv) F → D + E + ε (3) Decreases with mass number at high
where ε is the energy released ? In which mass numbers
reactions is ε positive ? (4) Increases with mass number at high mass
(1) (ii) and (iv) (2) (ii) and (iii) numbers
(3) (i) and (iv) (4) (i) and (iii)
18. In the nuclear decay given below
A A A −4 A −4
13. After absorbing a slowly moving neutron of ZX  →Z+1 Y →Z−1 B *  →Z − 1 B ,
mass mN (momentum  0) a nucleus of mass the particles emitted in the sequence are
M breaks into two nuclei of masses m1 and (1) β, α ,γ (2) γ, β ,α
5m1 (6m1 = M + mN), respectively. If the de (3) β, γ ,α (4) α, β ,γ
Broglie wavelength of the nucleus with mass 19. The number of beta particles emitted by a
m1 is λ, then de Broglie wavelength of the radioactive substance is twice the number of
other nucleus will be: alpha particles emitted by it. The resulting
(1) 25 λ (2) 5λ daughter is an:
λ (1) isobar of parent (2) isomer of parent
(3) (4) λ
5 (3) isotone of parent (4) isotope of parent

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Exercise 3

For the question (1 to 11) 5. Assertion: Nucleus having more binding

In the light of the above statements, choose energy is more stable
the most appropriate answer from the Reason: Stability increases with increase in
options given below: number of nucleons.
(A) Both Assertion and Reason are true and (1) A (2) B
Reason is the correct explanation of (3) C (4) D
Assertion. 56
(B) Both Assertion and Reason are true and 6. Assertion: Fe nucleus is more stable than
235
Reason is NOT the correct explanation of U nucleus.
56
Assertion. Reason: Binding energy of Fe nucleus is
(C) Assertion is true but Reason is false. more than binding energy of U
235

(D) Assertion and Reason are false. (1) A (2) B

(3) C (4) D
1. Assertion: Strong nuclear force holds
protons inside nucleus. 7. Assertion: Radioactive nuclei can emit
Reason: Strong nuclear force is not a β-particles.
fundamental force. Reason: Electrons exist inside the nucleus.
(1) A (2) B (1) A (2) B
(3) C (4) D (3) C (4) D
2. Assertion: Consider the following nuclear 8. Assertion: Energy released in one fusion
reaction of an unstable 14
6 C nucleus initially process is less than the energy released in a
14
→ 14 0 single fission event.
at rest. The decay 6 C  7 N + −1e + v . In a
Reason: Fusion is a weaker source of energy
nuclear reaction total energy and momentum
than fission.
is conserved experiments show that the
(1) A (2) B
electrons are emitted with a continuous range
(3) C (4) D
of kinetic energies upto some maximum value.
Reason: Remaining energy is released as 9. Assertion: Nuclear forces are charge
thermal energy. dependent forces.
(1) A (2) B Reason: Nuclear forces are attractive forces.
(3) C (4) D (1) A (2) B
(3) C (4) D
3. Assertion: On the atomic scale, mass is
measured in atomic mass units (u). 10. Assertion: Order of nuclear binding energy
th 12
Reason: 1u is 1/12 mass of one atom of C per nucleon is 94 Be > 73Li > 24He .
–27
(1u = 1.66 × 10 kg) Reason: Binding energy per nucleon
(1) A (2) B increases linearly with difference in number
(3) C (4) D of neutrons and protons.
(1) A (2) B
4. Assertion: The Q value of nuclear process is
(3) C (4) D
Q = total final binding energy – total initial
binding energy. 11. Assertion: Nuclear force is short range while
Reason: The Q value of nuclear reaction gravitation and electric force are universal.
initially appears in form of kinetic energy of Reason: Nuclear force does not follow
products. inverse square law.
(1) A (2) B (1) A (2) B
(3) C (4) D (3) C (4) D

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12. Match the column - 13. Match the Column -
Table-1 Table-2 Column-I Column-II
(A) Sun (P) Nuclear
(A) α−decay (P) 15 15
8 O → 7 O + ...
fission
(B) Nuclear Reactors (Q) Nuclear (B) +
β -decay (Q) 238 234
92 U → 90 Th + ...
fusion
(C) Total B.E. in a (R) Energy is (C) Fission (R) 185 184
83 Bi → 82 Pb + ...
process is released (D) Proton (S) 239 140
94 Pu → 57 La + ...
increased
emission
(D) Total B.E. in a (S) Energy is
process is absorbed A B C D
decreased (1) Q P S R
(1) A→P, B→R, C→Q, D→S (2) S Q R P
(2) A→R, B→Q, C→P, D→S (3) P Q R S
(3) A→Q, B→P, C→R, D→S
(4) S Q P R
(4) A→Q, B→R, C→Q, D→P

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Exercise 4 (Previous Year's Questions)

1. The binding energy per nucleon of 73 Li and 7. What happens to the mass number and
4 atomic number of an element when it emits
2 He nuclei are 5.60 MeV and 7.06 MeV,
γ-radiation? [NEET_2020(Covid)]
respectively. In the nuclear reaction
7 (1) Mass number decreases by four and
3 Li+ 11 H → 2 24 He + Q, the value of energy Q
atomic number decreases by two.
released is : [AIPMT_2014]
(2) Mass number and atomic number remain
(1) 19.6 MeV (2) –2.4 MeV
(3) 8.4 MeV (4) 17.3 MeV unchanged.
(3) Mass number remains unchanged while
2. If radius of the AI nucleus is taken to be RA atomic number decreases by one.
(4) Mass number increases by four and
then the radius of Te nucleus is nearly :
[AIPMT_2015] atomic number increases by two.
5 3
(1) R AI (2) R AI A
3 5 8. A radioactive nucleus ZX undergoes
1/3 1/3
 13   53  spontaneous decay in the sequence
(3)   R AI (4)   R AI
 53   13  A
ZX →Z−1 B →Z−3 C →Z−2 D, where Z is the
atomic number of element X. The possible
3. When an α-particle of mass ‘m’ moving with decay particles in the sequence are :
velocity ‘v’ bombards on a heavy nucleus of [NEET_2021]
charge ‘Ze’ its distance of closest approach
from the nucleus depends on m as: (1) α, β− , β+ (2) α, β+ , β−
[NEET_2016] (3) β+ , α, β− (4) β− , α, β+
1
(1) m (2)
m 9. A nucleus with mass number 240 breaks into
1 1 two fragments each of mass number 120, the
(3) (4) 2
m m
binding energy per nucleon of unfragmented
nuclei is 7.6 MeV while that of fragments is
4. α-particle consists of : [NEET_2019]
8.5 MeV. The total gain in the Binding Energy
(1) 2 electrons and 4 protons only
in the process is : [NEET_2021]
(2) 2 protons only
(1) 0.9 MeV
(3) 2 protons and 2 neutrons only
(4) 2 electrons, 2 protons and 2 neutrons (2) 9.4 MeV
(3) 804 MeV
5. The energy equivalent of 0.5 g of a substance (4) 216 MeV
is : [NEET_2020]
13 13
(1) 1.5 × 10 J (2) 0.5 × 10 J 10. In the given nuclear reaction, the element X
16 13 22 +
(3) 4.5×10 J (4) 4.5×10 J is: 11 Na → x + e +ν [NEET_2022]
23
(1) 11 Na
235
6. When a uranium isotope 92 U is bombarded 23
89
(2) 10 Ne
with a neutron, it generates three 36 Kr 22
neutrons and : [NEET_2020] (3) 10 Ne
22
(1) 101
36 Kr (2) 103
36 U
(4) 12 Mg
144 91
(3) 56 Ba (4) 40 Zr

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11. 290 α

+
e
→ Y 
–
β
→ Z 
–
e
→P  →Q 13. Select the correct statements among the
82 X

In the nuclear emission stated above, the following : [Re-NEET_2024]

235
mass number and atomic number of the A. Slow neutrons can cause fission in 92 U
product Q respectively, are: [NEET_2024] than fast neutrons.
(1) 288, 82 (2) 286, 81 B. α-rays are Helium nuclei.
(3) 280, 81 (4) 286, 80 C. β-rays are fast moving electrons or
positrons.
12. Water is used as a coolant in a nuclear D. γ-rays are electromagnetic radiations of
reactor because of its [Re-NEET_2024] wavelengths larger than X-rays.
(1) high thermal expansion coefficient Choose the most appropriate answer from
(2) high specific heat capacity the options given below :
(3) low density (1) A, B and C only (2) A, B and D only
(4) low boiling point (3) A and B only (4) C and D only

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ANSWER KEYS

Exercise 1.1
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
Ans. 1 2 1 4 1 1 3 4 2 2 1 2 1 1 2 1 1 3 3

Exercise 1.2
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Ans. 4 4 1 2 2 1 1 4 3 1 3 4 2

Exercise 1.3
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Ans. 2 2 2 3 4 4 2 1 3 1 3 1 3 2 1 4

Exercise 2
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
Ans. 1 3 2 1 4 4 3 2 3 2 4 3 4 2 3 3 3 1 4

Exercise 3
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Ans. 3 3 2 2 4 3 3 3 4 4 2 3 1

Exercise 4 (Previous Year's Questions)

Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Ans. 4 1 2 3 4 3 2 3 4 3 2 2 1

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Chapter
SEMICONDUCTOR
5 AND DIGITAL
ELECTRONIC

Chapter Summary Introduction

The word "electronics' is derived from electron + dynamics
- Energy Bands in Solids
which means the study of the behaviour of an electron under
- Detail Study of
different conditions of externally applied fields. Electronics is
Semiconductor
field of science which deals with electron devices and their
- Type of Semiconductor and
utilization.
Difference Between Them
- P - N Junction
1. ENERGY BANDS IN SOLIDS
- Some Special Diodes
(i) In solids, the group of closely lying energy levels is known
- Rectifier
as energy band.
- Logic Gates
(ii) In solids the energy bands are analogous to energy levels
- Experiments
in an atom.
(iii) In solids the atoms are arranged very close to each other.
In these atoms there are discrete energy levels of
electrons. For the formation of crystal these atoms come
close together, then due to nucleus-nucleus, electron-
electron and electron-nucleus interactions the discrete
energy levels of atom distort and consequently each
energy level splits into a large number of closely lying
energy levels.
(iv) The number of split energy levels is proportional to the
number of atoms interacting with each other. If two atoms
interact then each energy level splits into two out of which
one will be somewhat above and another will be
somewhat below the main energy level. In solids the
23
number of atoms is very large (≈ 10 ). Hence each energy
level splits into large number of closely lying energy
levels. Being very close to each other these energy levels
assume the shape of a band.

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23 –23
(v) In an energy band there are 10 energy levels with energy difference of 10 eV.
(vi) The are three types of energy bands in a solid.
(a) Valence energy band
(b) Conduction energy band
(c) Forbidden energy gap
(vii) The conduction band is also known as first permitted energy band or first band.
(viii) Difference between valence and conduction energy bands are given below:-
Valence Energy Band Conduction Energy Band
In this band there are valence electrons. In this band there are free electrons.
This band may be partially or completely filled This band either empty or partially filled with
with electrons. electrons.
In this band the electrons are not capable of Electrons are capable of gaining energy form
gaining energy form external electric field. external electric field.
The electrons in this band do not contribute to Electrons in this band contribute to electric
electric current. current.
In this band there are electrons of outermost In this band there are electrons which are
orbit of atom which contribute in band obtained on breaking the covalent bands.
formation.
This is the band of maximum energy in which the This is the band of minimum energy which is
electrons are always present. empty.
This band can never be empty. This band can be empty.
(ix) Forbidden Energy Band
• No electrons are found in this band
• This band is completely empty.
(x) Forbidden energy gap or Band gap (∆Eg):
The minimum energy which is necessary for shifting electrons from valence band to conduction
band is defined as band gap (∆Eg) or forbidden energy gap i.e. ∆Eg = Ec – Ev.
There are three specific energy bands for the electrons in the crystal formed by these atoms as
shown in the figure.

Ec Conduction band
band
energy for bidden
(eV) energy gap
EV Valence band

(xi) Completely filled energy bands: The energy band, in which maximum possible number of
electrons are present according to capacity is known as completely filled band.
(xii) Partially filled energy bands: The energy band, in which number of electrons present is less than
the capacity of the band, is known as partially filled energy band.
(xiii) Electric conduction is possible only in those solids which have partially filled energy band.

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Study of Solids
Various Types of Solids
On the basis of band structure of crystals, solids are divided in three categories.
(a) Insulators (b) Conductors (c) Semi-conductors

(a) Insulators
In some solids energy gap is large (∆Eg > 3 eV).
So in conduction band there are no electrons and so no electrical conduction is possible. Here
energy gap is so large that electrons cannot be easily excited from the valence band to conduction
band by any external energy (electrical, thermal or optical).
Such materials are called as "insulator".
(b) Conductors
In some solids conduction band and valence band are overlapping or almost overlapping. So there
is no band gap between them, it means ∆Eg = 0. Such materials are called conductors. For example
gold, silver, copper etc.
(c) Semi-conductors
In some solids, a finite but small band gap exists (∆Eg < 3eV).
Due to this small band gap some electrons can be thermally excited to "conduction band".
These thermally excited electrons can move in conduction band and can conduct current.
Example silicon, germanium etc.

