Head to savemyexams.co.

uk for more awesome resources

YOUR NOTES
A Level Physics CIE 

25. Astronomy & Cosmology

CONTENTS
25.1 Astronomy
25.1.1 Luminosity & Radiant Flux
25.1.2 Standard Candles & Stellar Distances
25.1.3 Wien's Displacement Law
25.1.4 Stefan-Boltzmann Law & Stellar Radii
25.2 Cosmology
25.2.1 Emission Spectra
25.2.2 Doppler Redshift
25.2.3 Hubble's Law & the Big Bang Theory

Page 1 of 21

© 2015-2023 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
 Head to savemyexams.co.uk for more awesome resources

25.1 Astronomy YOUR NOTES


25.1.1 Luminosity & Radiant Flux

Defining Luminosity
Luminosity L is defined as:
The total power output of radiation emitted by a star
It is measured in units of Watts (W)
Radiant flux intensity F is defined as:
The observed amount of intensity, or the radiant power transmitted normally
through a surface per unit of area, of radiation measured on Earth
The best way to picture this is:
The luminosity is the total radiation that leaves the star
The radiant flux intensity is the amount of radiation measured on Earth
By the time the radiation reaches the Earth, it will have spread out a great deal,
therefore, it will only be a fraction of the value of the luminosity

The luminosity is the total power output of the star, whereas the radiant flux is what is
measured on Earth

Page 2 of 21

© 2015-2023 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
 Head to savemyexams.co.uk for more awesome resources

Inverse Square Law of Flux YOUR NOTES

Light sources which are further away appear fainter because the light it emits is spread out 
over a greater area
The moment the light leaves the surface of the star, it begins to spread out uniformly
through a spherical shell
The surface area of a sphere is equal to 4πr2
The radius r of this sphere is equal to the distance d between the star and the Earth
By the time the radiation reaches the Earth, it has been spread over an area of 4πd2
The inverse square law of flux can therefore be calculated using:

Where:
F = radiant flux intensity, or observed intensity on Earth (W m-2)
L = luminosity of the source (W)
d = distance between the star and the Earth (m)
This equation assumes:
The power from the star radiates uniformly through space
No radiation is absorbed between the star and the Earth
This equation tells us:
For a given star, the luminosity is constant
The radiant flux follows an inverse square law
The greater the radiant flux (larger F) measured, the closer the star is to the Earth
(smaller d)

Inverse square law; when the light is twice as far away, it has spread over four times the area,
hence the intensity is four times smaller

Page 3 of 21

© 2015-2023 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
 Head to savemyexams.co.uk for more awesome resources

YOUR NOTES
 Worked Example

A star has a luminosity that is known to be 4.8 × 1029 W. A scientist observing this
star finds that the radiant flux intensity of light received on Earth from the star is 2.6
nW m–2Determine the distance of the star from Earth.

Step 1: Write down the known quantities

Luminosity, L = 4.8 × 1029 W
Radiant flux intensity, F = 2.6 nW m–2 = 2.6 × 10–9 W m–2
Step 2: Write down the inverse square law of flux

Step 3: Rearrange for distance d, and calculate

Page 4 of 21

© 2015-2023 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
 Head to savemyexams.co.uk for more awesome resources

25.1.2 Standard Candles & Stellar Distances YOUR NOTES


Standard Candles
A standard candle is defined as:
An astronomical object which has a known luminosity due to a characteristic quality
possessed by that class of object
Examples of standard candles are:
Cepheid variable stars
A type of pulsating star which increases and decreases in brightness over a set time
period
This variation has a well defined relationship to the luminosity
Type 1a supernovae
A supernova explosion involving a white dwarf
The luminosity at the time of the explosion is always the same

Page 5 of 21

© 2015-2023 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
 Head to savemyexams.co.uk for more awesome resources

