Video 1 - Dihybrid crosses
Dihybrid crosses
● Dihybrid crosses can examine 2 traits at a time for independent assortment of 2 traits (meaning
these genes are located on different chromosomes)
Mendel dihybrid experiment
● P generation: Round, Yellow (RRYY) x wrinkled, green (rryy) → all F1 progeny have the
dominant characteristics (RrYy)
● If 2 traits are independently assorted (i.e. not on the same chromosome), the F2 generation should
have the expected calculated phenotypic ratio of 9:3:3:1
○ 9 round, yellow (R_, Y_)
○ 3 round, green (R_, yy)
○ 3 wrinkled, yellow (rr, Y_)
○ 1 wrinkled, green (rr, yy)
● Punnet square used to calculate, based off the gametes of the F1 generation
Independent assortment
● Occurs during Anaphase I of meiosis
● Assumes that no crossing over occurs
iClicker question:
Q: According to Mendel’s second law, when the different alleles for one trait separate into gametes, their
separation
a. is dependent on how different alleles for other traits separate
b. is independent of how different alleles for other traits separate
c. occurs so as to prevent recessive alleles of two different genes from occupying the same gamete
d. occurs so that recessive allele of different genes always occupy the same gamete
Video 2 - Probabilities
Probability = the likelihood of the occurrence of a particular event
● Used to predict the outcome of a genetic cross
● Multiplication rule
● Addition rule
The multiplication rule
● Used to calculate the probability that 2+ independent events occur at the same time
● Example for rolling two 4’s when you roll the die:
○ Probability of rolling a 4: ⅙
○ Probability of rolling a 4: ⅙
■ The probability of rolling a 4 and then another 4 next is ⅙ times ⅙, which is 1/36
The addition rule
● Used to calculate the probability that 1of 2+ independent events occur
● Example for rolling either a 3 or 4 when you roll the die:
○ Probability of rolling a 3: ⅙
○ Proability of rolling a 4: ⅙
■ The probability of rolling either a 3 or 4 is ⅙ plus ⅙ which is ⅓
Video 3 - Binomial expansion
Binomial expansion
● Useful for calculating probabilities in complex situations
● This expression takes the form of (p+q)n
○ p = probability of one event
○ q = probability of the alternative event
○ n = number of time event occurs
How to use the binomial expansion up to 8 event
Example: A black cat (Gg) and a gray (gg) cat produce kittens. There is a 50% change they will be black
or gray. If they have 6 kittens, what is the probability of 3 kittens being black and 3 being gray.
● p = ½
● q = ½
● n = 6 kittens
Binomial expansion for n=6 (use the chart; given on exams) → (p+q)6
P6 + 6 p5q + 15 p4q2 + 20 p3q3 + 15 p2q4 + 6 pq5 + q2
● We wish to calculate the probability of 3 black kittens and 3 gray kittens so we will use the
20 p3q3 term to calculate this probability because the exponents correspond to the situation.
● 20 x (½)3 x (½)3 = 20 x ⅛ x ⅛ = 5/16. The probability of a litter with 3 kittens gray and 3 black is
5/16
Video 4 - Chi square goodness of fit
Chi square goodness of fit test tests hypothesis of random segregation of traits in mendelian crosses
● Are the observed phenotypes of a cross the same as expected?
● Shows us if the expected values are due to random chance
Null and alternative hypothesis
● Null hypothesis (H0) is a conservative hypothesis that establishes there is no effect and any
difference between observed and expected is due to chance.
● Alternative hypothesis (H1) says that this difference cannot be explained by chance
Null hypothesis in Mendelian crosses
● Null: You should observe what Mendel reported, the 9:3:3:1 for dihybrid for 3:1 for monohybrid
● Alternative: You don’t observe these expected values and the genes do not sort independently
Chi square to determine if difference in observed vs expected values is due to random chance
O = observed values df = # possible phenotypes minus 1
E = expected values
The chi square value must be equal to or less than the 0.05 column value to conclude there is a 5% or
more chance that the differences between expected and observed values are simply due to random chance.
We can fail to reject the null hypothesis.
A chi square value greater than this means the differences are most likely not due to chance (and in our
case, there probably isn’t independent assortment occurring).