2. DETAILED STUDY OF SEMICONDUCTOR

Properties of Semiconductor
• Negative temperature coefficient (α), with increase in temperature resistance decreases.
Rt = R0 (1 + α ∆t) here α has negative value.
• At absolute zero kelvin temperature covalent bonds are very strong and there are no free electrons
and semiconductor behaves as perfect insulator. With increase in temperature some covalent
bonds are broken and few valence electrons jump to conduction band and hence it behaves as poor
conductor.
• Crystalline structure with covalent bonding [Face centered cubic (FCC)]
• Conduction properties may change by adding small impurities
• Place in periodic table → IV group (Generally)
• Forbidden energy gap (0.1 to 3 eV)
• Charge carriers : electron and hole
• There are many semiconductors but few of them have practical application in electronics like
32 14
Ge : 2, 8, 18, 4 Si : 2, 8, 4

CB CB
0.7eV 1.1eV
band
VB band
VB
energy energy
(eV) 3rd band (eV) 2nd band

2nd band 1st band

∆Eg
3/2 –
• Number of electrons reaching from valence band to conduction band n = A T e 2kT
-23
where k = Boltzmann constant = 1.38 × 10 J/K, T = absolute temperature, A = constant
∆Eg = energy gap between conduction band and valence band
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6 –1
• In semiconductors, Ohm's law is approximately obeyed only for low electric field (less than 10 Vm ).
Above this field, the current becomes almost independent of applied field.
• Difference between Conductors, Semi-conductors and Insulators :
S. Property Conductors Semi-conductors Insulators
No.
2 8 –19 –
1. Electrical Very high 10 – 10 Between those of Negligible 10 – 10
conductivity and its mho/m conductors and 11 mho/m
–6
value insulators i.e. 10
5
mho/m to 10 mho/m
2. Resistivity and its Negligible Less than Between those of Very high more than
–8 –2
value 10 – 10 Ω-m conductors and 105 Ω-m
-5
insulators i.e. 10 Ω-m
6
to 10 Ω-m
3. Band structure C.B. Completely
unoccupied
V.B. C.B.
C.B.
1 eV
6 eV
∆Eg less
∆Eg =
0 ∆Eg max imum
V.B. V.B.
Completely
Overlapped bands Completely
filled valence filled valence
band band

4. Energy gap and its Zero or very small More that in Very large e.g. in
value conductors but less Diamond
than that in insulators ∆Eg = 7 eV
e.g. in Ge ∆Eg = 0.72 eV,
in Si ∆Eg = 1.1 eV and in
GaAs ∆Eg = 1.3 eV
5. Current carriers Due to free electrons Due to free electrons Due to free electrons
and current flow and very high and holes more than but negligible
that in insulators
6. Number of current Very high very low negligible
carriers (electrons
or holes) at
ordinary
temperature
7. Condition of The valence and CB → partially filled CB → Completely
valence band and conduction bands are VB → partially empty empty
conduction band at completely filled or VB → Completely
room temperature conduction band is some filled
what empty (e.g. in Na)
8. Behaviour at 0 K Behaves like a Behaves like an Behaves like an
superconductor insulator insulator

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9. Temperature Positive Negative Negative
coefficient of
resistance (α)
10. Effects of Conductivity Conductivity increases Conductivity
increasing decreases increases
temperature on
conductivity
11. On increasing Decreases Increases Increases
temperature, the
number of current
carriers
12. On mixing Increases Decreases Remains unchanged
impurities their
resistance
13. Current flow in Easily Very slow Does not take place
these takes place
14. Examples Cu, Ag, Au, Na, Pt, Hg, Ge, Si, Ga-As etc. Wood, plastic, mica,
etc. diamond, glass etc.

Holes or Cotters
• There are uncharged.
• The deficiency of electrons in covalent bond formation in the valence band is defined as hole or
cotter.
• These are equivalent to positive charge. The value of positive charge on them is equal to the charge
of an electron.
• Their effective mass is greater than that of electrons.
• In an external electric field, holes move in a direction opposite to that of electrons i.e. they move
from positive to negative terminal.
• They contribute to current flow.
• The drift velocities of electrons (vdn) and holes (vdp) are different (vdn > vdp).
• The velocity gained by the charge carriers in an electric field of unit intensity, is defined as their
mobility. [Mobility of holes (µp) < Mobility of electrons (µn)].
• Holes are produced when covalent bonds in valence band break.

C.B. C.B.

e– e– e– e– V.B. V.B.

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3. TYPE OF SEMICONDUCTOR AND DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THEM

The semiconductors are of two types
(i) Intrinsic or pure semiconductors
(ii) Extrinsic or doped semiconductors
(i) Intrinsic or Pure Semiconductors
The semiconductor without mixing impurity in it is intrinsic or pure semiconductors
(a) Number of holes (np) = number of electrons (nn)
(b) Electric conduction takes place via both electrons and holes.
(c) I = Ip + In = ne A (vdn + vdp), here A is area of cross-section
(d) J = ne (vdn + vdp)
1
(e) Conductivity σi = = eni (µn + µp), here µn is µp are mobility of electrons and holes respectively
ρi
• Doping: The process of mixing impurities of other elements in pure semiconductors is known as
doping.
• Doping is a method of addition of "desirable" impurity atoms to pure semiconductor to increase
conductivity of semiconductor.
• The concentration of dopant atoms be very low, doping ratio vary from
6 10
impure : pure ⇒ 1 : 10 to 1 : 10
8
In general it is 1 : 10
• There are two main method of doping
(i) Alloy method
(ii) Diffusion method (The best)
• The size of dopant atom (impurity) should be almost the same as that of crystal atom. So that
crystalline structure of solid remain unchanged.

(ii) Extrinsic or Doped Semiconductors

The semiconductors, in which trivalent and pentavalent elements are mixed as impurities, are
known as extrinsic semiconductors.
• Difference between intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors
S. No. Intrinsic Semiconductors Extrinsic Semiconductor
1. Pure Ge or Si is known as intrinsic The semiconductor resulting from
semiconductor mixing impurity in it, is known as
extrinsic semiconductors
2. Their conductivity is low (because only one Their conductivity is high
9
electrons in 10 contribute)
3. The number of free electron nn in conduction In these nn ≠ np
band is equal to the number of holes np in
valence band
4. These are not practically used These are practically used
5. In these the energy gap is very small In these the energy gap is less than as in
pure semiconductors.

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The extrinsic semiconductors are of two types
(a) N-type semiconductors
(b) P-type semiconductors

(a) N-type Semiconductors

• In these the impurity of some pentavalent element like P, As, Sb, Bi, etc. is mixed.
Si

Penta valent
–
e e– impurity atom
–
e e–
Si Bi Si
e– e–
–
e e–
Free electron

Si

• In these, the impurity atom donates one electron, hence these are known as donor type
semiconductors
• In these, the electrons are majority current carriers and holes are minority current carriers. (i.e. the
electron density is more than hole density nn >> np)
• Jn  nne vdn

1
• Conductivity σn = = enn (µn)
ρn
• In these, there is majority of negative particles (electrons) and hence are known as N-type
semiconductors
Electrons

C.B.

V.B.

• In these the donor energy level is close to the conduction band and far away from valence band.
C.B.
EC

Ed
Energy

EV
V.B.

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(b) P-type Semiconductors

• In these, the impurity of some trivalent element like B, Al, In, Ga etc. is mixed.
Si

Trivalent
Impurity atc

Si B Si

Hole
present

Si

• In these, the impurity atom can accept one electron, hence these are known as acceptor type
semiconductors.
• In these, the holes are majority current carriers and electrons are minority current carriers i.e. np
>> nn
• In these there is majority of positive particles (cotters) and hence are known as P-type
semiconductors (np >> nn).
Electrons

C.B.

V.B.

• In these the acceptor energy level is close to the valence band and far away from conduction band.
C.B.
EC
Energy

Ea
EV
V.B.

• Jp  npe vdp
1
• Conductivity σp = = enp (µp)
ρp
Mass Action Law
–
In semiconductors due to thermal effect, generation of free e and hole takes place.
Apart from the process of generation, a process of recombination also occurs simultaneously, in which
–
free e further recombine with hole.
At equilibrium rate of generation of charge carriers is equal to rate of recombination of charge carrier.
–
The recombination occurs due to e colliding with a hole, larger the value of nn or np, higher is the
probability of their recombination.

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Hence for a given semiconductor rate of recombination ∝ nn × np

so rate of recombination = R nn × np
where R = recombination coefficient,
The value of R remains constant for a solid, according to the law of thermodynamics until crystalline
lattice structure remains same. For intrinsic semiconductor nn = np = ni
2
so rate of recombination = R ni
2 2
R nn × np = R ni ⇒ ni = nn × np
Under thermal equilibrium, the product of the concentration 'nn' of free electrons and the concentration
np of holes is a constant.
Independent of the amount of doping by acceptor and donor impurities.
Characteristics Ge Si
Energy gap 0.7 (eV) 1.1 (eV)
Potential barrier 0.3 V 0.7 V

Example 1:
A silicon specimen is made into a p-type semiconductor by doping on an average one indium atom per
7
5 × 10 silicon atoms. If the number density of atoms in the silicon specimen is
28 3
5 × 10 atoms/m ; find the number of acceptor atoms in silicon per cubic centimeter.
Solution:
The doping of one indium atom in silicon semiconductor will produce one acceptor atom in
7
p-type semiconductor. Since one indium atom has been dopped per 5 × 10 silicon atoms, so number
density of acceptor atoms in silicon
5 × 1028 21 3 15 3
= = 10 atom/m = 10 atoms/cm
5 × 107

Example 2:
16 –3
Pure Si at 300 K has equal electron (nn) and hole (np) concentrations of 1.5 × 10 m . Doping by indium
22 –3
increases np to 3 × 10 m . Calculate nn in the doped Si.
Solution:
2
For a doped semi-conductor in thermal equilibrium nnnp = ni (Law of mass action)
n2i (1.5 × 1016 )2 9 –3
nn = = = 7.5 × 10 m
np 3 × 10 22

Example 3:
3
What will be conductance of pure silicon crystal at 300 K temp.. If electron hole pairs per cm is
10 2 2
1.072 x 10 at this temp, µn = 1350 cm /volt sec & µP = 480 cm /volt sec
Solution:
–6
σ = nieµn + nieµp = nie (µn + µp) = 3.14×10 mho/cm

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Example 4:
8 3
A semiconductor has equal electron and hole concentration of 6 × 10 /m . On doping with certain
12 3
impurity electron concentration increases to 9 × 10 /m .
(i) Identify the new semiconductor obtained after doping.
(ii) Calculate the new hole concentration.
Solution:
8 3 12 3
ni = 6 × 10 /m and nn = 9 × 10 /m
(i) nn >> ni so it is N-type semiconductor
2
(ii)  ni = nnnp
n2i 36 × 1016 4 3
np = = = 4 × 10 /m
nn 9 × 1012

Example 5:
A P type semiconductor has acceptor level 57 meV above the valence band. What is maximum
wavelength of light required to create a hole?
Solution:
hc
E=
λ
hc 6.62 × 10–34 × 3 × 108
λ= = = 217100 Å
E 57 × 10–3 × 1.6 × 10–19

Exercise 1.1

1. In conductors - 4. The atomic bonding is same for which of the

(1) conduction band is completely empty but following pairs -
forbidden energy gap is small (1) Ag and Si (2) Ge and Si
(2) conduction and valence bands are
(3) Ne and Ge (4) NaCl and Ge
overlapped
(3) valence band is completely filled but the
conduction band is completely empty 5. Which of the following energy band diagram
(4) no energy band is present shows the N-type semiconductor-
Conduction Conduction
2. The forbidden energy gap of a germanium Band Band
semiconductor is 0.75 eV. The minimum
thermal energy of electrons reaching the (1) Eg = 1eV (2) Impurity level
1eV
conduction band from the valence band
should be - Valence Valence
Band Band
(1) 0.5 eV (2) 0.75 eV
(3) 0.25 eV (4) 1.5eV
Valence Valence
3. The forbidden energy band gap in Band Band

conductors, semiconductors and insulators 1eV

(3) Impurity level (4)
are Eg1, Eg2 and Eg3 respectively. The relation 1eV Impurity level

among them is -
Conduction Conduction
(1) Eg1 = Eg2 = Eg3 (2) Eg1 < Eg2 < Eg3 Band Band
(3) Eg1 > Eg2 > Eg3 (4) Eg1 < Eg2 > Eg3
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6. In insulators - 13. Which of the following statement is wrong?
(1) valence band is partially filled with (1) Resistance of extrinsic semiconductors
electrons can be changed as required
(2) conduction band is partially filled with (2) In n-type semiconductor the number of
electrons electrons increases in valence band
(3) conduction band is completely filled with
(3) In p-type semiconductors the number of
electrons but the valence band is empty
holes increases in valence band
(4) conduction band is empty and valence
band is completely filled with electrons (4) In pure semiconductor fermi band is
situated in between the valence band and
7. The energy of a photon of sodium light conduction band
(λ = 5890 Å) equals the band gap of a
semiconductor. The minimum energy 14. In extrinsic semiconductors -
required to create an electron-hole pair is- (1) The conduction band and valence band
(1) 0.026 eV (2) 0.31 eV overlap
(3) 2.1eV (4) 6.4 eV (2) The gap between conduction band and
valence band is more than 16 eV
8. In a good conductor the energy gap between
(3) The gap between conduction band and
the conduction band and the valence band is-
(1) Infinite (2) Wide valence band is near about 1 eV
(3) Narrow (4) Zero (4) The gap between conduction band and
valence band is 100 eV and more
9. GaAs is a -
(1) elemental semiconductor 15. Which of the following statement is true?
(2) compound semiconductor (1) In insulators the conduction band is
(3) insulator completely empty
(4) metallic semiconductor (2) In conductor the conduction band is
completely empty
10. At absolute zero temperature, pure
(3) In semiconductor the conduction band is
germanium and silicon are-
(1) conductors partially empty at low temperature
(2) good semiconductors (4) In insulators the conduction band is
(3) ideal insulators completely filled with electrons
(4) super conductors
16. Electric conduction in a semiconductor takes
11. Those materials in which number of holes in place due to-
valence band is equal to number of electrons (1) electrons only
in conduction band are called
(2) holes only
(1) conductors
(3) both electrons and holes
(2) Intrinsic semiconductors
(4) neither electrons nor holes
(3) p-type semiconductors
(4) n-type semiconductors
17. When phosphorus and antimony are mixed in
12. In p-type semiconductor holes move in germanium, then-
(1) forbidden region (1) p-type semiconductor is formed
(2) conduction band (2) n-type semiconductor is formed
(3) valence band (3) both (1) and (2)
(4) all the above regions (4) None of these
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18. P-type semiconductor is formed when - 19. Let np and ne be the numbers of holes and
A. As impurity is mixed in Si conduction electrons in an extrinsic
B. Al impurity is mixed in Si semiconductor.
C. B impurity is mixed in Ge
(1) np > ne (2) np = ne
D. P impurity is mixed in Ge
(1) A and C (2) A and D (3) np < ne (4) np ≠ ne
(3) B and C (4) B and D

