SECTION 1.

3 NEW FUNCTIONS FROM OLD FUNCTIONS |||| 37

; 24. A study by the US Office of Science and Technology in ; 26. The table shows the mean (average) distances d of the planets
1972 estimated the cost (in 1972 dollars) to reduce auto- from the sun (taking the unit of measurement to be the
mobile emissions by certain percentages: distance from the earth to the sun) and their periods T (time
of revolution in years).
Reduction in Cost per Reduction in Cost per
emissions (%) car (in $) emissions (%) car (in $)
Planet d T
50 45 75 90
55 55 80 100 Mercury 0.387 0.241
60 62 85 200 Venus 0.723 0.615
65 70 90 375 Earth 1.000 1.000
70 80 95 600 Mars 1.523 1.881
Jupiter 5.203 11.861
Find a model that captures the “diminishing returns” trend of
Saturn 9.541 29.457
these data.
Uranus 19.190 84.008
; 25. Use the data in the table to model the population of the world Neptune 30.086 164.784
in the 20th century by a cubic function. Then use your model
to estimate the population in the year 1925.

Population Population (a) Fit a power model to the data.

Year (millions) Year (millions) (b) Kepler’s Third Law of Planetary Motion states that
1900 1650 1960 3040
1910 1750 1970 3710 “The square of the period of revolution of a planet is
1920 1860 1980 4450 proportional to the cube of its mean distance from the
1930 2070 1990 5280 sun.”
1940 2300 2000 6080
1950 2560 Does your model corroborate Kepler’s Third Law?

1.3 NEW FUNCTIONS FROM OLD FUNCTIONS

In this section we start with the basic functions we discussed in Section 1.2 and obtain new
functions by shifting, stretching, and reflecting their graphs. We also show how to combine
pairs of functions by the standard arithmetic operations and by composition.

TRANSFORMATIONS OF FUNCTIONS
By applying certain transformations to the graph of a given function we can obtain the
graphs of certain related functions. This will give us the ability to sketch the graphs of
many functions quickly by hand. It will also enable us to write equations for given graphs.
Let’s first consider translations. If c is a positive number, then the graph of y ! f !x" % c is
just the graph of y ! f !x" shifted upward a distance of c units (because each y-coordinate
is increased by the same number c). Likewise, if t!x" ! f !x $ c", where c ! 0, then the
value of t at x is the same as the value of f at x $ c (c units to the left of x). Therefore,
the graph of y ! f !x $ c" is just the graph of y ! f !x" shifted c units to the right (see
Figure 1).

VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL SHIFTS Suppose c ! 0. To obtain the graph of

y ! f !x" % c, shift the graph of y ! f !x" a distance c units upward
y ! f !x" $ c, shift the graph of y ! f !x" a distance c units downward
y ! f !x $ c", shift the graph of y ! f !x" a distance c units to the right
y ! f !x % c", shift the graph of y ! f !x" a distance c units to the left
38 |||| CHAPTER 1 FUNCTIONS AND MODELS

y y

y=ƒ+c y=cƒ
(c>1)

c y=f(_x)
y=f(x+c) y =ƒ y=f(x-c)
y=ƒ

c c y= 1c ƒ

0 c x 0 x

y=ƒ-c
y=_ƒ

FIGURE 1 FIGURE 2
Translating the graph of ƒ Stretching and reflecting the graph of ƒ

Now let’s consider the stretching and reflecting transformations. If c ! 1, then the
graph of y ! cf !x" is the graph of y ! f !x" stretched by a factor of c in the vertical
direction (because each y-coordinate is multiplied by the same number c). The graph of
y ! $f !x" is the graph of y ! f !x" reflected about the x-axis because the point !x, y" is
replaced by the point !x, $y". (See Figure 2 and the following chart, where the results of
other stretching, compressing, and reflecting transformations are also given.)

VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL STRETCHING AND REFLECTING Suppose c ! 1. To

obtain the graph of
y ! cf !x", stretch the graph of y ! f !x" vertically by a factor of c
y ! !1$c"f !x", compress the graph of y ! f !x" vertically by a factor of c
y ! f !cx", compress the graph of y ! f !x" horizontally by a factor of c
y ! f !x$c", stretch the graph of y ! f !x" horizontally by a factor of c
y ! $f !x", reflect the graph of y ! f !x" about the x-axis
y ! f !$x", reflect the graph of y ! f !x" about the y-axis

Figure 3 illustrates these stretching transformations when applied to the cosine function
with c ! 2. For instance, in order to get the graph of y ! 2 cos x we multiply the y-coor-
dinate of each point on the graph of y ! cos x by 2. This means that the graph of y ! cos x
gets stretched vertically by a factor of 2.
y y=2 cos x y

2 y=cos x 2 y=cos 1 x
2
1 1
y= cos x 1
2

0 1 x 0 x

y=cos x

FIGURE 3 y=cos 2x
 SECTION 1.3 NEW FUNCTIONS FROM OLD FUNCTIONS |||| 39

V EXAMPLE 1 Given the graph of y ! sx , use transformations to graph y ! sx $ 2,

y ! sx $ 2 , y ! $sx , y ! 2sx , and y ! s$x .
SOLUTION The graph of the square root function y ! sx , obtained from Figure 13(a)
in Section 1.2, is shown in Figure 4(a). In the other parts of the figure we sketch
y ! sx $ 2 by shifting 2 units downward, y ! sx $ 2 by shifting 2 units to the right,
y ! $sx by reflecting about the x-axis, y ! 2sx by stretching vertically by a factor
of 2, and y ! s$x by reflecting about the y-axis.
y y y y y y

0 1 x 0 x 0 2 x 0 x 0 x 0 x

_2

(a) y=œ„x (b) y=œ„-2

x (c) y=œ„„„„
x-2 (d) y=_œ„x (e) y=2œ„x (f ) y=œ„„
_x M

FIGURE 4
EXAMPLE 2 Sketch the graph of the function f (x) ! x 2 % 6x % 10.

SOLUTION Completing the square, we write the equation of the graph as

y ! x 2 % 6x % 10 ! !x % 3"2 % 1
This means we obtain the desired graph by starting with the parabola y ! x 2 and shifting
3 units to the left and then 1 unit upward (see Figure 5).
y y

(_3, 1) 1

0 x _3 _1 0 x

FIGURE 5 (a) y=≈ (b) y=(x+3)@+1 M

EXAMPLE 3 Sketch the graphs of the following functions.

(a) y ! sin 2x (b) y ! 1 $ sin x
SOLUTION
(a) We obtain the graph of y ! sin 2x from that of y ! sin x by compressing horizon-
tally by a factor of 2 (see Figures 6 and 7). Thus, whereas the period of y ! sin x is 2',
the period of y ! sin 2x is 2'$2 ! '.
y y

1 y=sin x 1 y=sin 2x

0 π π x 0 π π π x
2 4 2

FIGURE 6 FIGURE 7
40 |||| CHAPTER 1 FUNCTIONS AND MODELS

(b) To obtain the graph of y ! 1 " sin x, we again start with y ! sin x. We reflect
about the x-axis to get the graph of y ! "sin x and then we shift 1 unit upward to get
y ! 1 " sin x. (See Figure 8.)
y
y=1-sin x
2
1

0 π π 3π 2π x
FIGURE 8 2 2
M

EXAMPLE 4 Figure 9 shows graphs of the number of hours of daylight as functions of the
time of the year at several latitudes. Given that Philadelphia is located at approximately
40&N latitude, find a function that models the length of daylight at Philadelphia.
20

18

16

14

12
20° N
Hours 10 30° N
40° N
8 50° N
6
FIGURE 9 60° N
Graph of the length of daylight 4
from March 21 through December 21
2
at various latitudes
Lucia C. Harrison, Daylight, Twilight, Darkness and Time 0
(New York: Silver, Burdett, 1935) page 40. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.

SOLUTION Notice that each curve resembles a shifted and stretched sine function. By look-
ing at the blue curve we see that, at the latitude of Philadelphia, daylight lasts about
14.8 hours on June 21 and 9.2 hours on December 21, so the amplitude of the curve (the
factor by which we have to stretch the sine curve vertically) is 12 !14.8 " 9.2" ! 2.8.
By what factor do we need to stretch the sine curve horizontally if we measure the
time t in days? Because there are about 365 days in a year, the period of our model
should be 365. But the period of y ! sin t is 2%, so the horizontal stretching factor is
c ! 2%&365.
We also notice that the curve begins its cycle on March 21, the 80th day of the year,
so we have to shift the curve 80 units to the right. In addition, we shift it 12 units
upward. Therefore we model the length of daylight in Philadelphia on the tth day of the
year by the function

L!t" ! 12 $ 2.8 sin $ 2%

365
%
!t " 80" M

Another transformation of some interest is taking the absolute value of a function. If

# #
y ! f !x" , then according to the definition of absolute value, y ! f !x" when f !x" # 0 and
# #
y ! "f !x" when f !x" ! 0. This tells us how to get the graph of y ! f !x" from the graph
of y ! f !x": The part of the graph that lies above the x-axis remains the same; the part that
lies below the x-axis is reflected about the x-axis.
 SECTION 1.3 NEW FUNCTIONS FROM OLD FUNCTIONS |||| 41

y
V EXAMPLE 5 #
Sketch the graph of the function y ! x 2 " 1 . #
2
SOLUTION We first graph the parabola y ! x " 1 in Figure 10(a) by shifting the parabola
y ! x 2 downward 1 unit. We see that the graph lies below the x-axis when "1 ! x ! 1,
_1 0 1 x #
so we reflect that part of the graph about the x-axis to obtain the graph of y ! x 2 " 1 #
in Figure 10(b). M

(a) y=≈-1
COMBINATIONS OF FUNCTIONS
y
Two functions f and t can be combined to form new functions f $ t, f " t, ft, and f&t in
a manner similar to the way we add, subtract, multiply, and divide real numbers. The sum
and difference functions are defined by

