Module 5

Magnetic Materials
(Basic Definitions in Magnetism)
 Magnetic Dipoles

Magnetic dipoles are found to exist in

magnetic materials (which are similar to
electric dipoles in a dielectric material)

Magnetic dipoles may be thought of as

small bar magnets composed of north
and south poles instead of positive and
negative electric charges
Magnetic Dipoles

Magnetic dipoles are influenced by

magnetic fields (similar to electric
dipoles are affected by electric fields)

Magnetic field exerts a torque that

tends to orient the dipoles with the
field

A magnetic compass needle lines up

with the earth’s magnetic field
 Magnetic Dipole Moment

The strength of a magnetic dipole is called magnetic dipole moment

A measure of a magnetic dipole’s ability to get aligned with the applied

external magnetic field (Magnetic Dipole Moment)

Magnetic Dipole Moments can be found in

❖ A loop of electric current
❖ A bar magnet
❖ An electron
❖ A molecule
 Magnetic Moment = Current  Area

M=I  A
Unit : Amp  m 2

Magnetic Moment = Pole Strength  Length

M=m  
 Magnetic Dipoles
Macroscopic Magnetic Dipoles Microscopic Magnetic Dipoles

Magnetic Compass Needle

The sum of these effects in an atom

may cancel (no magnetic dipole
moment in that atom) or may not
fully cancel (atom has a permanent
Bar Magnet magnetic dipole moment)
 Origins of Magnetic Moments
The macroscopic magnetic properties of materials are a consequence of
magnetic moments associated with individual electrons

Each electron in an atom has magnetic moments that originate from two sources
(a) An orbiting electron
(Only a moving charged particle can produce a
(b) A spinning electron magnetic field)
 Origins of Magnetic Moments
(a) An orbiting electron
Electron’s orbital motion around the nucleus Electron is considered
as a moving charge (a small current loop), generating a very small
magnetic field
Magnetic moment is along the axis of rotation
 Origins of Magnetic Moments

(b) A spinning electron

Each electron is thought to be spinning around an axis
Magnetic moment originates from this electron spin which is directed
along the spin axis
(Spin magnetic moments may be only in an “up” direction or in an
anti-parallel “down” direction)
 Magnetic Field

Magnetic field produced by a magnet is proportional to its

magnetic moment
The space around which the magnetic lines of forces
exist is called as Magnetic Field

Magnetic field is produced by permanent magnets and

temporarily by electromagnets or superconducting
magnets

Both the magnetic moment and magnetic field

are vectors having a magnitude and direction
 Magnetic Flux Density or Magnetic Induction (B)

Number of magnetic lines of force (magnetic flux) passing

perpendicularly through unit area of cross section
 Magnetic Field Strength (H) or Magnetic Field
Intensity (H)

Magnetic induction (B) due to a magnetic field intensity (H) applied

in vacuum is related by
μ0 - Permeability of free space
𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝐻 𝜇0 = 4π × 10−7 𝐻 𝑚−1

Instead in vacuum, if the field is applied in a medium, the magnetic

induction in the solid is given by
𝐵
𝐵 =𝜇𝐻 μ - Permeability of the medium 𝜇=
𝐻
 Magnetic Field Strength (H) or Magnetic Field
Intensity (H)

Ratio of the magnetic flux density to the magnetic permeability

of free space (vacuum)

B
H= Unit : Amp  m −1

0
 Magnetic Permeability (μ)

Ability of a magnetic material to support magnetic field development

Ratio of the magnetic flux density (B) or magnetic induction to the

magnetic field strength (H)

B
=
H
 Relative Magnetic Permeability

Ratio of the permeability of the medium (μ) to the

permeability of the free space (μ0)

μ
μr =
μ0
𝜇 = μ𝑟 μ0
 Magnetization or Intensity of Magnetization
Magnetization is the process of converting a non-magnetic material
in to a magnetic material
It measures the magnetization of the magnetized specimen
Magnetization or Intensity of Magnetization (M) is the magnetic
moment per unit volume

Intensity of magnetization (M) is directly related to the applied

magnetic field (H) through the susceptibility of the medium by

𝑀 (Susceptibility has no units)

χ =
𝐻
 Magnetic Susceptibility (χ)

A quantitative measure of the extent to which a material

can be magnetized by an external magnetic field

It is the ratio of intensity of magnetization (M) and magnetic field

strength or intensity (H)