4. P - N JUNCTION
The device formed by joining atomically a wafer of P-type semiconductor to the wafer of
N-type semiconductor is known as P-N junction.
Description of P-N Junction Without Applied Voltage
Given diagram shows a P–N junction immediately after it is formed.
P region has mobile majority holes and immobile negatively charged impurity ions.
N region has mobile majority free electrons and immobile positively charged impurity ions.
p n
° Mobile Hole (Majority Carrier)
– – – – – – – + + + + + + +
– – – – – – – + + + + + + + Θ Immobile Negative Impurity Ion
– – – – – – – + + + + + + + • Mobile Electron (Majority Carrier)
– – – – – – – + + + + + + + ⊕ Immobile Positive Impurity Ion

p n
– – – – – – – + + + + + + + idiffusion
inet = 0
– – – – – – – + + + + + + + idrift
– – – – – – – + + + + + + + Diffusion current : P to N
– – – – – – – + + + + + + + Drift current : N to P
d
Due to concentration difference diffusion of holes starts from P to N side and diffusion of electrons
starts N to P side.
Due to this a layer of only positive ions (in N side) and negative ions (in P–side) started to form which
generate an electric field (N to P side) which oppose diffusion process. During diffusion magnitude of
electric field increases due to which diffusion gradually decreases and ultimately stop.
Due to electric field minority charge carriers (electrons in p-type & holes in n-type) starts drifting &
constitute a drift current opposite to direction of diffusion current.
The layer of immobile positive and negative ions, which have no free electrons and holes called as
depletion layer as shown in diagram.
-6
• Width of Depletion Layer  10 m
(a) As doping increases depletion layer decreases
(b) As temperature is increased width of depletion layer also increases.
(c) P-N junction → Non-ohmic, due to nonlinear relation between I and V.
• Potential Barrier or Contact Potential
for Ge → 0.3 V, for
Si → 0.7 V
• Electric field, produce due to potential barrier
5
⇒ E  10 V/m
This field prevents the respective majority carrier from crossing barrier region
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4.1 Diffusion and Drift Current
(1) Diffusion current : P to N side
(2) Drift current : N to P side
If there is no biasing then diffusion current = drift current
So total current is zero
– +
p n
– – – – – – – + + + + + + +
– – – – – – – + + + + + + +
– – – – – – – + + + + + + +
– – – – – – – + + + + + + +

holes free electron

depletion layer
charge
density
+
distance

electric
potential
V0
distance

4.2 Behaviour of P–N Junction with an External Voltage Applied or Bias

• Forward Bias
If we apply a voltage "V" such that P–side is positive and N–side is V
VB
negative as shown in diagram.
The applied voltage is opposite to the junction barrier potential.
P N
Due to this effective potential barrier decreases, junction width also
decreases, so more majority carriers will be allowed to flow across
junction. It means the current flow is principally due to majority charge
carries which is large (mA) and biasing is called as forward Bias.

• Reverse Bias
If we apply a voltage "V" such that P–side is negative and N–side is positive V
VB
as shown in diagram.
The applied voltage is same side of to the junction barrier potential. Due N
P
to this effective potential barrier increases & junction width also
increases, so no majority carriers will be allowed to flow across junction.
Only minority carriers will be drifted. It means the current flow is
principally due to minority charge carries which is very small (µA) and
biasing is called as reversed Bias.

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Important Terms
(a) Static Forward Resistance (Rf)
The ratio of the forward voltage (Vf) and forward current (Ιf) at any point on the static forward
characteristic is defined as static forward resistance of junction diode.
V
i.e. Rf = f
Ιf
(b) Static Reverse Resistance (Rr)
The ratio of reverse voltage (Vr) and reverse current (Ιr) at any point on static reverse characteristic
is defined as the static reverse resistance of junction diode.
V
i.e. Rr = r
Ιr
(c) Dynamic Forward Resistance (Vr)
The ratio of small change in forward voltage to the corresponding small change in forward current
on static forward characteristic is defined as the dynamic forward resistance of junction diode (rf)
∆Vf Vf – Vf1
rf = = 2
∆Ι f Ι f2 – Ι f1
(d) Dynamic Reverse Resistance (rr)
The ratio of the small change in reverse voltage to the corresponding small change in reverse current
on the static reverse characteristics is defined as the dynamic reverse resistance of junction diode.
∆Vr Vr – Vr1
rr = = 2
∆Ι r Ι r2 – Ι r1
Forward Bias Reverse Bias
P → positive P → negative
N → negative N → positive
P N P N

V V
+ – – +

Potential Barrier reduces Potential Barrier increases

Width of depletion layer decrease Width of depletion layer increases
P-N Junction provide very small resistance P-N Junction provide high resistance
Forward current flow in circuit Very small reverse current
Order of forward current in milli ampere (mA) Order of current in micro ampere (µA) (Ge) or
nano ampere (nA) (Si)
Current flows mainly due to majority charge Current flows mainly due to minority charge
carriers carriers
Forward characteristic curves Reverse characteristic curves
VR (volt)
Ι0
Ip
(mA) knee
voltage break down ΙR
voltage (A)
0
0.7 1.4 2.1
V(volt)
∆Vf ∆VB 6
Forward resistance Rf =  100 Ω Reverse resistance RB = 10 Ω
∆l f ∆lB
Knee or cut in voltage Ge → 0.3 V, Si → 0.7 Breakdown voltage Ge → 25 V, Si → 35 V
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4.3 Characteristic Curve of P-N Junction Diode
A K A K
P N
symbol

(0 − 1)V (0 − 10)V
+ – + –
mA µA
+ – + –
D D
+ +
– R – R
Rh Rh

Forward bias Re verse bias

Breakdown Forward
voltage Ι f (mA)
bias
VB O A
•
C V → Volt
Ι r (µA) Knee
Re verse voltage
saturation
D current

In forward bias when voltage is increased from 0 V in steps and corresponding value of current is
measured, the curve comes as OB of figure. We may note that current increases very sharply after a
certain voltage known as knee voltage. At this voltage, barrier potential is completely eliminated and
diode offers a low resistance.
In reverse bias a microammeter has been used as current is very small. When reverse voltage is
increased from 0 V and corresponding values of current measured the plot comes as OCD. We may note
that reverse current is almost constant hence called reverse saturation current. It implies that diode
resistance is very high. As reverse voltage reaches value VB, called breakdown voltage, current
increases very sharply.
For Ideal Diode
in forward bias in reverse bias

on switch off switch

R f= 0 Ω R r =∞ Ω

Example 6:
A p-n junction forms part of a rectifier circuit. A voltage waveform as shown in figure is applied to the
circuit. If the diode is ideal except for a drop of 0.7 V in the forward biased condition,
(a) Plot the current through the resistor as function of time. What is the maximum current?
(b) Calculate the average heat lost in the resistance over a single cycle.

+10V
+
VS 1KΩ
– t
0.1s
–10V

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Solution:
(a) In forward bias, the potential drop across the diode is 0.7 V, and the rest i
of the p.d. is dropped across the resistance R (= 1 kΩ) The current 9.3mA
10–0.7
(maximum) = = 9.3 mA t
1000 0.1s
(b) The average heat lost in the resistance over a single cycle is
2 –3 2 3 –1 –3
i R∆ t = (9.3 × 10 ) ×10 ×10 J = 8.65 ×10 J

Example 7:
–7
A potential barrier of 0.5 V exists across a p-n junction (i) If the depletion region is 5 × 10 m wide.
What is the intensity of the electric field in this region? (ii) An electron with speed
5
5 × 10 m/s approaches the p-n junction from the n-side with what speed will it enter the
p-side.
Solution:
–7
(i) Width of depletion layer ∆L = 5 × 10 m V
V 0.5V E=
E= =
6
= 10 volt/m L
∆L 5 × 10 –7

1 1 P N
(ii) Work energy theorem Mv 2i = eV + Mv 2f
2 2
Mv l2 –2eV 5
vf = = 2.7 × 10 m/s
M

Example 8:
Figure shows a diode connected to an external resistance and an e.m.f. Assuming that the barrier
potential developed in diode is 0.5 V. Obtain the value of current in the circuit in milliampere.
Solution:
E = 4.5 V, R = 100 Ω, voltage drop across 100Ω
p-n junction = 0.5 V effective voltage in the
circuit V = 4.5 – 0.5 = 4.0 V
V 4.0 4.5V
current in the circuit I = = = 0.04 A = 0.04 × 1000 mA = 40 mA
R 100

Example 9:
What is the value of current I in given circuits.
Solution:
20
I= =1A
10 + 10

Ι
10Ω
20V

10Ω 10Ω

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Example 10:
What is the value of current I in given circuits.
Solution:
2.7–0.7
I= = 2mA
1 × 103
0.7 V
Si
0.3 V

Ι Ge
1 kΩ

2.7 V

Example 11:
In the given circuit. If P-N junction is ideal, then calculate current flowing through it.

200 Ω

1V 3V

Solution: 200 Ω 200 Ω

In the given condition Ι
1V 3V≡
2V
⇒I= = 0.01 A
200 2V

Example 12:
When the reverse potential in a semiconductor diode are 10 V and 20 V, then the corresponding reverse
currents are 25 µA and 50 µA respectively. The reverse resistance of junction diode will be:
5 –5
(1) 40 Ω (2) 4 × 10 (3) 40 KΩ (4) 4 × 10
Solution:
Vr2 – Vr1 20–10 5
rr = = = 4 × 10 Ω
Ι r2 – Ι r1 (50–25) × 10–6

Example 13:
The depletion layer in a silicon diode is 1 µm wide and its knee potential is 0.6 V, then the electric field
in the depletion layer will be:
4 5
(1) 0.6 V/m (2) 6 × 10 V/m (3) 6 × 10 V/m (4) Zero
Solution:
dV 0.6 5
E= = –6 = 6 × 10 V/m
dr 10

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Example 14:
A semiconductor P-N junction is to be forward biased with a battery of e.m.f. 1.5 Volt. If a potential
difference of 0.5V appears on the junction which does not depend on current and on passing 10 mA
current through the junction there occurs huge Joule loss, then to use the junction at 5 mA current, the
resistance required to be connected in series will be:
1.5 V
+ –
(·)

R
(1) 3 KΩ (2) 300 Ω (3) 300 KΩ (4) 200 Ω
Solution:
VR = (1.5 – 0.5) = 1V = IR
1
∴R= = 200 Ω
5 × 10–3

Exercise 1.2

1. On increasing temperature the specific 4. In a semi conducting material the mobilities

resistance of a semiconductor - of electrons and holes are µe and µh
(1) decreases (2) increases respectively. Which of the following is true?
(3) remains constant (4) becomes zero (1) µe > µh (2) µe < µh
(3) µe = µh (4) µe < 0; µh > 0
2. Which of the following statement is not
correct?
5. Which of the following statements is not
(1) Resistance of semiconductor decreases true-
with increase in temperature (1) The resistance of intrinsic semiconductor
(2) In an electric field, displacement of holes decreases with increase in temperature
is opposite to the displacement of (2) Doping of pure Si with trivalent
electrons impurities gives p-type semiconductor
(3) Resistance of a conductor decreases with (3) The majority carriers in n-type
the increase in temperature semiconductors are holes
(4) n-type semiconductors are neutral (4) A p-n junction can act as a
semiconductor diode
3. Wires P and Q have the same resistance at
ordinary (room) temperature. When heated, V
resistance of P increases and that of Q 6. For a metallic wire the ratio : (V = applied
I
decreases. We conclude that - potential, I = current flowing)-
(1) P and Q are conductors of different (1) does not depends upon temperature
materials (2) increases with increase in temperature
(2) P is N-type semiconductor and Q is (3) decreases with increase in temperature
P-type semiconductor (4) increases or decrease by increase in
(3) P is semiconductor and Q is conductor temperature as according to nature of
(4) P is conductor and Q is semiconductor the metal
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7. The resistivity of a semiconductor depends 13. In semiconductor the concentration of electrons
upon its- 18 3
and holes are 8 × 10 /m and 5 × 10 /m
18 3

