INTRODUCTION TO SYSTEM

ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

System Analysis and Design
(SAD),

Systems are created to solve problems.

the subject mainly deals with the
software development activities.
 System Analysis
a process of collecting factual data,
understand the processes involved,
identifying problems and recommending
feasible suggestions for improving the system
functioning
This involves studying the business
processes, gathering operational data,
understand the information flow, finding out
bottlenecks and evolving solutions for
overcoming the weaknesses of the system so
as to achieve the organizational goals.
Major objectives of systems
analysis
To find answers for each business process:
 What is being done?
 How is it being done?
 Who is doing it?
 When is he doing it?
 Why is it being done?
 How can it be improved?
It attempts to give birth to a new efficient
system that satisfies the current needs of the
user and has scope for future growth within
the organizational constraints.
 System Design
Based on the user requirements and the
detailed analysis of the existing system
 System
A system is an interrelated set of
business procedures used within one
business unit working together for a
purpose
A system has nine characteristics
A system exists within an environment
A boundary separates a system from its
environment
Characteristics of a System
Components
Interrelated Components
Boundary
Purpose
Environment
Interfaces
Constraints
Input
Output
Important System Concepts
Decomposition
 The process of breaking down a system into
smaller components
 Allows the systems analyst to:
 Break a system into small, manageable and
understandable subsystems
 Focus on one area at a time, without interference from
other areas
 Concentrate on component pertinent to one group of
users without confusing users with unnecessary details
 Build different components at independent times and
have the help of different analysts
Important System Concepts
(continued)
Modularity
 Process of dividing a system into modules
of a relatively uniform size
 Modules simplify system design
Coupling
 Subsystems that are dependent upon each
other are coupled
Cohesion
 Extent to which a subsystem performs a
single function
Roles of the Systems Analyst
The analyst must be able to work with
people of all descriptions and be
experienced in working with computers.
Three primary roles:
 Consultant
 Supporting expert
 Agent of change
Qualities of the Systems Analyst

Problem solver
Communicator
Strong personal and professional ethics
Self-disciplined and self-motivated
The Systems Development
Environment
 Project Initiation
Projects are initiated for two broad
reasons:
 Problems that lend themselves to systems
solutions
 Opportunities for improvement through
 Upgrading systems
 Altering systems
 Installing new systems
 Project Selection
Five specific criteria for project selection
 Backed by management
 Timed appropriately for commitment of
resources
 It moves the business toward attainment of
its goals
 Practical
 Important enough to be considered over
other projects
 New Options for
Organizational Design

Flattening organizations

Separating work from location

Reorganizing/Redesigning work-flows

Increasing flexibility

Redefining organizational boundaries

Classic Management Pyramid

Top-level
Strategic
managers

Middle-level
managers Tactical

Low-level
managers Operational
 Flattened Management
Pyramid

Top-level
Strategic
managers

Low and
Middle-level Tactical
managers

Workers Operational
Flattening Organizations &
Information Systems
Redesigned Work Flow For
Insurance Underwriting
Basic Concepts for Understanding Systems
System Outputs Serve as Feedback that
Compares Performance with Goals
Taking a Systems Perspective
Outputs from one
department serve as
inputs for another such
that subsystems are
interrelated.
 A Modern Approach to
Systems Analysis and Design
Systems Integration
 Allows hardware and software from
different vendors to work together
 Enables procedural language systems to
work with visual programming systems
 Visual programming environment uses
client/server model
 Your Role in Systems
Development
Study problems and needs of an organization
Determine best approach to improving
organization through use of:
 People
 Methods
 Information technology
Help system users and managers define their
requirements for new or enhanced
information systems
Systems Development Life
Cycle (SDLC)
Traditional methodology for developing,
maintaining, and replacing information
systems
The Seven Phases of the Systems
Development Life Cycle
 Identifying Problems,
Opportunities, and Objectives
Activity:
 Interviewing user management

 Summarizing the knowledge obtained

 Estimating the scope of the project

 Documenting the results

Output:
 Feasibility report containing problem definition and
objective summaries from which management can
make a decision on whether to proceed with the
proposed project
Determining Human Information
Requirements
Activity:
 Interviewing
 Sampling and investing hard data
 Questionnaires

 Observe the decision maker’s behavior and environment.