The sign and magnitude of χ are used to determine the nature of

the magnetic materials

μ r = 1+ m
𝐵 =𝜇𝐻 𝜇 = 𝜇𝑟 𝜇0

𝐵 =𝜇𝐻
𝐵 = 𝜇𝑟 𝜇0 𝐻
𝐵 = 𝜇𝑟 𝜇0 𝐻 + 𝜇0 𝐻 − 𝜇0 𝐻

𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝐻 + 𝜇0 𝐻 (𝜇𝑟 − 1)

𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝐻 + 𝜇0 𝑀 where, Magnetization 𝑀 = 𝐻 (𝜇𝑟 − 1)

𝐵 = 𝜇0 (𝐻 + 𝑀)

𝜇0 𝐻 – This is due to external magnetic field

𝜇0 𝑀 – This is due to the magnetization

Magnetic induction (B) is given by
𝐵 = 𝜇0 (𝐻 + 𝑀)
𝐵
𝜇0 =
𝐻+𝑀
𝜇 𝐵
Relative permeability 𝜇𝑟 = 𝜇=
𝜇0 𝐻
𝐵/𝐻
𝜇𝑟 =
𝐵/(𝐻 + 𝑀)
𝐻+𝑀
𝜇𝑟 =
𝐻
𝑀 𝑀
𝜇𝑟 = 1 + where, =χ
𝐻 𝐻

𝜇𝑟 = 1 + χ
The magnetic induction in the interior of a certain solenoid has the value
of 6.5 x 10– 4 T when the solenoid is empty. When it is filled with iron, the
induction becomes 1.4 T. Find the relative permeability of iron

Given Parameters
μ0𝑀 = 1.4 T
μ0 H = 6.5 × 10−4 T
Magnetic Susceptibility
μ0 𝑀 1.4
χ= χ= = 2154
μ0 𝐻 6.5 × 10−4

Relative permeability
𝜇𝑟 = 1 + χ χ = 2154
𝜇𝑟 = 1 + 2154
𝜇𝑟 = 2155
𝜇𝑟 = 2155
Find the relative permeability of a ferromagnetic material if a field of
strength 220 A/m produces a magnetization of 3300 A/m in it

Given Parameters
𝑀 = 3300 A/m
H = 220 A/m

Magnetic Susceptibility
𝑀 3300
χ= χ= = 15
𝐻 220
Relative permeability
𝜇𝑟 = 1 + χ χ = 15
𝜇𝑟 = 1 + 15 𝜇𝑟 = 16
𝜇𝑟 = 16
The magnetic field intensity in a piece of ferric oxide is 106 A/m. If the
susceptibility of the material is 1.5 x 10–3, calculate the magnetization of
the material and magnetic flux density
Given Parameters
𝐻 = 106 A/m
χ = 1.5 × 10−3

Magnetization
𝑀 𝑀 = χ 𝐻 𝑀 = 1.5 × 10−3 × 106 = 1.5 × 103 A/m
χ=
𝐻
Magnetic Flux Density or Magnetic Induction

𝐵 = 𝜇0 (𝐻 + 𝑀) 𝑀 = 1.5 × 103 A/m

𝐵 = 4π × 10−7 1.5 × 103 + 106 𝐵 = 1.259 T
𝐵 = 1.259 T = 1.259 Weber/m2 𝐵 = 1.259 Weber/m2
 Iron (Fe - 26) Each electron in an atom may be
considered as a small magnet having
1s2 2s22p6 3s23p6 4s2 3d6 orbital and spin magnetic moments

ms = ± ½ ms = + ½ ms = + ½ ms = + ½ ms = + ½
ml = − 2 ml = − 1 ml = 0 ml = +1 ml = +2

d subshell
l=2
↑↓ ↑ ↑ ↑ ↑
μorb μorb μorb μorb μorb μorb
μspin = 0 μspin = μB μspin = μB μspin = μB μspin = μB

Net Spin Magnetic Moment μspin = 4μB

Net Magnetic Moment

μorb – less contribution & μspin – more contribution
 Origins of Magnetic Moments

In an individual atom
Orbital moments of some electron pairs cancel each other
Spin moments also cancel each other (spin moment of an electron with
spin up will cancel that of one with spin down)
Net magnetic moment is the sum of the magnetic moments of all the
electrons including orbital and spin contributions
 Origins of Magnetic Moments
For an atom having completely filled electron shells or subshells, there is
total cancellation of both orbital and spin moments

Thus materials composed of atoms having completely filled electron

shells are not capable of being permanently magnetized
(Inert gases He, Ne, Ar and some ionic materials)
Do all the atoms have a net magnetic moment?