(1) size respectively. If the mobility of electrons and

(2) type of atoms 2 2
(3) length hole are 2.3 m /volt-sec and 0.01 m /volt-sec
(4) size and type of atoms respectively, then semiconductor is -
(1) N-type and its resistivity is 0.34 ohm-metre
8. Platinum and silicon are cooled after heating (2) P-type and its resistivity is 0.034 ohm-metre
up to 250°C - (3) N-type and its resistivity is 0.034 ohm-metre
(1) resistance of platinum will increase and (4) P-type and its resistivity is 3.40 ohm-metre
that of silicon decreases
(2) resistance of silicon will increase and
14. A potential difference of 2 V is applied
that of platinum decreases
between the opposite faces of a Ge crystal
(3) resistance of both will decrease 2
(4) resistance of both will increase plate of area 1 cm and thickness 0.5 mm. If the
19 3
concentration of electrons in Ge is 2 × 10 /m
9. When a potential difference is applied across and mobilities of electrons and holes are
the current passing through- 2 2
0.36 m /volt-sec and 0.14 m /volt-sec
(1) a semiconductor at 0 K is zero
respectively, then the current flowing through
(2) a metal at 0 K is finite
(3) a P-N diode at 300 K is finite if it is the plate will be -
reverse biased (1) 0.25 A (2) 0.45 A
(4) all (3) 0.56 A (4) 0.64 A

10. If ne and vd be the number of electrons and 15. The mean free path of a conduction electrons
drift velocity in a semiconductor. When the -8
in a metal is 5 × 10 m. The electric field
temperature is increased - required to be applied across the conductor
(1) ne increases and vd decreases
so as to impart 1 eV energy to the conduction
(2) ne decreases and vd increases
electron will be -
(3) Both ne and vd increases –7 7
(1) 1 × 10 V/m (2) 2 × 10 V/m
(4) Both ne and vd decreases 7 7
(3) 3 × 10 V/m (4) 4 × 10 V/m
11. Forbidden energy gap of a silicon
semiconductor is 1.12 eV. In order to 16. A hole diffuses from the p-side to the n-side
generate electron-hole pairs in it, the in a p-n junction. This means that-
maximum wavelength of the incident (1) a bond is broken on the n-side and the
photons will be - electron free from the bond jumps to the
(1) 11080 Å (2) 11250 Å conduction band
(3) 12370 Å (4) 14400 Å (2) a conduction electron on the p-side
jumps to a broken bond to complete it
12. The electron mobility in N-type germanium is
2 (3) a bond is broken on the n-side and the
3900 cm /v.s and its conductivity is
electron free from the bond jumps to a
6.24 mho/cm, then what will be the impurity
concentration if the effect of cotters is broken bond on the p-side to complete it
negligible - (4) a bond is broken on the p-side and the
15
(1) 10 /cm
3 13
(2) 10 /cm
3 electron free from the bond jumps to a
12
(3) 10 /cm
3 16
(4) 10 /cm
3 broken bond on the n-side to complete it

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17. Mobility of electrons in N-type Ge is 22. The diffusion current in a p-n junction is
2
5000 cm /volt sec and conductivity from-
5 mho/cm. If effect of holes is negligible (1) p-side to n-side
then impurity concentration will be- (2) n-side to p-side
15
(1) 6.25 × 10 cm
3 14
(2) 9.25 × 10 cm
3
(3) p-side to n-side if the junction is forward
13
(3) 6 × 10 cm
3 13
(4) 9 × 10 cm
3 biased and in the opposite direction if it
is reverse biased
18. In a p-n junction- (4) n-side to p-side if the junction is forward
(1) high potential is at n side and low biased and in the opposite direction if it
potential is at p side is reverse based
(2) high potential is at p side and low
potential is at n side 23. If the two ends of a p-n junction are joined by
(3) p and n both are at same potential a conducting wire, then -
(4) undetermined (1) there will be no current in the circuit
(2) there will be steady current from n-side
19. If no external voltage is applied across P-N to p-side
junction, there would be - (3) there will be steady current from p-side
(1) No electric field across the junction to n-side
(2) An electric field pointing from N-type to (4) there will be a steady current in the
P-type side across the junction circuit
(3) An electric field pointing from P-type to
N-type side across the junction 24. The minority current in a p-n junction is-
(4) A temporary electric field during (1) from the n-side to the p-side
formation of P-N junction that would (2) from the p-side to the n-side
subsequently disappear (3) from the n-side to the p-side if the
junction is forward-biased and in the
20. No bias is applied to a P-N junction, then the opposite direction if it is reverse biased
current - (4) from the p-side to the n-side if the
(1) Is zero because the number of charge junction is forward-biased and in the
carriers flowing on both sides is same opposite direction if it is reverse biased
(2) Is zero because the charge carriers do not
move
25. Diffusion current in a p-n junction is greater
(3) Is non-zero
than the drift current in magnitude-
(4) None of these
(1) if the junction is forward-biased
(2) if the junction is reverse-biased
21. Which of the following statements is correct?
(3) if the junction is unbiased
(1) The depletion region of P-N junction
(4) in no case
diode increases with forward biasing
(2) The depletion region of P-N junction
26. The p-n junction is a-
diode decreases with reverse biasing
(1) ohmic resistance
(3) The depletion region of P-N junction
diode does not change with biasing (2) non ohmic resistance
(4) The depletion region of P-N junction (3) positive resistance
diode decreases with forward biasing (4) negative resistance

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27. In a forward biased p-n junction diode, the 29. A semiconductor X is made by doping a
potential barrier in the depletion region is of germanium crystal with arsenic (Z = 33).
the form- A second semiconductor Y is made by doping
V germanium with indium (Z = 49). The two are
joined end to end and connected to a battery
(1)
as shown. Which of the following statement
p n is correct?
V X Y

(2)
p n
V
(3) (1) X is P-type, Y is N-type and the junction is
forward biased
p n
(2) X is N-type, Y is P-type and the junction is
V
forward biased
(4) (3) X is P-type, Y is N-type and the junction is
reverse biased
p n
(4) X is N-type, Y is P-type and the junction is
reverse biased
28. A potential barrier of 0.50 V exists across a P-
–
N junction. If the depletion region is 5.0 × 10 30. In a p-n junction the depletion layer of
7
m wide, the intensity of the electric field in –6
thickness 10 m has potential across it is
this region is - 0.1 V. The electric field is (V/m) -
6 5
(1) 1.0 × 10 V/m (2) 1.0 × 10 V/m (1) 10
7
(2) 10
–6
5 6
(3) 2.0 × 10 V/m (4) 2.0 × 10 V/m (3) 10
5
(4) 10
–5

5. SOME SPECIAL DIODES

• Zener Diode
A properly doped crystal diode which has sharp break down voltage is known as Zener diode.
symbol of
Zener diode

In reverse bias of zener diode after the breakdown voltage VZ, a large change in the current can be
produced by almost insignificant change in the reverse bias voltage. In other words zener voltage
remains constant, even though current through the zener diode varies over a wide range. This
property of the zener diode is used for regulating voltage.
Zener Re verse
voltage VZ bias

Re verse
current

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Zener Diode as a Voltage Regulator
It is always connected in reverse biased condition manner. Used as a voltage regulation. The
unregulated dc voltage (filtered output of a rectifier) is connected to the zener diode through a
series resistance RS such that the zener diode is reverse biased. On increasing the input voltage,
voltage across RS increasing,
+
RS ΙZ ΙL

+ Fluctuating regulated
– input RL output
VZ

–

without any change in the voltage across the zener diode. This is because in the breakdown region,
zener voltage remains constant even though the current through the zener diode changes.
Similarly, if the input voltage decreases, the current through RS and zener diode also decreases.
The voltage drop across RS decreases without any change in the voltage across the zener diode.
Thus any increase/decrease in the input voltage results in, increase/decrease of the voltage drop
across RS without any change in voltage across the zener diode. Thus, the zener diode acts as a
voltage regulator.
In forward biased it works as a simple diode.

Example 15:
A zener diode, having breakdown voltage equal to 15 V, is used in a voltage a regulator circuit shown.
The current through the zener diode is.
250Ω
+
RS

15V 1 KΩ
20V

Solution:
15 Is 250Ω ΙL
IL = = 15 mA +
1000 RS ΙZ
st 20–15 5
⇒ In loop 1 → IS = =
250 250 20V 1 15V 1 KΩ
1
IS = = 20 mA
50
–
∴ IS = IZ + IL ⇒ IZ = IS – IL = 20 – 15 = 5mA

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• Photodiode
A junction diode made from “light or photo sensitive semiconductor” is called a “photo diode” its

symbol . When light of energy "hν'' falls on the photodiode (Here hν > energy gap) more
electrons move from valence band, to conduction band, due to this current in circuit of photodiode
in "Reverse bias", increases. As light intensity is increased, the current goes on increases so photo
diode is used, "to detect light intensity" for example it is used in "Video camera".
Ι(mA)

hv Re verse bias
Dark current V(Volt) →
Ι1
Ι2
µA Ι(µ A)
Ι3
P − side N − side Ι1 < Ι 2 < Ι 3 ↓
(Order of intensities)
(a) (b)
Figure (a) An illuminated photodiode, under reverse bias
(b) I-V characteristics of a photodiode for different illumination intensity Ι3 > Ι2 > Ι1
• Light Emitting Diode (L.E.D)
When a junction diode is “forward biased” energy is released at junction in the form of light due to
recombination of electrons and holes. In case of Si or Ge diodes, the energy released is in infra-red
region. (R) (Y)(G)(B)
In the junction diode made of GaAs, InP etc. energy is released in visible Ι
region such a junction diode is called "light emitting diode" (LED) Its

symbol
The I-V characteristics of an Led is
O V
• Solar Cell
Solar cell is a device for converting solar energy into electrical energy. A junction diode in which
one of the P or N sections is made very thin (So that the light energy falling on diode is not greatly
absorbed before reaching the junction) can be used to convert light energy into electric energy such

diode called as solar cell. Its symbol

(i) It is operated into photo voltaic mode i.e., generation of voltage due to the bombardment of optical
photon.
(ii) No external bias is applied.
(iii) Active junction area is kept large, because we are interested in more power. Materials most
commonly used for solar cell is Si, As, Cds, CdTe, CdSe, etc.
Ι V (open circuit
OC
ΙL voltage)

P n V

Ι SC
Depletion Short circuit
region current
A − typical illuminated
p -n junction solar cell l − V characteristic
of a solar cell
(a)
(b)

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6. RECTIFIER
It is device which is used for converting alternating current into direct current.
(a) Half Wave Rectifier
+ –
+ A A
S1 D S1 D
RL RL
S2 – B S2 B
– +
For positive half cycle For negative half cycle

Input

Output

During the first half (positive) of the input signal. Let S1 is at positive and S2 is at negative potential.
So, the PN junction diode D is forward biased. The current flows through the load resistance RL and
output voltage is obtained.
During the second half (negative) of the input signal, S1 and S2 would be negative and positive
respectively. The PN junction diode will be reversed biased. In this case, practically no current
would flow through the load resistance. So, there will be no output voltage.
Thus, corresponding to an alternating input signal, we get a unidirectional pulsating output.
(b) Full Wave Rectifier
When the diode rectifies the whole of the AC wave, it is called full wave rectifier. Figure shows the
experimental arrangement for using diode as full wave rectifier. The alternating signal is fed to the
primary of transformer. The output signal appears across the load resistance RL.
+ D1 D1
–
S1 S1
B A B A
– RL + – +
RL
S2 S2
– +
D2 D2
For positive half cycle For negative half cycle

Input

D1 D2 D1 D2 D1 D2 D1

Output

For both positive and negative

cycle output signal
• During the positive half of the input signal:
Let S1 positive and S2 negative.
In this case diode D1 is forward biased and D2 is reverse biased. So only D1 conducts and hence the
flow of current in the load resistance RL is from A to B.
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• During the negative half of the input signal:
Now S1 is negative and S2 is positive. So D1 is reverse-biased and D2 is forward biased. So only D2
conducts and hence the current flows through the load resistance RL from A to B.
It is clear that whether the input signal is positive or negative, the current always flows through
the load resistance in the same direction and full wave rectification is obtained.