 Prototyping
 Learn the who, what, where, when, how, and why of the
current system.
Output:
 The analyst understands how users accomplish their work
when interacting with a computer; and begin to know how
to make the new system more useful and usable. The
analyst should also know the business functions and have
complete information on the people, goals, data, and
procedure involved.
Analyzing System Needs
Activity:
 Create data flow, activity, or sequence
diagrams.
 Complete the data dictionary.

 Analyze the structured decisions made.

 Prepare and present the system proposal.

Output:
 Recommendation on what, if anything,
should be done
Designing the Recommended
System
Activity:
 Design procedures for data entry.
 Design the human-computer interface.
 Design system controls.
 Design database and/or files.
 Design backup procedures.
Output
 Model of the actual system
Developing and Documenting
Software
Activity:
 System analyst works with programmers to develop any
original software.
 Works with users to develop effective documentation.
 Programmers design, code, and remove syntactical errors
from computer programs.
 Document software with help files, procedure manuals,
and Web sites with Frequently Asked Questions.
Output:
 Computer programs
 System documentation
Testing and Maintaining the
System

Activity:
 Test the information system.
 System maintenance.
 Maintenance documentation.
Output:
 Problems, if any
 Updated programs
 Documentation
Implementing and Evaluating the
System

Activity:
 Train users.
 Analyst plans smooth conversion from old
system to new system.
 Review and evaluate system.
Output:
 Trained personnel
 Installed system
Some Researchers Estimate that the Amount of Time Spent
on Systems Maintenance May Be as Much as 60 Percent of
the Total Time Spent on Systems Projects
The Impact of Maintenance
Maintenance is performed for two
reasons:
 Removing software errors
 Enhancing existing software
Over time the cost of continued
maintenance will be greater than that of
creating an entirely new system. At that
point it becomes more feasible to
perform a new systems study.
Types of Information Systems
and Systems Development
Transaction Processing Systems (TPS)
 Automate handling of data about business activities
(transactions)
 Process orientation
Management Information Systems (MIS)
 Converts raw data from transaction processing system into
meaningful form
 Data orientation
Decision Support Systems (DSS)
 Designed to help decision makers
 Provides interactive environment for decision making
 Involves data warehouses, executive information systems (EIS)
 Database, model base, user dialogue
 Types of Information Systems
and Systems Development (cont.)
Information Architecture and Information
Technology Infrastructure
 New Technologies
New technologies are being integrated
into traditional systems
 Ecommerce uses the Web to perform business
activities
 Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) has the
goal of integrating many different information
systems within the corporation
 Wireless and handheld devices, including
mobile commerce (mcommerce)
 Open source software
Traditional Waterfall SDLC

One phase begins

when another
completes, little
backtracking and
looping
Standard and Evolutionary Views
of SDLC
 Problems with Waterfall
Approach

System requirements “locked in” after

being determined (can't change)
Limited user involvement (only in
requirements phase)
Too much focus on milestone deadlines
of SDLC phases to the detriment of
sound development practices
 Alternatives to Traditional
Waterfall SDLC

Prototyping
CASE tools
Joint Application Design (JAD)
Rapid Application Development (RAD)
Agile Methodologies
eXtreme Programming
 Prototyping

Iterative development process:

Requirements quickly converted to a working system
System is continually revised
Close collaboration between users and analysts
Joint Application Design (JAD)
Structured process involving users,
analysts, and managers
Several-day intensive workgroup
sessions
Purpose: to specify or review system
requirements
Rapid Application Development
(RAD)
Methodology to decrease design and implementation time
Involves: prototyping, JAD, CASE tools, and code
generators
 Agile Methodologies
Motivated by recognition of software
development as fluid, unpredictable,
and dynamic
Three key principles
 Adaptive rather than predictive
 Emphasize people rather than roles
 Self-adaptive processes
 eXtreme Programming
Short, incremental development cycles
Automated tests
Two-person programming teams
Coding and testing operate together
Advantages:
 Communication between developers
 High level of productivity
 High-quality code
Object-Oriented Analysis and
Design
Based on objects rather than data or
processes
Object: a structure encapsulating attributes
and behaviors of a real-world entity
Object class: a logical grouping of objects
sharing the same attributes and behaviors
Inheritance: hierarchical arrangement of
classes enable subclasses to inherit
properties of superclasses
Rational Unified Process (RUP) involves an iterative,
incremental approach to systems development
 Module 2:
Identifying and Selecting IS
projects
Major objectives of systems
analysis
To find answers for each business process:
 What is being done?
 How is it being done?
 Who is doing it?
 When is he doing it?
 Why is it being done?
 How can it be improved?
It attempts to give birth to a new efficient
system that satisfies the current needs of the
user and has scope for future growth within
the organizational constraints.
 System Design
Based on the user requirements and the
detailed analysis of the existing system
Classic Management Pyramid

Top-level
Strategic
managers

Middle-level
managers Tactical

Low-level
managers Operational
 Flattened Management
Pyramid

Top-level
Strategic
managers

Low and
Middle-level Tactical
managers

Workers Operational
Flattening Organizations &
Information Systems
Redesigned Work Flow For
Insurance Underwriting
 Project Initiation
Projects are initiated for two broad
reasons:
 Problems that lend themselves to systems
solutions
 Opportunities for improvement through
 Upgrading systems
 Altering systems
 Installing new systems
 Organizational Problems
Identify problems by
Check output against performance criteria
 Too many errors
 Work completed slowly
 Work done incorrectly
 Work done incompletely
 Work not done at all
Organizational Problems
Observe behavior of employees
 High absenteeism
 High job dissatisfaction
 High job turnover
Organizational Problems
Listen to feedback from vendors,
customers, and suppliers
 Complaints
 Suggestions for improvement
 Loss of sales
 Lower sales
 Checking Output, Observing Employee Behavior, and
Listening to Feedback Are all Ways to Help the Analyst
Pinpoint Systems Problems and Opportunities
 Selection Of Projects
Backing from management
Appropriate timing of project commitment
Possibility of improving attainment of
organizational goals
Practical in terms of resources for the system
analyst and organization
Worthwhile project compared with other ways
the organization could invest resources
 Selection of Projects: Improving
Attainment of Organizational Goals

Improving corporate profits

Supporting the competitive strategy of the
organization
Improving cooperation with vendors and
partners
Improving internal operations support
Improving internal decision support so that
decisions are more effective
Improving customer service
Increasing employee morale
Possibilities for Improvement
Many possible objectives exist including
 Speeding up a process
 Streamlining a process
 Combining processes
 Reducing errors in input
 Reducing redundant storage
 Reducing redundant output
 Improving system and subsystem
integration
Determining Feasibility and
Managing Analysis and
Design Activities
 Feasibility Study
Guides the organization in determining
whether to proceed with a project or not
Identifies the important risks associated
with the project that must be addressed
if the project is approved
 Feasibility Study
Is it a practical approach that will solve
a problem or take advantage of an
opportunity to achieve company goals?
Are the necessary technical resources
and people available for the project?
 Feasibility Study
Is the problem worth solving, and will
the request result in a sound business
investment?
Can the proposal be accomplished
within an acceptable time frame?
 Feasibility
A feasibility study assesses the
operational, technical, and economic
merits of the proposed project
There are three types of feasibility:
 Technical feasibility
 Economic feasibility
 Operational feasibility
 Technical Feasibility
Technical feasibility assesses whether
the current technical resources are
sufficient for the new system
If they are not available, can they be
upgraded to provide the level of
technology necessary for the new
system
 Economic Feasibility
Economic feasibility determines whether
the time and money are available to
develop the system
Includes the purchase of
 New equipment
 Hardware
 Software
 Operational Feasibility
Operational feasibility determines if the
human resources are available to
operate the system once it has been
installed
Users that do not want a new system
may prevent it from becoming
operationally feasible
 Operational Feasibility
Means that the proposed system will be
used effectively after it has been
developed
A measure of the user’s attitude
towards the system and how well the
solution will work in the organization
 Operational Feasibility
If users have a difficulty with a system, it
will not produce the expected benefits
 Operational Feasibility