_1 0 1 x ! f $ t"!x" ! f !x" $ t!x" ! f " t"!x" ! f !x" " t!x"

If the domain of f is A and the domain of t is B, then the domain of f $ t is the intersec-
(b) y=| ≈-1 | tion A # B because both f !x" and t!x" have to be defined. For example, the domain of
FIGURE 10 f !x" ! sx is A ! +0, '" and the domain of t!x" ! s2 " x is B ! !"', 2,, so the domain
of ! f $ t"!x" ! sx $ s2 " x is A # B ! +0, 2,.
Similarly, the product and quotient functions are defined by

! ft"!x" ! f !x"t!x" )* f
t
!x" !
f !x"
t!x"

The domain of ft is A # B, but we can’t divide by 0 and so the domain of f&t is

#
'x " A # B t!x" " 0(. For instance, if f !x" ! x 2 and t!x" ! x " 1, then the domain of
#
the rational function ! f&t"!x" ! x 2&!x " 1" is 'x x " 1(, or !"', 1" ! !1, '".
There is another way of combining two functions to obtain a new function. For
example, suppose that y ! f !u" ! su and u ! t!x" ! x 2 $ 1. Since y is a function of u
and u is, in turn, a function of x, it follows that y is ultimately a function of x. We compute
this by substitution:

y ! f !u" ! f !t!x"" ! f !x 2 $ 1" ! sx 2 $ 1

x (input)
The procedure is called composition because the new function is composed of the two
given functions f and t.
In general, given any two functions f and t, we start with a number x in the domain of
g t and find its image t!x". If this number t!x" is in the domain of f , then we can calculate
the value of f !t!x"". The result is a new function h!x" ! f !t!x"" obtained by substituting
t into f . It is called the composition (or composite) of f and t and is denoted by f ! t
© f•g (“f circle t”).

f DEFINITION Given two functions f and t, the composite function f ! t (also called
the composition of f and t) is defined by

! f ! t"!x" ! f !t!x""
f{ ©} (output)

FIGURE 11
The f • g machine is composed of The domain of f ! t is the set of all x in the domain of t such that t!x" is in the domain
the g machine (first) and then of f . In other words, ! f ! t"!x" is defined whenever both t!x" and f !t!x"" are defined. Fig-
the f machine. ure 11 shows how to picture f ! t in terms of machines.
42 |||| CHAPTER 1 FUNCTIONS AND MODELS

EXAMPLE 6 If f !x" ! x 2 and t!x" ! x " 3, find the composite functions f ! t

and t ! f .
SOLUTION We have
! f ! t"!x" ! f !t!x"" ! f !x " 3" ! !x " 3"2

!t ! f "!x" ! t! f !x"" ! t!x 2 " ! x 2 " 3 M

| NOTE You can see from Example 6 that, in general, f ! t " t ! f . Remember, the
notation f ! t means that the function t is applied first and then f is applied second. In
Example 6, f ! t is the function that first subtracts 3 and then squares; t ! f is the function
that first squares and then subtracts 3.

V EXAMPLE 7 If f !x" ! sx and t!x" ! s2 " x , find each function and its domain.
(a) f ! t (b) t ! f (c) f ! f (d) t ! t
SOLUTION

(a) ! f ! t"!x" ! f !t!x"" ! f (s2 " x ) ! ss2 " x ! s

4
2"x

# #
The domain of f ! t is 'x 2 " x # 0( ! 'x x ( 2( ! !"', 2,.

(b) !t ! f "!x" ! t! f !x"" ! t(sx ) ! s2 " sx

For sx to be defined we must have x # 0. For s2 " sx to be defined we must have

If 0 ( a ( b, then a 2 ( b 2. 2 " sx # 0, that is, sx ( 2, or x ( 4. Thus we have 0 ( x ( 4, so the domain of
t ! f is the closed interval +0, 4,.

(c) ! f ! f "!x" ! f ! f !x"" ! f (sx ) ! ssx ! s

4
x

The domain of f ! f is +0, '".

(d) !t ! t"!x" ! t!t!x"" ! t(s2 " x ) ! s2 " s2 " x

This expression is defined when both 2 " x # 0 and 2 " s2 " x # 0. The first
inequality means x ( 2, and the second is equivalent to s2 " x ( 2, or 2 " x ( 4, or
x # "2. Thus "2 ( x ( 2, so the domain of t ! t is the closed interval +"2, 2,. M

It is possible to take the composition of three or more functions. For instance, the com-
posite function f ! t ! h is found by first applying h, then t, and then f as follows:

! f ! t ! h"!x" ! f !t!h!x"""

EXAMPLE 8 Find f ! t ! h if f !x" ! x&!x $ 1", t!x" ! x 10, and h!x" ! x $ 3.

SOLUTION ! f ! t ! h"!x" ! f !t!h!x""" ! f !t!x $ 3""

!x $ 3"10
! f !!x $ 3"10 " ! M
!x $ 3"10 $ 1

So far we have used composition to build complicated functions from simpler ones. But
in calculus it is often useful to be able to decompose a complicated function into simpler
ones, as in the following example.