(c) Bridge Rectifier

D1 D2 +
+
RL

D3 D4 –

–
During positive half cycle
D1 and D4 are forward biased → on switch
D2 and D3 are reverse biased → off switch

During negative half cycle

D2 and D3 are forward biased → on switch
D1 and D4 are reverse biased → off switch
Rectifier Efficiency
Pdc I2 R
η= = 2 dc L
Pac Irms (RF + RL )
Half wave rectifier Full wave rectifier of bridge wave rectifier
0.406 0.812
η= η=
R R
1+ f 1+ f
RL RL
Rf Rf
if << 1 ⇒ η = 40.6% if << 1 ⇒ η = 81.2%
RL RL
If Rf = RL ⇒ η = 20.3% If Rf = RL ⇒ η = 40.6%
Note : In bridge full wave rectifier Rf is two time of resistance of P-N in FB

Ripple Frequency
(i) For Half Wave Rectifier

Input frequency = 50 Hz Ripple frequency = 50 Hz

(ii) For Full Wave Rectifier

input output
Ripple requency = 100 Hz Ripple frequency = 100 Hz
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Pulse
(i) For Half Wave Rectifier

input output
number of pulse= 100 number of pulse = 50
(ii) For full wave rectifier

input output
number of pulse = 100 number of pulse = 100

DC current Irms current of half wave rectifier

(IDC or Iavg for half wave rectifier)
– 1 T
T ∫0
I= Idt Irms = < I2 >

– 1  T /2 1 T 2
Idt + ∫ Idt 
T
I =
T ∫0 T /2 
< I2 > =
T ∫0
I dt
T /2 T
1 T /2 1
=
T ∫0
I0 sin ωtdt + 0 =
T ∫
0
I20 sin2 ωtdt + ∫ 0.dt
T /2

T /2
I0  –cos ωt  I20 T /2
=
T  ω  0
=
2T ∫ (1–cos2ωt ) dt + 0
0

T  T  I20  T  I20
=
ωt –cos ω 2 + cos0  = = –0
2T  2  4
— I0 I20 I
I = Irms = = 0
π 4 2

Comparison Between Average Rectifiers

Full Wave
Half Wave
Centre Tap Bridge
Number of Diodes 1 2 4
Transformer necessary No Yes No
Vin Vin Vin
Peak load current, Im
rd + RL rd + RL 2rd + RL
Im Im Im
RMS current Irms
2 2 2
Im 2Im 2Im
DC current Idc
π π π
Rectification efficiency (Max) 40.60% 81.20% 81.20%

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Filter Circuit
To reduce A.C. Components filter circuits are used.
• Capacitor Filter
DC
AC + DC
AC C RL
output of rectifier

output

• L - C Filter
DC + low AC DC

AC + DC
AC C RL
output of rectifier

output

• π - Filter (Best Filter)

L
AC + DC

Vin C C RL
output of rectifier

output

Example 16:
In half-wave rectification, what is the output frequency, if the input frequency is 50 Hz. What is the
output frequency of a full-wave rectifier for the same input frequency?
Solution:
A half-wave rectifier rectifies once during a cycle. Therefore, frequency of AC output is also the
frequency of AC input i.e. 50 Hz. A full-wave rectifier rectifies both the half cycles of the AC output i.e.,
it rectifies twice during a cycle.
So, Frequency of AC output = 2 × frequency of AC input = 2 × 50 = 100 Hz.

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Example 17:
In the figure, the input is across the terminals A and C and the output is across B and D. Then the output
is
B

A C

D
(1) zero (2) same as the input
(3) full-wave rectified (4) half-wave rectified
Solution:
During the half cycle when VM > VN, D1 and D3 are forward biased. Hence, the B
path of current is MABPQDCNM. In the second half cycle when VN > VM, D2 and D1 D2 P
RL
D4 are forward biased while D1 and D3 are reverse biased. Hence the path of A  C
M N Q
current in NCBPQDAMN. D4 D3
Therefore in both half cycles current flows P to Q from load resistance RL. Or, D

it is a full-wave rectifier.

Example 18:
A sinusoidal voltage of peak value 200 volt is connected to a diode and resistor R in the circuit shown
so that half wave rectification occurs. It the forward resistance of the diode is negligible compared to
R then find rms voltage (in volt) across R.

 R
E0 = 200 V
Solution:
V0 200
Vrms = = = 100 V
2 2

Exercise 1.3

1. value of current i in the circuit will be- 2. The current through an ideal PN junction
20Ω shown in the following circuit diagram will be-
P N 700Ω
30Ω
5V 2V
i 20Ω 5V

5 5 (1) 5 mA
(1) A (2) A
40 50 (2) 10 Ma
5 5
(3) A (4) A (3) 70 mA
10 20
(4) 100 mA

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3. The value of current in the following diagram 7. A two volt battery forward biases a diode
will be – however there is a drop of 0.5 V across the
–4V –1V diode which is independent of current. Also
300Ω a current greater than 10 mA produce large
–2
joule loss and damages diode. If diode is to be
(1) 0.10 A (2) 10 A operated at 5 mA, the series resistance to be
(3) 1 A (4) 0 A put is-
2V
4. In which of the following figures the junction (•)
diode is in reverse bias
N P P N
(1) –10V (2) –5V
(1) 3 kΩ (2) 300 kΩ
–5V (3) 300 Ω (4) 200 kΩ

8. In the following circuit PN-junction diodes

10V
–6V D1, D2 and D3 are ideal for the following
(3) (4) potential of A and B, the correct increasing
P N
5V N P order of resistance between A and B will be
[if following voltages are applied at A & B
respectively]-
5. Find VAB - D1 R

D2 R
10R
30V
A R D3 R
R
10R 10R 4 4
B
A B
(1) 10 V (2) 20 V
(i) – 10 V, – 5 V (ii) – 5V, – 10 V
(3) 30 V (4) none
(iii) – 4V, – 12 V
(1) (i) < (ii) < (iii) (2) (iii) < (ii) < (i)
6. The diode used in the circuit shown in the
(3) (ii) = (iii) < (i) (4) (i) = (iii) < (ii)
figure has a constant voltage drop of 0.5 V for
all currents and a maximum power rating of
9. In the diagram, the input is across the
100 milli watts. What should be the value of
terminals A and C and the output is across
the resistor R, connected in series with the
the terminals B and D, then the output is -
diode for obtaining maximum current -
B
R 0.5V
A C
1.5V

(1) 1.5 Ω (2) 5 Ω D

(3) 6.67 Ω (4) 200 Ω (1) zero (2) same as input
(3) full wave rectifier (4) half wave rectifier
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10. In a full wave rectifiers input ac current has a 13. A full wave rectifier circuit along with the
frequency ν. The output frequency of current is- input and output voltage a cross RL is shown
(1) ν/2 (2) ν in the figure.
(3) 2ν (4) None of these
1 RL Output
11. A sinusoidal voltage of peak value 200 volt is 2 voltage
connected to a diode and resistor R in the Input
circuit shown so that half wave rectification voltage
occurs. If the forward resistance of the diode
is negligible compared to R then rms voltage Output
voltage A B C D
(in volt) across R is approximately -
The contribution to output voltage from
E0 = 200 volt ∼ R diode 2 is:
(1) A, C
(1) 200 (2) 100 (2) B, D
200 (3) B, C
(3) (4) 280
2 (4) A, D

12. In the half-wave rectifier circuit shown. 14. The output current versus time curve of a
Which one of the following wave form is true rectifier is shown in the figure. The average
for VCD, the output across C and D?
value of the input current in this case is -
A C

∼ P Q VCD RL
Current

B D i0
v Time
(1) 0
(1)
t (2) i0/π
(3) 2i0/π
v
(2) (4) i0

t
v 15. The main cause of Zener breakdown is -
(1) the base semiconductor being
(3)
germanium
t
(2) production of electron-hole pairs due to
v thermal excitation
(3) low doping
(4)
t (4) high doping

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16. The current flowing through the zener diode 17. In the given circuit the current through the
in figure is- zener diode is :

500Ω R1 500Ω
I1
5V 1kΩ 20V
10V VZ = 10V
1500Ω R2

(1) 20 mA (2) 25 mA (1) 10 mA (2) 6.67 mA

(3) 15 mA (4) 5 mA (3) 5 mA (4) 13.33 mA

7. LOGIC GATES
7.1 Introduction
• A logic gate is a digital circuit which is based on certain logical relationship between the input and
the output voltage of the circuit.
• The logic gates are built using the semiconductor diodes and transistors.
• A logic gate is also represented by a Boolean algebraic expression. Boolean algebra is a method of
writing logical equations showing how an output depends upon the combination of inputs. Boolean
algebra was invented by George Boole.

7.2 Laws of Boolean Algebra

Basic OR, AND, and NOT operations are given below :
OR AND NOT
A+0=A A·0=0 A+ A =1
A+1=1 A·1=A A· A =0
A+A=A A·A=A A·A=A

Boolean algebra obeys commutative, associative and distributive laws as given below:
• Commutative Laws
A+B=B+A;
A.B = B.A

• Associative Laws
A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C
A. (B . C) = (A. B) . C

• Distributive Laws
A. (B + C) = A.B + A.C

• Some Other Useful Identities

(i) A + AB = A
(ii) A . (A + B) = A
(iii) A + ( A B) = A + B
(iv) A. ( A + B) = A.B
(v) A +(B.C) = (A + B). (A + C)
(vi) ( A + B).(A + C) = A .C + B.A +B.C
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• De Morgan's Theorem
First theorem : A + B = A·B
Second theorem : A.B = A + B

Logic Gates and Truth Table.

Logic Gate : The digital circuit that can be analysed with the help of Boolean algebra is called logic
gate or logic circuit.

Truth Table : The operation of a logic gate or circuit can be represented in a table which contains all
possible inputs and their corresponding outputs is called the truth table. To write the truth table we
use binary digits 1 and 0.

7.3 Basic Logic Gates

There are three basic logic gates. They are
(1) OR gate (2) AND gate, and (3) NOT gate

• The OR Gate : The output of an OR gate attains the state 1 if one or more inputs attain the state 1.
A
Y= A + B
Logic symbol of OR gate
B
The Boolean expression of OR gate is Y = A + B, read as Y equals A OR B.
Truth table of a two-input OR gate
A B Y
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1

• The AND Gate : The output of an AND gate attains the state 1 if and only if all the inputs are in state
1. Logic symbol of AND gate
A
Y=A ·B
Input
Output
B
The Boolean expression of AND gate is
Y = A.B It is read as Y equals A AND B
Truth table of a two-input AND gate
A B Y
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

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• The NOT Gate : The output of a NOT gate attains the state 1 if and only if the input does not attain
the state 1.
A Y
Logic symbol of NOT gate
The Boolean expression is Y = A , read as Y equals NOT A.
A Y
Truth table of NOT gate 0 1
1 0

7.4 Combination of Gates

The three basis gates (OR, AND and NOT) when connected in various combinations give us logic gates
such as NAND, NOR gates, which are the universal building blocks of digital circuits.
• The NAND Gate
Logic symbol of NAND gate
A
Input Y
Output
B
The Boolean expression of NAND gate is
Y = A ⋅B = A + B
A B Y
0 0 1
Truth table of a NAND gate 0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
• The NOR Gate
Logic symbol of NOR gate
A
Y
B
The Boolean expression of NOR gate is
Y = A +B = A · B
A B Y
0 0 1
Truth table of a NOR gate 0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0

7.5 Universal Gates

The NAND or NOR gate is the universal building block of all digital circuits. Repeated use of NAND
gates (or NOR gates) gives other gates. Therefore, any digital system can be achieved entirely from
NAND or NOR gates. We shall show how the repeated use of NAND (and NOR) gates will gives us
different gates.
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• The NOT gate from a NAND gate : When all the inputs of a NAND gate are connected together, as
shown in the figure, we obtain a NOT gate

A A

Truth table of a single

input NAND gate
A =B Y
0 1
1 0

• The AND gate from NAND gates : If a NAND gate is followed by a NOT gate (i.e., a single input
NAND gate), the resulting circuit is an AND gate as shown in figure and truth table given show how
an AND gate has been obtained from NAND gates.
A
Y
B Y'
Truth Table
A B Y' Y
0 0 1 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1

• The OR gate from NAND gates : If we invert the inputs A and B and then apply them to the NAND
gate, the resulting circuit is an OR gate.
A
A
Y
B
B
Truth Table
A B A B Y
0 0 1 1 0
0 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 1
1 1 0 0 1

• The NOT gate from NOR gates : When all the inputs of a NOR gate are connected together as shown
in the figure, we obtain a NOT gate

A Y

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• The AND gate from NOR gates : If we invert the inputs A and B and then apply them to the NOR
gate, the resulting circuit is an AND gate.
A
A
Y
B
B

• The OR gate from NOR gate : If a NOR gate is followed by a single input NOR gate (NOT gate), the
resulting circuit is an OR gate.
A
Y
B

7.6 XOR and XNOR Gates

• The Exclusive - OR Gate (XOR Gate): The output of a two-input XOR gate attains the state 1 if one
and only one input attains the state 1.
Logic symbol of XOR gate
A
Y
B
A

B
The Boolean expression of XOR gate is
Y = A.B + A.B or Y = A ⊕ B
A B Y
0 0 0
Truth table of a XOR gate 0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
• Exclusive - NOR gate (XNOR gate):- The output is in state 1 when its both inputs are the same that
is, both 0 or both 1.
A
Logic symbol of XNOR gate Y
B
The Boolean expression of XNOR gate is
= Y A · B + A · B or Y = or A  B
A B Y
0 0 1
Truth table of a XNOR gate 0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

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7.7 Summary of Logic Gates
Names Symbol Boolean expression Truth table Electrical analogue
A B Y
A
0 0 0 A
Y
B
OR B Y=A+B 0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1

A B Y
A
0 0 0 A B
Y
AND B Y = A. B 0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

A Y
A Y A
NOT or inverter Y=A 0 1
1 0

A B Y
A
0 0 1
Y
A B
NOR (OR+NOT) B Y= A + B 0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0

A B Y
A
0 0 1
A
Y
NAND (AND+NOT) B Y= A ⋅ B 0 1 1 B

1 0 1
1 1 0

A B Y
A Y=A⊕B 0 0 0
Y
XOR (Exclusive OR) B Or 0 1 1
Y = A ⋅B + A ⋅B 1 0 1
1 1 0

A B Y
A
Y = A B 0 0 1
Y
XNOR (Exclusive NOR) B Or 0 1 0
Y = A ⋅B + A ⋅B 1 0 0
1 1 1

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Example 19:
Construct the truth table for the function X of A and B represented by figure shown here.
A X

Solution:
The output X in terms of the input A and B can be written as, X = A.(A + B) = A
Let us make the truth table corresponding to this function.
A B A +B X=
A.(A + B)
0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 1 1
1 1 1 1

Exercise 1.4

1. Boolean algebra is essentially based on- 7. The output of a NAND gate is 0 -

(1) logic (2) truth (1) If both inputs are 0
(3) numbers (4) symbol (2) If one input is 0 and the other input is 1
(3) If both inputs are 1
2. Which of the following relation is valid in
(4) Either if both inputs are 1 or if one of the
Boolean algebra -
inputs is 1 and the other 0
(1) A + A = 0 (2) A + A = 2A
(3) A + A = 1 (4) A + A = A 8. Digital circuits can be made by repetitive
use of-
3. Which of the following relations is valid for
(1) OR gate (2) AND gate
Boolean algebra -
(3) NOT gate (4) NAND gate
(1) A + A = A (2) A.A = A
(3) A ⋅ A =
0 (4) All
9. When all the inputs of a NAND gate are
4. Which of the following relations is valid for connected together, the resulting circuit is-
Boolean algebra- (1) a NOT gate (2) an AND gate
(1) A(B + B) =A (2) A + AB = A (3) an OR gate (4) a NOR gate
(3) A + 0 = A (4) All
10. Which of the following pairs are universal
5. Logic gates are the building blocks of a/an: gates-
(1) abacus system (2) analog system (1) NAND, NOT (2) NAND, AND
(3) digital system (4) none of these (3) NOR, OR (4) NAND, NOR

6. This symbol represents - 11. A NAND gate followed by a NOT gate is-
A y (1) an OR gate
B (2) an AND gate
(1) NOT gate (2) OR gate (3) a NOR gate
(3) AND gate (4) NOR gate (4) a XOR gate
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12. The NOR gate is logically equivalent to an OR 19. Which of the following will have an output of 1:
gate followed by - 1 0
(a) (b)
(1) an inverter (2) a NOR gate 1 1
(3) a NAND gate (4) an OR gate 0
0 Y Y
(c) (d)
1 0
13. The output of a two input NOR gate is in state
1 when- (1) a (2) b
(1) either input terminals is at 0 state (3) c (4) d
(2) either input terminals is at 1 state
(3) both input terminals are at 0 state 20. How many NOR gates are required to form
(4) both input terminals are at 1 state NAND gate-
(1) 1 (2) 3
14. ‘Output is LOW if and only if all the inputs are (3) 2 (4) 4
HIGH’ indicate the logic gate for which the
above statement is true- 21. Four logic gate symbol are given below
(1) AND (2) OR (figure). Those for OR, NOR and NAND gate
(3) NOR (4) NAND are respectively-
A y A y
15. The following truth table corresponds to the (a) B (b) B
logic gate -
A y A y
A 0 0 1 1 (c) B (d)
B
B 0 1 0 1
(1) a, d, c (2) d, a, b
X 0 1 1 1
(3) a, c, d (4) d, b, a
(1) NAND (2) OR
(3) AND (4) XOR
22. Which of the following gates will have an
16. To get an output 1, the input ABC should be- output of 1?
A 1 0
(1) 0 (2) 1
B Y
C 0 0
(3) 1 (4) 1
(1) 101 (2) 100
(3) 110 (4) 010
23. The combination of ‘NAND’ gates shown here
under (figure) are equivalent to –
17. The output of 2 input gate is 1 only if its
inputs are equal. It is true for- A
(1) NAND (2) AND C
(3) EX-NOR (4) EX-OR B

18. The circuit-shown here is logically A

C
B
equivalent to-
A Y
(1) An OR gate and an AND gate respectively
` (2) An AND gate and a NOT gate respectively
B
(3) An AND gate and an OR gate respectively
(1) OR gate (2) AND gate (4) An OR gate and a NOT gate respectively
(3) NOT gate (4) NAND gate

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24. The truth table given below is for- 26. The truth table for the following combination
of gates is-
A B Y
A Y
0 0 1
0 1 0 B
1 0 0 A B Y A B Y
1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
(1) 0 1 0 (2) 0 1 0
(1) OR gate
1 0 1 1 0 0
(2) AND gate
1 1 1 1 1 1
(3) XNOR gate
(4) XOR gate A B Y A B Y
0 0 1 0 0 0
25. The truth table shown is of- (3) 0 1 1 (4) 0 1 1
1 0 1 1 0 1
A B Y
1 1 0 1 1 0
0 0 0
0 1 1
27. The logic symbols shown here are logically
1 0 1
equivalent to –
1 1 0 A Y A Y
(1) NAND gate B (a) B (b)
(2) NOR gate (1) ‘a’ AND and ‘b’ OR gate
(3) XOR gate (2) ‘a’ NOR and ‘b’ NAND gate
(3) ‘a’ OR and ‘b’ AND gate
(4) XNOR gate
(4) ‘a’ NAND and ‘b’ NOR gate

8. EXPERIMENTS
8.1 Characteristics of a p-n junction diode
It exhibits the relation between biasing voltage and current flowing through diode. The V-I
characteristics of a diode can be forward or reverse. The graph exhibiting the relation between forward
bias voltage and forward current is known as the forward characteristics, and that exhibiting the
relation between reverse bias voltage and reverse current is known as the reverse characteristics.
The nature of forward characteristic of a I(mA)
diode is non-linear. The forward current
increases slowly in the beginning and 100
shows a sudden rise at a certain value of 80
forward voltage. This voltage is known as 60
the threshold voltage or cut-in voltage. 40
This is because the resistance is very low in
20
forward biased condition. The current in
100 80 60 40 20
the reverse bias is due to the flow of V(v) V(v)
minority carriers. At a certain value of Vbr 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
10
reverse bias voltage there is a sudden 20
increase in the reverse current. This 30
voltage is termed as the reverse
I(µA)
breakdown voltage.
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Graph 1
Procedure :
Forward V-I Characteristics :
V
+ –
R
p n
+
mA
–

(•) +–
K E
1. Connections are made as per the connection diagram.
2. The sliding contact of the rheostat is set to minimum after the key is inserted.
3. Now, the rheostat contact is adjusted to provide a positive bias voltage.
4. Note the voltmeter and milli ammeter readings.
5. Repeat the process by increasing the forward current in equal steps by changing the rheostat slider.
6. It can be noted that, the current increases slowly in the beginning. For a certain value of voltage, it
shows a sharp increase. The corresponding voltage represents the cut-in voltage of that diode.
[First quadrant of Graph 1]
Reverse V-I Characteristics :
V
+ –
R
p n
+
mA
–

(•) – +
K E
1. Make the connection as per the circuit diagram.
2. Insert the key. Arrange the sliding contact of the rheostat to maximum.
3. Move the sliding contact of the rheostat to provide a reverse bias voltage. Note the voltmeter and
micro ammeter readings.
4. Repeat the process by changing the reverse voltage in equal steps.
5. Initially the current increases slowly and then rapidly when the reverse voltage surpasses a certain
rd
value. This voltage is known as the reverse breakdown voltage. [IIII quadrant of Graph 1]

8.2 Characteristic curves of a Zener diode and finding reverse breakdown voltage.
When the applied reverse bias voltage (V) reaches the breakdown voltage (Vz) of the Zener diode, there
is a large change in the current. After the breakdown voltage Vz, a large change in the current can be
produced by almost insignificant change in the reverse bias voltage. In other words, zener voltage
remains constant, even though current through the zener diode varies over a wide range.
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A Zener diode having zener voltage VZ and power dissipation rating PZ is connected across a potential
divider arrangement with maximum potential VZ across it If the potential drop across the Zener diode
is Vz and the rest drops across the protective resistance then we get V = Vz + Iz Rp
PZ
Since Iz =
VZ
P 
⇒ V = VZ +  Z  RP
 RZ 
( V − VZ ) VZ
and RP =
PZ
Procedure :
VZ
– +
RP
IZ
p n –
µA
+

Rh

– (•)
+
E K
1. Note the least count of the given voltmeter and microammeter.
2. The voltmeter and microammeter should read zero with zero applied voltage. If not, then correct
the initial reading of the meter suitably.
3. The connections are made as per the circuit diagram. Take care that Zener diode is in reverse bias
mode and the terminal of the microammeter and voltmeter marked positive are connected to the
higher potential side of the power supply.
4. By adjusting the rheostat, voltmeter reading is increased from zero and in each time note the
corresponding reading in milliammeter.
5. The experiment is carried till the milliammeter shows a large deflection while the voltmeter reading
remains constant, indicating the break down voltage.
6. Plot the reverse characteristic curve by taking reverse voltage along -ve X-axis and reverse current
along -ve Y-axis.
–12 –10 V –8 –6 –4 –2 0
Z

V (V) –20
Zener
breakdown –40
–60
–80
–100

I (µA)

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Points to Ponder
• Zener Breakdown: In reverse bias, if doping is large and the reverse bias is increased further
beyond a certain limit, above particular high voltage, breakdown of depletion layer starts by itself.
Breakdown due to covalent breaking of depletion layer, termed as Zener breakdown (After the
discovery, C. Zener) and such a diode is Zener diode.
Zener diodes with different breakdown voltages (for regulations of different voltages) can obtained
by changing the doping concentration of its p and n sides. For high doping breakdown is low and
vice versa. In this type of p-n junction depletion layer is thin and diode does not damage
permanently.
• Avalanche Breakdown: If the doping concentrations of p and n sides are not as high as for the case
of zener diode. Such diodes will have relatively wider junction widths. At very high reverse bias,
already existing electrons and holes are accelerated in the junction field and may undergo many
collisions (like nuclear chain reaction) with the atoms in the crystal.
These new electron-hole pairs created by impact ionisation also get accelerated in the junction
field and collide further with the crystal atoms giving an increasing number of new electrons and
holes. This phenomenon is known as Avalanche breakdown and the device is referred to as
Avalanche diode. In this type of breakdown p-n junctions get damage permanently due to heating
effect due to abruptly increment of minorities during repetitive collisions.
• In junction diode the current flow is unidirectional as in vacuum diode.
• Current flows in the semiconductor diode when it is forward biased.
• Its P-part behaves like an anode and N-apart behaves like a cathode.

Exercise 1.5

1. The main cause of avalanche breakdown is- 4. The approximate ratio of resistances in the
(1) collision ionisation forward and reverse bias of the PN-junction
(2) high doping diode is -
2 –2
(3) recombination of electrons and holes (1) 10 : 1 (2) 10 : 1
–4 4
(4) none of these (3) 1 : 10 (4) 1 : 10

5. The dominant mechanisms for motion of

2. When reverse bias in a junction diode is charge carriers in forward and reverse biased
increased, the width of depletion layer - silicon P-N junctions are -
(1) increase (2) decreases (1) Drift in forward bias, diffusion in reverse bias
(3) does not changes (4) fluctuates (2) Diffusion in forward bias, drift in reverse bias
(3) Diffusion in both forward and reverse bias
(4) Drift in both forward and reverse bias
3. A semiconductor device is connected in a series
circuit with a battery and resistance. A current 6. For a reverse bias p-n junction
is found to pass through the circuit. If the (1) p region is positive and current is due to
polarity of the battery is reversed, the current electrons
drops almost to zero. The device may be - (2) p region is positive and the current is due
to holes
(1) A P-type semiconductor
(3) p region is negative and the current is
(2) An N-type semiconductor
due to electrons
(3) A PN-junction (4) p region is negative and the current is
(4) An intrinsic semiconductor due to both electrons and holes
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7. The resistance of a reverse biased p-n 11. Choose the correct option about the
junction diode is of the order of: breakdown voltage in a zener diode.
2
(1) 1 ohm (2) 10 ohm (1) It has constant value
3
(3) 10 ohm
6
(4) 10 ohm (2) It destroys the diode
(3) It decreases when electric current
8. On increasing the reverse bias to a large increases
value in p-n junction diode then value of (4) It equals the electric current times the
current- resistance
(1) remains fixed
(2) increases slowly 12. A zener diode (Vz = 6 V) is used to maintain a
(3) decreases slowly constant voltage across a load resistance
(4) suddenly increases RL(1000 Ω) by using a series resistance
Rs(100 Ω). If the emf of the source is 9 V, then
9. Choose the correct statement among the current flowing through load resistance
following. is:
(1) The current under reverse bias is almost (1) 6 mA (2) 3 mA
voltage independent upto critical reverse (3) 5 mA (4) 7 mA
bias voltage
(2) For diode in reverse bias, the potential 13. A zener diode is specified having a
barrier increases breakdown voltage of 8.1 V with a maximum
(3) For diode in forward bias, the potential power dissipation of 346 mW. The maximum
barrier reduces current that diode can handle is
(4) Ali of these (1) 34 mA (2) 42.7 mA
(3) 36.2 mA (4) 52.6 mA
10. Which of the following statement is correct
for p-n junction under the forward bias? 14. Choose the correct statement among the
(1) The forward current flowing in the circuit following
is of the order microampere (1) Zener diode is used for regulating
(2) The P-N junction provides high fluctuating voltage
resistance (2) At small value of reverse bias voltage
(3) After the threshold voltage the forward field ionisation takes place
current increases significantly (3) Zener diode is fabricated by lightly
(4) The current is due to minority charge doping both p and n-sides of junction
carrier (4) All of these