Is the problem worth solving

or will the solution to the
problem work?
 Operational Feasibility
Does management support the project?
Do users see the need for change?
Will the new system result in a
workforce reduction?
Will the new system place any new
demands on users or require any
operating changes?
 Operational Feasibility
Will any information be less accessible
or produced less frequently?
Will customers experience adverse
effects in any way?
Do legal or ethical issues need to be
considered?
 Technical Feasibility
Refers to the technical resources
needed to develop, purchase, install, or
operate the system
Analysis of technical risks like familiarity
with the application or technology,
project size, and compatibility
 Technical Feasibility

Do we have the

technical abilities and
resources to be able to build
the system?
 Technical Feasibility
Can the company acquire the
necessary hardware, software, and
network resources without difficulty?
Does the company have the needed
technical expertise?
Does the proposed platform have
sufficient capacity for future needs?
 Technical Feasibility
Will the hardware and software
environment interface properly with
external systems operated by
customers and suppliers?
Do clear expectations and performance
specifications exist?
 Economic Feasibility
Means that the projected benefits of the
proposed system outweigh the
estimated costs, which includes ongoing
support and maintenance costs, as well
as acquisition costs
 Economic Feasibility

Can we support the

system’s development and
operational costs?
 Economic Feasibility
Development Costs
 Development team salaries
 Consultant fees
 Development training
 Hardware and software
 Vendor installation
 Office space and equipment
 Data conversion costs
 Economic Feasibility
Operational Costs
 Software upgrades
 Software licensing fees
 Hardware repairs
 Hardware upgrades
 Operational team salaries
 Communications charges
 User training
 Economic Feasibility
Tangible Benefits
 Increased sales
 Reductions in staff
 Reductions in inventory and elimination of
production delays
 Reductions in IT costs
 Better supplier prices
 Economic Feasibility
Intangible Benefits
 Increased market share
 Increased brand recognition
 Enhanced company image
 Higher quality products
 Improved employee job satisfaction
 Improved customer service
 Better supplier relations
 Schedule Feasibility

Can the system be finished

on time?
 Schedule Feasibility
Can the company or the IT team control
the factors that affect schedule
feasibility?
Has management established a firm
timetable for the project?
What conditions must be satisfied
during the development of the system?
 Schedule Feasibility
Will an accelerated schedule pose any
risks?
Will project management techniques be
available to coordinate and control the
project?
Will a project manager be appointed?
 Evaluating Feasibility

Even if the request is

feasible, it might not
be necessary
 Determining Feasibility
Defining objectives
Determining resources
 Operationally
 Technically
 Economically
The Three Key Elements of Feasibility Include
Technical, Economic, and Operational
Feasibility
 Technical Feasibility
Can current technical resources be
upgraded or added to in a manner that
fulfills the request under consideration?
If not, is there technology in existence
that meets the specifications?
 Economic Feasibility
Economic feasibility determines whether
value of the investment exceeds the time and
cost.
Includes:
 Analyst and analyst team time
 Business employee time
 Hardware
 Software
 Software development
 Operational Feasibility
Operational feasibility determines if the
human resources are available to
operate the system once it has been
installed.
Users that do not want a new system
may prevent it from becoming
operationally feasible.
Activity Planning and Control
Planning includes:
 Selecting a systems analysis team
 Estimating time required to complete each task
 Scheduling the project
Control includes:
 Comparing the plan for the project with its actual
evolution
 Taking appropriate action to expedite or
reschedule activities
 Estimating Time
Project is broken down into phases.
Further project is broken down into tasks or
activities.
Finally project is broken down into steps or
even smaller units.
Time is estimated for each task or activity.
Most likely, pessimistic and optimistic
estimates for time may be used.