Using Standard Candles as a Distance Indicator YOUR NOTES

Measuring astronomical distances accurately is an extremely difficult task 
A direct distance measurement is only possible if the object is close enough to the Earth
For more distant objects, indirect methods must be used - this is where standard candles
come in useful
If the luminosity of a source is known, then the distance can be estimated based on how
bright it appears from Earth
Astronomers measure the radiant flux intensity, of the electromagnetic radiation
arriving at the Earth
Since the luminosity is known (as the object is a standard candle), the distance can be
calculated using the inverse square law of flux
Each standard candle method can measure distances within a certain range
Collating the data and measurements from each method allows astronomers to build up a
larger picture of the scale of the universe
This is known as the cosmic distance ladder

Page 6 of 21

© 2015-2023 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
 Head to savemyexams.co.uk for more awesome resources

YOUR NOTES


Page 7 of 21

© 2015-2023 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
 Head to savemyexams.co.uk for more awesome resources

YOUR NOTES


A combination of methods involving standard candles allows astronomers to build up a

cosmic distance ladder from nearby stars to distant galaxies

Page 8 of 21

© 2015-2023 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
 Head to savemyexams.co.uk for more awesome resources

25.1.3 Wien's Displacement Law YOUR NOTES


Wien's Displacement Law
Wien’s displacement law relates the observed wavelength of light from a star to its surface
temperature, it states:
The black body radiation curve for different temperatures peaks at a wavelength
which is inversely proportional to the temperature
This relation can be written as:

λmax is the maximum wavelength emitted by the star at the peak intensity
A black-body is an object which:
Absorbs all the radiation that falls on it, and is also a good emitter
Does not reflect or transmit any radiation
A black-body is a theoretical object, however, stars are the best approximation there is
The radiation emitted from a black-body has a characteristic spectrum that is determined
by the temperature alone

The intensity-wavelength graph shows how thermodynamic temperature links to the peak
wavelength for four different stars
The full equation for Wien's Law is given by
λmaxT = 2.9 × 10−3 m K

Page 9 of 21

© 2015-2023 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
 Head to savemyexams.co.uk for more awesome resources

Where: YOUR NOTES

λmax = peak wavelength of the star (m)

T = thermodynamic temperature at the surface of the star (K)
This equation tells us the higher the temperature of a body:
The shorter the wavelength at the peak intensity, so hotter stars tend to be white or
blue and cooler stars tend to be red or yellow
The greater the intensity of the radiation at each wavelength
Table to compare surface temperature and star colour

 Worked Example
The spectrum of the star Rigel in the constellation of Orion peaks at a wavelength of
263 nm, while the spectrum of the star Betelgeuse peaks at a wavelength of 828
nm.Which of these two stars is cooler, Betelgeuse or Rigel?

Step 1: Write down Wien’s displacement law

λmaxT = 2.9 × 10-3 m K

Step 2: Rearrange for temperature T

Step 3: Calculate the surface temperature of each star

Page 10 of 21

© 2015-2023 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
 Head to savemyexams.co.uk for more awesome resources

Step 4: Write a concluding sentence YOUR NOTES

Betelgeuse has a surface temperature of 3500 K, therefore, it is much cooler than Rigel 

The Orion Constellation; cooler stars, such as Betelguese, appear red or yellow, while hotter
stars, such as Rigel, appear white or blue

 Exam Tip
Note that the temperature used in Wien’s Law is in Kelvin (K). Remember to convert
from oC if the temperature is given in degrees in the question before using the Wien’s
Law equation.

Page 11 of 21

© 2015-2023 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
 Head to savemyexams.co.uk for more awesome resources

25.1.4 Stefan-Boltzmann Law & Stellar Radii YOUR NOTES


Stefan-Boltzmann Law
A star’s luminosity depends on two factors:
Its surface temperature
Its radius
The relationship between these is known as the Stefan-Boltzmann Law, which states:
The total energy emitted by a black body per unit area per second is proportional
to the fourth power of the absolute temperature of the body
It is equal to:
L = 4πr2σT4
Where:
L = luminosity of the star (W)
r = radius of the star (m)
σ = the Stefan-Boltzmann constant
T = surface temperature of the star (K)

Page 12 of 21

© 2015-2023 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
 Head to savemyexams.co.uk for more awesome resources