All the atoms do not have a net magnetic moment

Only the atoms having electrons in unfilled subshells will have a net
magnetic moment

Do all the electrons have a net magnetic moment?

All the electrons will have a net magnetic moment from its orbital
and spin motions
 Classification of Magnetic Materials
Magnetic materials are classified into two categories based on the
presence or absence of permanent magnetic dipole moments

The materials without permanent magnetic moment

❖ Diamagnetic Materials

The materials with permanent magnetic moment

❖ Paramagnetic Materials

❖ Ferromagnetic Materials

❖ Anti-Ferromagnetic Materials

❖ Ferrimagnetic Materials
Diamagnetic Materials

Without a magnetic field

There are no magnetic dipoles

With a magnetic field

Induced magnetic dipoles are aligned

opposite to the field direction
 Diamagnetic Materials
➢ The atoms in diamagnetic materials do not have permanent
magnetic dipole moments
➢ When a diamagnetic material is placed in an external magnetic
field, the electrons acquire an induced magnetic dipole moment
due to the change in the orbital motion of the electron
➢ Magnitude of the induced magnetic dipole moment is very small
➢ The direction of the induced magnetic dipole moment is opposite
to the direction of the external magnetic field
➢ Diamagnetic materials repel the magnetic lines of force
➢ Magnetic susceptibility (χm) is negative and it is independent of
temperature
➢ Relative permeability (μr) is less than one
Examples for Diamagnetic Materials

Diamagnetism is found in all

materials
But because it is so weak, it can
be observed only when other
types of magnetism are totally
absent
Diamagnetic materials do not
have much practical importance
with respect to their magnetic
properties
Paramagnetic Materials

In the absence of a magnetic field

Each atom has a permanent magnetic dipole
moment due to incomplete cancellation of
spin or orbital magnetic moments
Atomic magnetic moments are randomly
oriented (Net magnetization is zero)

In the presence of a magnetic field

Magnetic dipoles preferentially align by
rotation with the external magnetic field
Magnetization (Paramagnetism) arises due
to the alignment of dipoles
Magnetic dipoles align individually without any mutual interaction
between adjacent dipoles

Aligned magnetic dipoles increase the relative permeability of the

materials (> 1)
 Paramagnetic Materials
➢ The atoms in paramagnetic materials have permanent magnetic
dipole moments (but not in large numbers)
➢ The magnetic dipoles are randomly oriented in the absence of an
external magnetic field and hence net magnetic moment is zero
➢ When a paramagnetic material is placed in an external magnetic
field, the magnetic dipoles tend to align with the direction of the
magnetic field and the material is magnetized
➢ Paramagnetic materials attract the magnetic lines of force
➢ Magnetic susceptibility (χm) is positive and small
➢ Relative permeability (μr) is greater than one
➢ Paramagnetism depends on the temperature
Diamagnetic and Paramagnetic materials – Weak magnetic materials
(They exhibit magnetization only in the presence of an external
magnetic field)
 Ferromagnetic Materials

Mutual alignment of atomic dipoles

for a ferromagnetic material even in
the absence of an external magnetic
field

Ferromagnetic materials possess a permanent magnetic moment

They have very large and permanent magnetization
 In a ferromagnetic material, coupling
interactions cause net spin magnetic
moments of adjacent atoms to align
with one another (magnetic ordering)
even in the absence of an external
field

This mutual spin alignment (magnetic ordering) exists

for relatively large volume regions of the crystal called
magnetic domains
 Ferromagnetic Materials - Examples

Transition Elements
Iron (Z = 26) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d6 4μB

Cobalt (Z = 27) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d7 3μB
Nickel (Z = 28) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d8 2μB

Rare-earth Element
Gadolinium (Z = 64) [Xe] 6s2 5d1 4f7

↑↓ ↑ ↑ ↑ ↑
μorb μorb μorb μorb μorb μorb
μspin = 0 μspin = μB μspin = μB μspin = μB μspin = μB
 Ferromagnetic Materials

➢ The atoms in ferromagnetic materials have permanent magnetic

dipole moments (in large numbers)
➢ The magnetic dipoles are aligned parallel to each other due to the
mutual interaction between the dipoles
➢ The magnetic dipoles which are already aligned parallel, reorient
itself along the direction of the magnetic field even under a small
applied magnetic field (strongly magnetized)
➢ Ferromagnetic materials strongly attract magnetic lines of force
➢ Magnetic susceptibility (χm) is positive and large
➢ Relative permeability (μr) is very much greater than one
➢ Ferromagnetism decreases with the increase of temperature