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Exercise 2

1. Carbon, silicon and germanium have four 5. Mobility of electrons in a semiconductor is

valence electrons each. At room temperature defined as the ratio of their drift velocity to
which one of the following statements is the applied electric field. If, for an n-type
most appropriate? semiconductor, the density of electrons is
19 –3 2
(1) The number of free conduction electrons 10 m and their mobility is 1.6 m /vs then
is negligible small in all the three. the resistivity of the semiconductor (since it
(2) The number of free electrons for is an n-type semiconductor, contribution of
conduction is significant in all the three. holes is ignored) is close to :
(3) The number of free electrons for (1) 2 Ωm (2) 0.4 Ωm
conduction is significant only in Si and (3) 4 Ωm (4) 0.2 Ωm
Ge but small in C.
(4) The number of free conduction electrons 6. In the energy band diagram of a material
is significant in C but small in Si and Ge shown below, the open circles and filled
circles denote holes and electrons
respectively. The material is-
2. Choose the only false statement from the
following-
EC
(1) The resistivity of a semiconductor
Eg
increases with increase in temperature
(2) Substances with energy gap of the order
of 10 eV are insulators
EV
(3) In conductors the valence and
conduction bands may overlap (1) an n-type semiconductor
(4) The conductivity of a semiconductor (2) a p-type semiconductor
increases with increases in temperature (3) an insulator
(4) a metal
3. Carbon, Silicon and Germanium atoms have
7. Which one of the following statement is
four valence electrons each. Their valence
FALSE?
and conduction bands are separated by
(1) Pure Si doped with trivalent impurities
energy band gaps represented by (Eg)C, (Eg)Si
gives a p-type semiconductor
and (Eg)Ge respectively. Which one of the (2) Majority carriers in an n-type
following relationships is true in their case- semiconductor are holes
(1) (Eg)C < (Eg)Ge (2) (Eg)C > (Eg)Si (3) Minority carriers in a p-type
(3) (Eg)C = (Eg)Si (4) (Eg)C < (Eg)Si semiconductor are electrons
(4) The resistance of intrinsic semiconductor
4. If the ratio of the concentration of electrons decreases with increase of temperature
to that of holes in a semiconductor is 7/5 and
the ratio of currents is 7/4, then what is the 8. In the middle of the depletion layer of reverse
biased p-n junction, the
ratio of their drift velocities?
(1) electric field is zero
(1) 4/7 (2) 5/8
(2) potential is maximum
(3) 4/5 (4) 5/4
(3) electric field is maximum
(4) potential is zero

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9. The circuit has two oppositely connected 13. The reading of the ammeter for a silicon
ideal diodes in parallel. What is the current diode in the given circuit is
flowing in the circuit? 200 Ω
4Ω D2 D1
12V A
3Ω 2Ω
+ –
(1) 1.33 A (2) 1.71 A 3V
(3) 2.00 A (4) 2.31 A (1) 15 mA (2) 11.5 mA
(3) 13.5 mA (4) 10 mA
10. Figure shows a circuit in which three identical
dioes are used. Each diode has forward
resistance of 20Ω and infinite backward 14. Ge and Si diodes start conducting at 0.3 V and
resistance. Resistors R1 = R2 = R3 = 50Ω. Battery 0.7 V respectively. In the following figure if
voltage is 6V. The current through R3 is: Ge diode connection are reversed, the value
of V0 changes by : (Assume that the Ge diode
D1 R1 has large breakdown voltage)
Ge
D2 D3 R2
+ – V0
6V R3
(1) 50 mA (2) 100 mA Si 5K
(3) 25 mA (4) 60 mA
11. In an unbiased n-p junction electrons diffuse
from n-region to p-region because:
(1) 0.6 V (2) 0.8 V
(1) holes in p-region attract them
(2) electrons travels across the junction due (3) 0.4 V (4) 0.2 V
to potential difference
(3) electron concentration in n-region is 15. The circuit shown below contains two ideal
more as compared to that in p-region diodes, each with a forward resistance of
(4) only electrons move from n to p region 50Ω. If the battery voltage is 6V, the current
and not the vice-versa.
through the 100 Ω resistance (in Amperes) is:
12. A 2 V battery is connected across AB as D1 150Ω
shown in figure. The value of the current
supplied by the battery when in one case 75Ω
battery’s positive terminal is connected to A
and in other case when positive terminal of D2
100Ω
battery is connected to B will respectively be:
6V
5Ω
(1) 0.027 (2) 0.020
D1 (3) 0.030 (4) 0.036
10Ω
16. Zener diode is used for-
D2
(1) rectification
(2) stabilization
AB
(1) 0.2 A and 0.1 A (2) 0.4 A and 0.2 A (3) amplification
(3) 0.1 A and 0.2 A (4) 0.2 A and 0.4 A (4) producing oscillations in an oscillator
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17. A zener diode is connected to a battery and a 21. Figure shown a DC voltage regulator circuit,
load as shown below: The currents I, IZ and IL with a Zener diode of breakdown voltage =
are respectively 6V. If the unregulated input voltage varies
R = 4 kΩ A IL between 10 V to 16 V, then what is the
maximum Zener current?
I IZ
RL = 2 kΩ
IS
60 V 10 V = VZ
RS = 2 kΩ
B
IL
(1) 15 mA, 5 mA, 10 mA
(2) 15 mA, 7.5 mA, 7.5 mA IZ
(3) 12.5 mA, 5 mA, 7.5 mA RL = 4 kΩ
(4) 12.5 mA, 7.5 mA, 5 mA

(1) 2.5 mA (2) 3.5 mA

18. In the given circuit the circuit through zener
(3) 7.5 mA (4) 1.5 mA
diode is

R1 500Ω 22. A p-n junction (D) shown in the figure can act
as a rectifier. An alternating current source
15V
1500Ω R2 VZ = 10V (V) is connected in the circuit.

(1) 3.3 mA (2) 2.5 mA D

R
(3) 5.5 mA (4) 6.7 mA V∼

19. In the given circuit the current through Zener

The current (I) in the resistor (R) can be
Diode is close to: (R1 = 500Ω & R2 = 1500Ω) shown by :
I R I
1 500Ω
I2 (1)
12V

IZ
I1
R2 1500Ω VZ = 10V R2 t
(1) 6.0 mA (2) 4.0 mA I
(3) 6.7 mA (4) 0.0 mA (2)

20. The reverse breakdown voltage of a Zener t

diode is 5.6 V in the given circuit. I
200 Ω (3)
IZ
800 Ω t
9V
I
The current ΙZ through the Zener is : (4)
(1) 7 mA (2) 17 mA
(3) 10 mA (4) 15 mA
t

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23. The electrical conductivity of a semiconductor 29. The logic circuit shown below has the input
increases when electromagnetic radiation of waveforms ‘A’ and ‘B’ as shown. Pick out the
wavelength shorter than 2480 nm is incident correct output waveform.
on it. The band gap for the semiconductor is A
Y
(1) 2.5 eV (2) 1.1 eV B
(3) 0.7 eV (4) 0.5 eV
Input A

24. A solid which is not transparent to visible

Input B
light and whose conductivity increases with
temperature is formed by
Output is :
(1) Metallic bonding
(2) Ionic bonding (1)
(3) Covalent bonding
(4) Vander waals’ bonding
(2)
25. For LED’s to emit light in visible region of
electromagnetic light, it should have energy
band gap in the range of:
(3)
(1) 0.1 eV to 0.4 eV (2) 0.5 eV to 0.8 eV
(3) 0.9 eV to 1.6 eV (4) 1 .7 eV to 3.0 eV (4)

26. A photo-cell employs photoelectric effect to

convert- 30. The combination of gates shown below yields
(1) Change in the frequency of light into a
A
change in electric voltage
X
(2) Change in the intensity of illumination
B
into a change in photoelectric current
(3) Change in the intensity of illumination (1) XOR gate (2) NAND gate
into a change in the work function of the (3) OR gate (4) NOT gate
photocathode
31. Truth table for system of four NAND gates as
(4) Change in the frequency of light into a
shown in figure is
change in the electric current
A
Y
27. A p-n photodiode is made of a material with a B
band gap of 2.0 eV. The minimum frequency A B C A B C
of the radiation that can be absorbed by the 0 0 0 0 0 1
material is nearly- (1) 0 1 0 (2) 0 1 1
14 14
(1) 1 × 10 Hz (2) 20 × 10 Hz 1 0 1 1 0 0
14 14
(3) 10 × 10 Hz (4) 5 × 10 Hz 1 1 1 1 1 0
A B C A B C
28. A p-n photodiode is fabricated from a
0 0 1 0 0 0
semiconductor with a band gap of 2.5 eV. It
(3) 0 1 0 (4) 0 1 1
can detect a signal of wavelength-
(1) 4000 Å (2) 6000 Å 1 0 0 1 0 1
(3) 4000 nm (4) 6000 nm 1 1 1 1 1 0

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32. A system of four gates is set up as shown. The 35. To get output ‘1’ at R, for the given logic gate
‘truth table’ corresponding to this system is :- circuit the input values must be-
A X
P R
Y
Q

B (1) x = 0, y = 1 (2) x = 1, y = 1
A B Y A B Y (3) x = 0, y = 0 (4) x = 1, y = 0
0 0 0 0 0 1
36. The following figure shows a logic gate
(1) 0 1 0 (2) 0 1 1
circuit with two inputs A and B and the
1 0 1 1 0 0
output C. The voltage waveforms of A, B and
1 1 0 1 1 0 C are as shown below-
A B Y A B Y A logic gate
circuit C
1 0 0 0 0 1 B
(3) 0 1 0 (4) 0 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 0 0
A t
0 0 1 1 1 1
1
33. Identify the gate and match A, B, Y in bracket
B t
to check
A AB 1
Y
B
(1) AND (A =1, B = 1, Y =1) C t
(2) OR (A = 1, B = 1, Y = 0) The logic circuit gate is-
(3) NOT (A = 1, B = 1, Y = 1) (1) AND gate (2) NAND gate
(4) XOR (A = 0, B = 0, Y = 0) (3) NOR gate (4) OR gate

34. Truth table for the given circuit will be 37. In the following circuit, the output Y for all
x possible inputs A and B is expressed by the
truth table-
z
A
Y
B
y
x y z x y z A B Y A B Y
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
(1) 0 1 1 (2) 0 1 0 (1) 0 1 1 (2) 0 1 0
1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0
1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

x y z x y z A B Y A B Y
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1
(3) 0 1 1 (4) 0 1 1 (3) 0 1 1 (4) 0 1 0
1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0

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38. The circuit as shown in figure is equivalent to 40. The following figure shows a logic gate
circuit with two inputs A and B the output Y.
` The voltage waveforms of A, B and Y are as
(1) NOR gate (2) OR gate given–
(3) AND gate (4) NAND gate logic gate
circuit
39. To get an output Y = 1 from the circuit shown A1
0
below, the input must be – 1
B0
A 1
B Y0
Y
C The logic gate is –
A B C (1) OR gate
(1) 0 1 0 (2) AND gate
(2) 0 0 1 (3) NAND gate
(3) 1 0 1 (4) NOR gate
(4) 1 0 0

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Exercise 3

For Questions (1 to 11) 5. Assertion: Photodiodes are preferred to be

Read the Assertion and Reason carefully and used in reverse bias.
mark the correct options. Reason: When we are detecting change in
(A) Both Assertion and Reason are true and intensity of light based on change in diode
Reason is the correct explanation of current, it is easily detectable in reverse bias
Assertion. operation.
(1) A (2) B
(B) Both Assertion and Reason are true but
(3) C (4) D
Reason is not correct explanation of
Assertion. 6. Assertion: GaAs is preferred for making solar
(C) Assertion is true but Reason is false. panels.
(D) Assertion and Reason are false. Reason: ∆Eg for GaAs is 1.5 eV and sun's
radiation has highest intensity around this
1. Assertion: In solid each electron will have a energy level.
different energy level. (1) A (2) B
Reason:- In solid crystal each electron has a (3) C (4) D
unique position and no two electrons see
exactly the same pattern of surrounding 7. Assertion: In a N-type semiconductor, the
charges. number of holes get reduced.
Reason: Rate of recombination of holes
(1) A (2) B
would increase due to the increase in the
(3) C (4) D
number of electrons
(1) A (2) B
2. Assertion: Current in semiconductor (3) C (4) D
material is sum of current due to free
electrons and current due to holes. 8. Assertion: Avalanche breakdown dominates
Reason: When we apply potential difference when the doping concentration is high and
across semiconductor free electrons and depletion layer is thin.
holes move in same direction. Reason : Zener breakdown occurs due to the
(1) A (2) B collision of minority charge carriers.
(3) C (4) D (1) A (2) B
(3) C (4) D
3. Assertion: In a semiconductor, the 9. Assertion: The resistivity of a semiconductor
conduction electrons have a higher mobility increases with temperature.
than holes. Reason: The atoms of a semiconductor
Reason: Mass of electron is less than vibrate with larger amplitude at higher
effective mass of hole. temperatures thereby increasing its
(1) A (2) B resistivity.
(3) C (4) D (1) A (2) B
(3) C (4) D
4. Assertion: The semiconductor used for
10. Assertion: NAND or NOR gates are called
fabrication of visible LED must at least have
digital building blocks.
a band gap of 1.8eV.
Reason : The repeated use of NAND or NOR
Reason: The spectral range of visible light is
gates can produce all the basic or complex
from 0.4 eV to 1.8 eV. gates.
(1) A (2) B (1) A (2) B
(3) C (4) D (3) C (4) D
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11. Assertion : To get a steady dc output from the 16. Match the statements of column A with those
pulsating voltage received from a full wave of column B.
rectifier we can connect a capacitor across Column A Column B
the output parallel to the load RL. (P) Voltage (A) Diode
Reason : To get a steady dc output from the regulation
pulsating voltage received from a full wave
(Q) Rectifier (B) Pentavalent dopant
rectifier we can connect an inductor in series
(R) Phosphorus (C) Trivalent dopant
with RL.
(S) Indium (D) Zener diode
(1) A (2) B
(3) C (4) D (1) P → D; Q → B; R → C; S → A
(2) P → D; Q → C; R → B; S → A
For Questions (12 to 15) Multiple options (3) P → D; Q → A; R → B; S → C
are correct: (4) P → C; Q → D; R → A; S → B

12. In a p – n junction diode not connected to any 17. Match the following
circuit,
(a) p-type (1) Pure
(1) The potential is the same everywhere
semiconductor semiconductor
(2) The p -type side is at a lower potential
than the n type side (b) Intrinsic (2) Doped
(3) There is an electric field at the junction semiconductor semiconductor
directed from the n-type side to the (c) Extrinsic (3) Majority
p-type side semiconductor carriers are
(4) There is an electric field at the junction electrons
directed from the p-type side to the (d) n-type (4) Majority
n-type side semiconductor carriers are
holes
13. The impurity atoms with which pure silicon
(1) a-3, b-2, c-4, d-1 (2) a-1, b-2, c-4, d-3
should be doped to make a p-type
semiconductor are those of (3) a-4, b-1, c-2, d-3 (4) a-2, b-1, c-4, d-3
(1) phosphorus (2) boron
(3) antimony (4) aluminium 18. Match the statements of Column A with
those of Column B.
14. Holes are charge carriers in Column A Column B
(1) intrinsic semiconductors (P) Detect optical (A) Light emitting
(2) ionic solids signals diode
(3) p-type semiconductors (Q) Convert electrical (B) Solar cell
(4) metals
energy into light
(R) Convert optical (C) Capacitor
15. Which one of the following statements is
correct in the case of light emitting diodes? radiation into
(1) It is a heavily doped p-n junction. electricity
(2) It emits light only when it is forward (S) Filter circuit (D) Photo
biased. element diode
(3) It emits light only when it is reverse (1) P → D; Q → B; R → C; S → A
biased. (2) P → D; Q → C; R → B; S → A
(4) The energy of the light emitted is equal to
(3) P → D; Q → A; R → B; S → C
or slightly less than the energy gap of the
semiconductor used. (4) P → C; Q → D; R → A; S → B

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Exercise 4 (Previous Year's Questions)

1. The given graph represents V-I characteristic 4. Consider the junction diode as ideal. The
for a semiconductor device. [AIPMT_2014] value of current flowing through AB is:
[AIPMT_2016]
I A 1kΩ
A
+4V –6V
V
B (1) 0 A
–2
(2) 10 A
–1 –3
Which of the following statement is correct? (3) 10 A (4) 10 A
(1) It is V-I characteristic for solar cell
where, point A represents open circuit 5. The given electrical network is equivalent to:
voltage and point B short circuit current. [NEET_2017]
(2) It is for a solar cell and the point A and B A
Y
represents open circuit voltage and B
current, respectively. (1) AND gate (2) OR gate
(3) It is for photodiode and points A and B (3) NOR gate (4) NOT gate
represents open circuit voltage and
current respectively. 6. Which one of the following represents
(4) If is for a LED and points A and B forward bias diode? [NEET_2017]
represents open circuit voltage and short 0V R –2V
(1)
circuit current, respectively.
R
(2) –4V –3V

2. The barrier potential of a p-n junction R

(3) –2V +2V
depends on: [AIPMT_2014]
R
(a) type of semi conductor material (4) 3V 5V
(b) amount of doping
(c) temperature 7. In the combination of the following gates the
(1) (a) and (b) only (2) (b) only output Y can be written in terms of input A
(3) (b) and (c) only (4) (a), (b) and (c) and B as [NEET_2018]
A
3. Which logic gate is represented by the B
following combination of logic gates? Y
[AIPMT_2015]
Y1
A (1) A ⋅ B (2) A ⋅ B + A ⋅ B
(3) A ⋅ B + A ⋅ B (4) A + B
Y
8. In a P-N junction diode, change in
B
Y2 temperature due to heating [NEET_2018]
(1) NAND (1) affects only reverse resistance
(2) AND (2) affects only forward resistance
(3) NOR (3) does not affect resistance of p-n junction
(4) affects the overall V-I characteristics of
(4) OR
p-n junction
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9. The correct Boolean operation represented 12. For the logic circuit shown, the truth table is:
by the circuit diagram drawn is[NEET_2019] [NEET_2020]
+6V A
0 R Y
B
A1 LED (Y)
A B Y A B Y
0 R
0 0 1 0 0 1
B1
(1) 0 1 1 (2) 0 1 0
1 0 1 1 0 0
(1) NAND 1 1 0 1 1 0
(2) NOR A B Y A B Y
(3) AND 0 0 0 0 0 0
(4) OR (3) 0 1 0 (4) 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 0 1
10. For a p-type semiconductor, which of the 1 1 1 1 1 1
following statements is true? [NEET_2019]
(1) Holes are the majority carriers and 13. The solids which have the negative
pentavalent atoms are the dopants. temperature coefficient of resistance are:
[NEET_2020]
(2) Electrons are the majority carriers and
(1) semiconductors only
pentavalent atoms are the dopants. (2) insulators and semiconductors
(3) Electrons are the majority carriers and (3) metals
trivalent atoms are the dopants. (4) insulators only
(4) Holes are the majority carriers and
14. The increase in the width of the depletion
trivalent atoms are the dopants. region in a p-n junction diode is due to:
[NEET_2019]
11. The circuit diagram shown here corresponds (1) both forward bias and reverse bias
to the logic gate. [NEET_2019] (2) increase in forward current
(3) forward bias only
+6V
(4) reverse bias only
0 R
A 15. Out of the following which is a forward
1 biased diode? [NEET_2020(Covid)]
0 –4V
B (1) –2V
1 2V
(2) 5V
LED(Y)
–2V
(3) +2V
R
0V
(4) –3V
(1) NOR
(2) AND 16. Which of the following gate is called
(3) OR universal gate? [NEET_2020(Covid)]
(4) NAND (1) OR gate (2) AND gate
(3) NAND gate (4) NOT gate

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17. An intrinsic semiconductor is converted into 20. Consider the following statements (A) and
n-type extrinsic semiconductor by doping it (B) and identify the correct answer.
(A) A zener diode is connected in reverse
with :- [NEET_2020(Covid)]
bias, when used as a voltage regulator.
(1) Phosphorous (2) Aluminium (B) The potential barrier of p-n junction lies
(3) Silver (4) Germanium between 0.1 V to 0.3 V. [NEET_2021]
(1) (A) and (B) both are correct.
18. The electron concentration in an n-type (2) (A) and (B) both are incorrect.
(3) (A) is correct and (B) is incorrect.
semiconductor is the same as hole (4) (A) is incorrect but (B) is correct.
concentration in a p-type semiconductor. An
external field (electric)is applied across each P N P N
of them. Compare the currents in them. 21.
[NEET_2021]
(1) current in n-type = current in p-type (a)
(2) current in p-type > current in n-type
P N N P
(3) current in n-type > current in p-type
(4) No current will flow in p-type, current
will only flow in n-type
(b)
19. For the given circuit, the input digital signals
are applied at the terminals A, B and C. What N P N P
would be the output at the terminal y?
[NEET_2021]
t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 t6 (c)
5
A In the given circuits (a), (b) and (c), the
0
potential drop across the two p-n junctions
5 are equal in: [NEET_2022]
B (1) Circuit (a) only (2) Circuit (b) only
0
(3) Circuit (c) only (4) Both circuits (a) & (c)

5 A
C 22.
0
C
A

B
B The truth table for the given logic circuit is:
y
[NEET_2022]
A B C A B C
C 0 0 0 0 0 1
t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 t6
(1) 0 1 1 (2) 0 1 0
(1) y 1 0 1 1 0 0
0V 1 1 0 1 1 1
5V
(2) A B C A B C
0V
0 0 1 0 0 0
(3) 5V
(3) 0 1 0 (4) 0 1 1
5V 1 0 1 1 0 0
(4)
0V 1 1 0 1 1 1
248 Sarvam Career Institute
Semiconductor and Digital Electronic PHYSICS
23. Given below are two statements: 26. On the basis of electrical conductivity, which
Statement I : Photovoltaic devices can one of the following material has the
convert optical radiation into electricity. smallest resistivity? [NEET_2023(Manipur)]
Statement II : Zener diode is designed to (1) Germanium
operate under reverse bias in breakdown (2) Silver
region. [NEET_2023] (3) Glass
(4) Silicon
In the light of the above statements, choose
the most appropriate answer from the
27. A p-type extrinsic semiconductor is obtained
options given below:
when Germanium is doped with:
(1) Both Statement I and Statement II are [NEET_2023(Manipur)]
correct · (1) Antimony
(2) Both Statement I and Statement II are (2) Phosphorous
incorrect. (3) Arsenic
(3) Statement I is correct but Statement II is (4) Boron
incorrect.
(4) Statement I is incorrect but Statement II 28. The given circuit is equivalent to:
is correct. [NEET_2023(Manipur)]
A
24. A full wave rectifier circuit consists of two p-n Y
junction diodes, a centre-tapped transformer, B
capacitor and a load resistance. Which of
A
these components remove the ac ripple from (1) Y
the rectified output? [NEET_2023] B
(1) A centre-tapped transformer A
(2) Y
(2) p-n junction diodes B
(3) Capacitor
(4) Load resistance A
(3) Y
B
25. For the following logic circuit, the truth table
is: [NEET_2023] A
(4) B Y
A

Y
29. A logic circuit provides the output Y as per
B
the following truth table: [NEET_2024]
A B Y A B Y
A B Y
0 0 1 0 0 0
0 0 1
(1) 0 1 1 (2) 0 1 1
0 1 0
1 0 1 1 0 1
1 0 1
1 1 0 1 1 1
1 1 0
A B Y A B Y The expression for the output Y is:
0 0 1 0 0 0 (1) B
(3) 0 1 0 (4) 0 1 0 (2) B
1 0 1 1 0 0 (3) A.B + A
1 1 0 1 1 1 (4) A.B + A

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 PHYSICS Semiconductor and Digital Electronic
30. Choose the correct circuit which can achieve 32. The output (Y) of the given logic gate is
the bridge balance. [NEET-2024] similar to the output of an/a: [NEET_2024]
A
G Y
D
(1) B

(1) OR gate
E K (2) AND gate
(3) NAND gate
(4) NOR gate
G
D
(2) V(volt)
33.

E K I(mA) I(mA)
0
The I-V characteristics shown above are
G exhibited by a [Re-NEET_2024]
D (1) Light emitting diode
(3)
(2) Zener diode
(3) Photodiode
E K
(4) Solar cell

G 34. When the output of an OR gate is applied as

D input to a NOT gate, then the combination
(4)
acts as a [Re-NEET_2024]
(1) NAND gate
E K (2) NOR gate
31. Consider the following statements A and B (3) AND gate
and identify the correct answer: (4) OR gate
I
(II) (I) 35. The output Y for the inputs A and B of the
V given logic circuit is : [Re-NEET_2024]
(III) (IV)
A
A. For a solar-cell, the I-V characteristics
lies in the IV quadrant of the given graph. Y
B. In a reverse biased pn junction diode, the
B
current measured in (µA), is due to
majority charge carriers. [NEET-2024] (1) A · B
(1) A is correct but B is incorrect
(2) A ⋅ B
(2) A is incorrect but B is correct
(3) Both A and B are correct (3) A + B
(4) Both A and B are incorrect (4) A + B
250 Sarvam Career Institute
Semiconductor and Digital Electronic PHYSICS
ANSWER KEYS

Exercise 1.1
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
Ans. 2 2 2 2 2 4 3 4 2 3 2 3 2 3 1 3 2 3 4

Exercise 1.2
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 1 3 4 1 3 2 2 2 4 1 1 4 1 4 2 3 1 1 2 1
Que. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Ans. 4 1 1 1 1 2 4 1 4 3

Exercise 1.3
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
Ans. 2 2 4 2 1 2 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 1 4 4 4

Exercise 1.4
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 1 3 4 4 3 1 3 4 1 4 2 1 3 4 2 1 3 1 3 4
Que. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27
Ans. 3 3 1 3 3 1 4

Exercise 1.5
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Ans. 1 1 3 4 2 4 4 4 4 3 1 1 2 1

Exercise 2
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 3 1 2 4 2 2 2 3 3 1 3 2 2 3 2 2 4 1 4 3
Que. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 2 3 4 3 4 2 4 1 1 3 4 4 1 3 4 1 1 1 3 3

Exercise 3
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Ans. 1 3 2 3 1 1 1 4 4 1 2 2,3 2,4 1,3 1,2,4 3 3 3

Exercise 4 (Previous Year's Questions)

Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 1 4 2 2 3 1 2 4 1 4 1 3 2 4 4 3 1 3 3 3
Que. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35
Ans. 4 3 1 3 2 2 4 4 1 1 1 2 4 2 3

Sarvam Career Institute 251

 Notes

Sarvam Career Institute