Estimating the Radius of Stars YOUR NOTES

The radius of a star can be estimated by combining Wien’s displacement law and the 
Stefan–Boltzmann law
The procedure for this is as follows:
Using Wien’s displacement law to find the surface temperature of the star
Using the inverse square law of flux equation to find the luminosity of the star (if given
the radiant flux and stellar distance)
Then, using the Stefan-Boltzmann law, the stellar radius can be obtained

 Worked Example
Betelguese is our nearest red giant star. It has a luminosity of 4.49 × 1031 W and
emits radiation with a peak wavelength of 850 nm.Calculate the ratio of the radius
of Betelgeuse rB to the radius of the Sun rs.Radius of the sun rs = 6.95 × 108 m.

Step 1: Write down Wien’s displacement law

λmaxT = 2.9 × 10-3 m K

Page 13 of 21

© 2015-2023 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
 Head to savemyexams.co.uk for more awesome resources

Step 2: Rearrange Wien’s displacement law to find the surface temperature of YOUR NOTES
Betelguese 

Step 3: Write down the Stefan-Boltzmann law

L = 4πr2σT4
Step 4: Rearrange for r and calculate the stellar radius of Betelguese

Step 5: Calculate the ratio rB / rs

Therefore, the radius of Betelguese is about 1000 times larger than the Sun’s radius

Page 14 of 21

© 2015-2023 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
 Head to savemyexams.co.uk for more awesome resources

25.2 Cosmology YOUR NOTES


25.2.1 Emission Spectra

Emission Spectra
Astronomers are very limited in how they can investigate objects in the space
All of the techniques used involve analysing the light emitted from the star, or galaxy
One of these techniques involves analysing the emission and absorption spectra of stars
More details on this can be found in the revision notes “Line Spectra” in the
Quantisation of Energy topic
Elements in the star, predominantly hydrogen and helium, absorb some of the emitted
wavelengths
Therefore, characteristic lines are present when the spectrum is analysed

The top emission spectra shows spectral lines of hydrogen measured on Earth
The bottom emission spectra shows the shifted spectral lines of hydrogen measured from a
distant galaxy
When astronomers observe light from distant galaxies, they observe differences in the
spectral lines to the light from the Sun
The lines have the same characteristic pattern, meaning the element can still be easily
identified, they just appear to be shifted sightly
The lines in the spectra from distant galaxies show an increase in wavelength
The lines are moved, or shifted, towards the red end of the spectrum

Page 15 of 21

© 2015-2023 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
 Head to savemyexams.co.uk for more awesome resources

25.2.2 Doppler Redshift YOUR NOTES


Redshift of EM Radiation
Recall the Doppler effect is defined as:
The apparent change in wavelength or frequency of the radiation from a source due
to its relative motion away from or toward the observer
On Earth, the Doppler effect of sound can be easily observed when sound waves moves
past an observer at a notable speed
In space, the Doppler effect of light can observed when spectra of distant stars and
galaxies are observed, this is known as:
Redshift if the object is moving away from the Earth, or
Blueshift if the object is moving towards the Earth
Redshift is defined as:
The fractional increase in wavelength (or decrease in frequency) due to the source
and observer receding from each other
For non-relativistic galaxies, Doppler redshift can be calculated using:

Where:
Δλ = shift in wavelength (m)
λ = wavelength emitted from the source (m)
Δf = shift in frequency (Hz)
f = frequency emitted from the source (Hz)
v = speed of recession (m s-1)
c = speed of light in a vacuum (m s-1)

Page 16 of 21

© 2015-2023 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
 Head to savemyexams.co.uk for more awesome resources

YOUR NOTES
 Worked Example

The spectra below show dark absorption lines against a continuous visible
spectrum.

A particle line in the spectrum of light from a source in the laboratory has a
frequency of 4.570 × 1014 Hz. The same line in the spectrum of light from a distant
galaxy has a frequency of 4.547 × 1014 Hz. What speed is the distance galaxy
moving in relation to the Earth? Is it moving towards or away from the Earth?

Step 1: Write down the known quantities

Emitted frequency, f = 4.570 × 1014 Hz
Shift in frequency, Δf = (4.547 – 4.570) × 1014 = –2.3 × 1012 Hz
Speed of light, c = 3.0 × 108 m s–1
Step 2: Write down the Doppler redshift equation

Step 3: Rearrange for speed v, and calculate

Step 4: Write a concluding sentence

The observed frequency is less than the emitted frequency (the light from a
laboratory source), therefore, the source is receding, or moving away, from the
Earth at 1.5 × 106 m s–1

 Exam Tip
In your exam, be sure to emphasise that redshift means the wavelength of spectral
lines increases towards the red end of the spectrum, do not say that the spectral
lines become red, as this is incorrect.

Page 17 of 21

© 2015-2023 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
 Head to savemyexams.co.uk for more awesome resources

An Expanding Universe YOUR NOTES

After the discovery of Doppler redshift, astronomers began to realise that almost all the 
galaxies in the universe are receding
This lead to the idea that the space between the Earth and the galaxies must be expanding
This expansion stretches out the light waves as they travel through space, shifting them
towards the red end of the spectrum
The more red-shifted the light from a galaxy is, the faster the galaxy is moving away from
Earth

A balloon inflating is similar to the stretching of the space between galaxies

The expansion of the universe can be compared to dots on an inflating balloon
As the balloon is inflated, the dots all move away from each other
In the same way as the rubber stretches when the balloon is inflated, space itself is
stretching out between galaxies
Just like the dots, the galaxies move away from each other, however, they themselves
do not move

Page 18 of 21

© 2015-2023 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
 Head to savemyexams.co.uk for more awesome resources

25.2.3 Hubble's Law & the Big Bang Theory YOUR NOTES

Hubble's Law & the Big Bang Theory
Edwin Hubble investigated the light spectra emitted from a large number of galaxies
He used redshift data to determine the recession velocities of these galaxies, and standard
candles to determine the distances
From these measurements, he formulated a relationship, now known as Hubble’s Law
Hubble’s Law states:
The recession speed of galaxies moving away from Earth is proportional to their
distance from the Earth
This can be calculated using:
v = H 0d
Where:
v = the galaxy's recessional velocity (m s-1)
d = distance between the galaxy and Earth (m)
H0 = Hubble's constant, or the rate of expansion of the universe (s-1)
This equation tells us:
The further away a galaxy, the faster it’s recession velocity
The gradient of a graph of recession velocity against distance is equal to the Hubble
constant

A key aspect of Hubble’s law is that the furthest galaxies appear to move away the fastest
Age of the Universe
If the galaxies are moving away from each other, then they must’ve started from the same
point at some time in the past
Page 19 of 21

© 2015-2023 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
 Head to savemyexams.co.uk for more awesome resources

If this is true, the universe likely began in an extremely hot, dense singular point which YOUR NOTES
subsequently began to expand very quickly 
This idea is known as the Big Bang theory
Redshift of galaxies and the expansion of the universe are now some of the most prominent
pieces of evidence to suggest this theory is true
The data from Hubble’s law can be extrapolated back to the point that the universe started
expanding ie. the beginning of the universe
Therefore, the age of the universe T0 is equal to:

Current estimates of the age of the universe range from 13 - 14 billion years
There is still some discussion about the exact age of the universe, therefore, obtaining
accurate measurements for the Hubble constant is a top priority for cosmologists

Tracing the expansion of the universe back to the beginning of time leads to the idea the
universe began with a “big bang”

 Worked Example
A galaxy is found to be moving away with a speed of 2.1 × 107 m s-1. The galaxy is at a
distance of 9.5 × 1024 m from Earth.Assuming the speed has remained constant,
what is the age of the universe in years?

Page 20 of 21

© 2015-2023 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
 Head to savemyexams.co.uk for more awesome resources

Step 1: Write down Hubble’s Law YOUR NOTES

v = H 0d 

Step 2: Rearrange for the Hubble constant H0, and calculate

Step 3: Write the equation for the age of the universe T0, and calculate

Step 4: Convert from seconds into years

Therefore, the age of the universe is estimated to be about 14.3 billion years

Page 21 of 21

© 2015-2023 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers