Electricity basics

Current, I
Electrical current is the rate of flow of charge in a circuit. Electrons are charged particles that move around the
circuit. So we can think of the electrical current as the flow of electrons, not so much the speed but the number
of electrons moving in the circuit. If we imagine that electrons are students in a corridor, and a wire of a circuit
is the corridor itself, the current is how many students are passing by in a set time.
Current is measured in Amperes (or Amps), A
Charge, Q
The amount of electrical charge is a fundamental unit, similar to mass and length and time. From the data sheet
we can see that the charge on one electron is actually -1.60 x 10 -19 C. This means that it takes 6.25 x 1018
electrons to transfer 1C of charge.
Charge is measured in Coulombs, C
Voltage/Potential Difference, V
Voltage, or potential difference, is the work done per unit charge.
1 unit of charge is 6.25 x 1018 electrons, so we can think of potential difference as the energy given to each of
the electrons, or the pushing force on the electrons. It is the p.d. that causes a current to flow and we can think
of it like water flowing in a pipe. If we make one end higher than the other end, water will flow down in, if we
increase the height (increase the p.d.) we get more flowing. If we think of current as students walking down a
corridor, the harder we push them down the corridor the faster they move and more pass by each second.
Voltage and p.d. are measured in Volts, V
Resistance, R
The resistance of a material tells us how easy or difficult it is to make a current flow through it. If we think of
current as young students walking down a corridor, it would be harder to make them flow if we added some
college rugby players into the corridor. Increasing resistance lowers the current.
Resistance is measured in Ohms, Ω
Current, charge and time
There are three equations that we need to be able to explain and substitute numbers into.

Q
I
t
Current is the rate of change of charge per second and backs up or idea of current as the rate at which electrons
(and charge) flow.

This can be rearranged into

Q  It
which means that the charge is equal to how much is flowing multiplied by how long it flows for (time in
seconds).

Potential difference, energy and charge

E
V
Q
This says that the voltage/p.d. is the energy per unit charge. The ‘push’ of the electrons is equal to the energy
given to each unit of charge.

Potential difference, current and resistance

V  IR
This says that increasing the p.d. increases the current for same resistance. Increasing the ‘push’ of the
electrons makes more flow.
It also shows us that for constant V, if R increases, I gets smaller. Pushing the same strength, if there is more
blocking force less current will flow.
 Series and Parallel Circuits
Series Circuits
In a series circuit all the components are in one
circuit or loop. If resistor 1 in the diagram was
removed this would break the whole circuit.

The total current of the circuit is the same at each point in the circuit. ITOTAL  I1  I 2  I 3
The total p.d. of the circuit is equal to the sum of the p.d.s across each resistor. VTOTAL  V1  V2  V3
The total resistance of the circuit is equal to the sum of the resistance of each resistor. RTOTAL  R1  R2  R3

Parallel Circuits
Components in parallel have their own separate circuit or loop. If resistor 1 in
the diagram was removed this would only break that circuit, a current would
still flow through resistors 2 and 3.

The total current is equal to the sum of the currents through each resistor.
ITOTAL  I1  I 2  I 3
The total potential difference is equal to the p.d.s across each resistor.
VTOTAL  V1  V2  V3
The total resistance can be calculated using the equation:
1 1 1 1
  
RTOTAL R1 R2 R3

Water slide analogy for series and parallel circuits

Imagine instead of getting a potential difference we get a height difference by climbing to the top of a slide.
This series circuit has three connected slides and the parallel circuit below has three separate slides that reach
the bottom.

Voltages/P.D.s
In series we can see that the total height loss is equal to how much you fall on slide 1,
slide 2 and slide 3 added together. This means that the total p.d. lost must be the p.d.
given by the battery. If the resistors have equal values this drop in potential difference
will be equal.
In parallel we see each slide will drop by the same height, meaning the potential
difference is equal to the total potential difference of the battery.

Current in series and parallel

If we imagine 100 people on the water slide, in series we can see that 100
people get to the top. All 100 must go down slide 1 then slide 2 and final
slide 3, there is no other option. So, the current in a series circuit is the
same everywhere in the circuit.
In parallel, we see there is a choice in the slide we take. 100 people get to
the top of the slide, but some may go down slide 1, some down slide 2 and
some down slide 3. The total number of people is equal to the number of
people going down each slide added together, and the total current is
equal to the currents in each circuit/loop.
 Kirchoff’s Laws and Potential Dividers

Kirchhoff’s Laws
Kirchhoff’s Laws apply conservation of energy and charge principles to electrical
circuits.

Kirchoff’s First Law

Electric charge is conserved in all circuits, all the charge that arrives at a point
must leave it.
Current going in = current going out.
In the diagram we can say that: I1 = I2 + I3 + I4

Kirchoff’s Second Law

Energy is conserved in all circuits, for any complete circuit the sum of the EMF’s
is equal to the sum of the potential differences.
Energy givers = energy takers.
In the diagram we can say that: ε = pd1 + pd2 + pd3 + pd4.

Potential Dividers
A potential divider is used to produce a desired potential difference, it can
be thought of as a potential selector.
A typical potential divider consists of two or more resistors that share the
emf from the battery/cell.
The p.d.s across R1 and R2 can be calculated using the following
equations:
R1 R2
V1  V0 V 2  V0
R1  R 2 R1  R2

This actually shows us that the size of the potential difference is equal to the input potential multiplied by what
proportion R1 is of the total resistance.
If R1 is 10 Ω and R2 is 90 Ω, R1 contributes a tenth of the total resistance so R1 has a tenth of the available
potential. This can be represented using:
R1 V1
 The ratio of the resistances is equal to the ratio of the output voltages.
R2 V2
Uses of potential dividers
In this potential divider the second resistor is a thermistor. When the
temperature is low the resistance (R2) is high, this makes the output voltage
high. When the temperature is high the resistance (R2) is low, this makes the
output voltage low. A use of this would be a cooling fan that works harder
when it is warm.

In the second potential divider the second resistor is a Light Dependant Resistor.
When the light levels are low the resistance (R2) is high, making the output voltage
high. When the light levels increase the resistance (R2) decreases, this makes the
output voltage decrease. A use of this could be a street light sensor that switches
the light on when the surroundings are dark.
 Ohm’s Law and IV graphs
Ohm’s Law
We know that a voltage (or potential difference) causes a current to flow and that the size of the current
depends on the size of the p.d.
For something to obey Ohm’s law, the current flowing is proportional to the p.d. pushing it. V=IR so this means
the resistance is constant. On a graph of current against p.d. this appears as a straight line.

Measuring current and potential difference

To find how the current through a component varies with
the potential difference across it we must take readings.
To measure the potential difference, we use a voltmeter
connected in parallel across the component, and to
measure the current we use an ammeter connected in
series.
If we connect the component to a battery, we would now
have one reading for the p.d. and one for the current. But
what we require is a range of readings. One way around
this would be to use a range of batteries to give different p.d.s. A better way is to add a variable resistor to the
circuit, this allows us to use one battery and get a range of readings for current and p.d. To obtain values for
current in the negative direction we can reverse either the battery or the component.

I-V Graphs
Resistor
This shows that when p.d. is zero, so is the current. When we increase the p.d. in one
direction the current increases in that direction. If we apply a p.d. in the reverse
direction, a current flows in the reverse direction. The straight line shows that current is
proportional to p.d. and it obeys Ohm’s law. Graph a has a lower resistance than graph
b because for the same p.d. , less current flows through b.

Filament Lamp
At low values the current is proportional to p.d. and so, obeys Ohm’s law.
As the potential difference and current increase so does the temperature. This increases
the resistance and the graph curves, since resistance changes it no longer obeys Ohm’s
law.

Diode
This shows us that in one direction increasing the p.d. increases the current but in the
reverse direction the p.d. does not make a current flow. We say that it is forward
biased. Since resistance changes it does not obey Ohm’s law.

Types of variable resistors

Variable Resistor
A variable resistor is a resistor whose value can be changed.

Thermistor
The resistance of a thermistor varied with temperature. At
low temperatures the resistance is high, at high
temperatures the resistance is low.

Light Dependant Resistor (L.D.R)

The resistance of a thermistor varied with light intensity. In
dim light the resistance is high and in bright light the resistance is low.
 Resistivity
Resistance
The resistance of a metal wire is caused by free electrons colliding with the positive ions that make up the
structure of the metal. The resistance depends upon several factors:
Length, l Length increases – resistance increases
The longer the piece of wire the more collisions the electrons will have.
Cross-sectional area, A Area increases – resistance decreases
The wider the piece of wire the more gaps there are between the ions.
Temperature Temperature increases – resistance increases
As temperature increases in a metal resistance increases, because the ions in the metal are given more energy
and vibrate more, the electrons are more likely to collide with the ions, which impedes their flow in a any one
direction.
Material
The structure of any two metals is similar but not the same, some metal ions are closer together, others have
bigger ions.

Resistivity, ρ
l
The resistance of a material can be calculate using R where ρ is the resistivity of the material.
A
Resistivity is a factor that accounts for the structure of the metal and the temperature. Each metal has its own
value of resisitivity for each temperature. For example, the resistivity of copper is 1.7x10 -8 Ωm and carbon is
3x10-5 Ωm at room temperature. When both are heated to 100°C their resistivities increase.
Resistivity is measured in Ohm metres , Ωm

Measuring Resistivity

In order to measure resistivity of a wire we need to measure the

length, cross-sectional area (using Area = πr2) and resistance.
Remember, to measure the resistance we need to measure values of
current and potential difference using the circuit shown on the right

RA
We then rearrange the equation to   and substitute values in.
l
 Energy and Power
Power
From mechanics, we know that power is a measure of how quickly something can transfer energy. Power is
linked to energy by the equation:
Power is measured in Watts, W
Energy
Power  Energy is measured in Joules, J
time Time is measured in seconds, s

We can derive a new equations for energy transferred and power in electrical circuits:
Energy
E
V can be rearranged into E  VQ and we know that Q  It so combining these equations we get a new
Q
one to calculate the energy in an electric circuit:

E  VQ <---------------------- Q  It so E  VIt

Power
If we look at the top equation, to work out power we divide energy by time:
E VIt
 which cancels out to become P  VI
t t

If we substitute V  IR into the last equation we get another equation for power:

P  IV <---------------------- V  IR so P  I R This is the power dissipation due to heating.

2

V
We can also rearrange V  IR into I  and substitute this into P  VI to get our last equation for power:
R
V V2
P  VI <---------------------- I  so P 
R R

Fuses
The heating effect of electric current is used in fuses to protect the appliance. Electrical devices connected to
the Mains supply by a three-pin plug have a fuse as part of their circuit. This is a thin piece of wire that melts if
the current through it exceeds its maximum tolerance. The common fuses used are 3A, 5A and 13A. A 100W
light bulb connected to the UK Mains would have a 240V potential difference across it. Using P  IV we can
see that the current would be 0.42A so a 2A fuse would be the best to use.

Applications
The starter motor of a motor car needs to transfer a lot of energy very quickly, meaning it needs a high power.
Millions of Joules are required in seconds; since the voltage of the battery is unchanging, we need current in the
region of 160A, which is a huge current.
The power lines that are held by pylons, to transfer electricity from power stations to our homes, are very thick
wires and carry electricity that has a very high voltage. Increasing the voltage lowers the current so if we look at
the equation P  I R we can see that this reduces the current and so the heating effect to the surroundings is
2

reduced.
 EMF and Internal Resistance
Energy in Circuits
In circuits there are two fundamental types of component: energy givers and energy takers.
Electromotive Force (emf), ε
Electromotive force is the total energy per unit charge available from a power source (energy giver).
E
The size of the emf can be calculate using: 
Q
This is similar to the equation we use to find voltage/potential difference and means the EMF has units of Joules
per Coulomb, or Volts, the same units as potential difference.
The emf of a supply is the p.d. across its terminals when no current flows
EMF is measured in Joules per Coulomb, JC-1 or Volts, V

Energy takers have a potential difference across them, transferring energy from the circuit to the component.
emf = energy giver circuit p.d. = energy taker
Energy is conserved in a circuit so energy in = energy out, or:
The total of the emfs = The total potential differences across the whole circuit

Internal Resistance, r
The chemicals inside a cell offer a resistance to the flow of current, this is the internal resistance on the cell.
Internal Resistance is measured in Ohms, Ω
Linking emf and r
If we look at the statement in the box above and apply it to the circuit below, we can reach an equation that
links emf and r.
Total emfs = total potential differences
ε = (p.d. across r) + (p.d. across R) {Remember that V=IR}
ε = (I x r) + (I x R)
ε = Ir + IR
ε = I(r+R)
The terminal p.d. is the p.d. across the terminals of the cell when a current is
flowing
ε = internal p.d + terminal p.d.
So the above equation can be written as ε = Ir + V , where V is the terminal
p.d.

Measuring emf and r

We can measure the emf and internal resistance of a cell by measuring the
current and voltage as shown on the right, the variable resistor allows us to get
a range of values. If we plot the results onto a graph of voltmeter reading
against ammeter reading we get a graph that looks like the one below.

Graphs have the general equation of y = mx+c, where y is the vertical (upwards)
axis, x is the horizontal (across) axis, m is the gradient of the line and c is where
the line intercepts (cuts) the y axis.
If we take ε = Ir + V and arrange it into y= mx + c
y axis = V and x axis = I
ε = Ir + V  V = -Ir + ε  V = -r I + ε
y =m x +c
So we can see that the:
y-intercept represents the emf
and
gradient represents (–)internal resistance
 Force on a current carrying wire in a magnetic field
We will be looking at the force a current carrying wire experiences when it is in a magnetic field.

Conventional Current
We know that the current flowing in a circuit is due to the negative electrons flowing from the negative terminal
of a battery to the positive terminal.
Negative to Positive is the flow of electrons
Before the discovery of the electron scientist thought that the current flowed from the positive terminal to the
negative one. By the time the electron was discovered many laws had been established to explain the world
around them using current as flowing from positive to negative.
Positive to Negative is the Conventional Current
Magnetic field lines
We are familiar with the shape of a magnetic field around a bar magnet. Magnetic field lines leave the North
Pole of the magnet and enter the South Pole. The poles of a magnet are stronger than the side because there
are more field lines in the same area of space.
Magnetic field lines go from North to South
Visualising a 3D situation in 2D
We will be looking at movement, fields and currents in 3D but our page is only 2D. To solve this problem, we will
use the following notation: A dot means coming out of the page and a cross means going into the page. Imagine
an arrow fired from a bow, pointy end means it’s coming towards you, cross means its moving away.
out of the page, into the page
Current carrying wires
When a current flows through a straight piece of wire it creates a circular magnetic field. The
Right Hand Grip Rule shows us the direction of the magnetic field. If we use our right hand and
do a thumbs up the thumb is the direction of the conventional current and the fingers point the
direction of the field lines.
Right hand thumbs up
Force on a current carrying wire
When a wire is placed between a North and South Pole (in
a magnetic field), nothing happens.
When a (conventional) current flows through the wire it
experiences a force due to the magnetic fields of the
magnet and the wire. If we look at the diagram we can see
that the magnetic field lines above are more compact than
below. This forces the wire downwards.

Fleming’s Left Hand Rule

This rule links the directions of the force, magnetic field and conventional current which are all
at right angles to each other. Your first finger points from North to South, your middle finger
points from positive to negative and your thumb points in the direction of the force.

Size of the Force

The size of the force on a wire of length l, carrying a current I placed in a magnetic field of magnetic flux density
B is given by the equation: F  BIl
Here the wire is at 90° to the magnetic field lines.
When the wire is at an angle of θ with the magnetic field the force is given by: F  BIl sin 
F
If we rearrange the equation to B  we see that 1 Tesla is the magnetic flux density (field strength) that
Il
causes a 1 Newton force to act on 1 metre of wire carrying 1 Amp of current.
Magnetic Flux Density is measured in Tesla, T
This equation looks very familiar if we compare it to the force in a gravitational and electric field.
F  m.g F  q.E F  Il.B
 Force on charged particle in a magnetic field

From our equation for the force a magnetic field will exert on a wire we can derive an equation for the force it will
exert on a single charged particle.
Q Q
Start with F  BIl . In Unit 1 we defined the current as I  so we can sub this in to become FB l
t t
l l
We can rewrite this equation F  BQ and use v  (from mechanics) to arrive at the equation: F  BQv
t t

Q is the charge of the particle. For the force on a single electron, the equation can be written as: F=Bev
Where e is the charge on an electron (1.6x10 -19C)

The above equations work when the current is perpendicular to the magnetic field. The more general form of the
equation is given below. This applies when there is a given angle between the current flow direction and the
magnetic field: