UEE2702 – Protection & Switchgear
Lecture 26
Protection of Alternators
Dr. V Thiyagarajan
Associate Professor
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering
Sri Sivasubramaniya Nadar College of Engineering
Chennai, Tamil Nadu, INDIA – 603 110
1
Introduction
❖ The modern electric power system consists of several elements e.g.
alternators, transformers, station bus-bars, transmission lines and other
equipment.
❖ It is desirable and necessary to protect each element from a variety of
fault conditions.
❖ The most serious faults on alternators which require immediate
attention are the stator winding faults.
❖ The basic system used for protection against these faults is the
differential relay scheme because the differential nature of
measurements makes this system much more sensitive than other
protective systems.
2
Faults in Alternators
❖ Some of the important faults which may occur on an alternator are :
❖ Failure of prime mover
❖ Failure of field
❖ Overcurrent
❖ Overspeed
❖ Overvoltage
❖ Unbalanced loading
❖ Stator winding faults
3
i) Failure of Prime Mover
❖ When input to the prime-mover fails, the alternator runs as a
synchronous motor and draws some current from the supply system →
“inverted running”.
❖ Turbo-Alternators → Failure of steam supply
❖ If the steam is restored → alternator will pick up load
❖ If the failure prolonged → safely isolated by the control room
attendant.
❖ Hydro Generator
❖ By providing mechanical devices on the water wheel.
❖ When the water flow drops to insufficient rate, the alternator gets
disconnected.
4
Continued…
❖ Diesel Engine Driven Alternators
❖ During inverted running → draw a considerable amount of
power from the supply system.
❖ by applying reverse power relays to the alternators.
❖ The reverse power relays should have time-delay in operation in
order to prevent inadvertent tripping during system
disturbances caused by faulty synchronizing and phase
swinging.
❖ Hence, automatic protection is not necessary for this fault.
5
ii) Failure of Field
❖ The chances of field failure of alternators are undoubtedly very rare.
❖ Even if it does occur, no immediate damage will be caused sufficient to
rely on the control room attendant to disconnect the faulty alternator
manually from the system bus-bars
❖ it is a universal practice not to provide automatic protection against this
contingency.
❖ Note
❖ In a unattended stations → Field Failure Relay is used
6
iii) Overcurrent
❖ Causes for Overcurrent:
i) due to partial breakdown of winding insulation
ii) due to overload on the supply system
❖ Overcurrent Protection of Alternators is unnecessary. Why?
i→ Alternators are designed with very high values of internal
impedance → they will stand a complete short-circuit at their terminals
for sufficient time without serious overheating.
❖ ii→ Under overload conditions → disconnected manually.
❖ Disadvantage of using overload protection
Might disconnect the alternators for some momentary troubles
outside the plant thereby interrupting the continuity of electric
service.
7
iv) Overspeed
❖ Due to sudden loss of all or the major part of load on the alternator.
❖ Provided with mechanical centrifugal devices mounted on their driving
shafts to trip the main valve of the prime-mover when a dangerous
overspeed occurs.
8
v) Overvoltage
❖ Overvoltage conditions at normal running speeds cannot occur.
❖ When speed of the prime-mover increases due to sudden loss of the alternator
load → Overvoltage occurs.
❖ Steam Turbine Driven Alternators
❖ Control governors are very sensitive→ Continuous check on overspeed →
prevent overvoltage→ Hence, no overvoltage protection.
❖ Hydro Generators
❖ Control governors are less sensitive → Overstress the stator winding→
Insulation may breakdown.
❖ Over voltage relays → when generated voltage rises to 20% of normal value,
they either
a) trip the main circuit breaker to disconnect the faulty alternator or
b) disconnect the alternator field circuit.
9
vi) Unbalanced Loading
❖ Different phase currents in the alternator.
❖ Arises from
a) Earth Fault
b) Between phases on the circuit external to alternator.
❖ Unbalanced current may either severely burn the mechanical fixings of the
rotor core or damage the field winding.
10
Schematic Arrangement of Protection Against
Overloading
11
Explanation
❖ The scheme comprises three line current transformers, one mounted in
each phase, having their secondaries connected in parallel.
❖ A relay is connected in parallel across the transformer secondaries.
❖ Normal operating conditions → equal currents flow through the different
phases of the alternator and their algebraic sum is zero.
❖ Therefore, the sum of the currents flowing in the secondaries is also zero
and no current flows through the operating coil of the relay.
❖ Unbalancing condition → the currents induced in the secondaries will be
different and the resultant of these currents will flow through the relay.
❖ The operation of the relay will trip the circuit breaker to disconnect the
alternator from the system.
12
vii) Stator Winding Faults
❖ These faults occur mainly due to the insulation failure of the stator
windings.
❖ The main types of stator winding faults:
❖ (a) fault between phase and ground
❖ (b) fault between phase
❖ (c) inter-turn fault involving turns of the same phase winding
❖ Most dangerous fault and are likely to cause considerable damage to
the alternator.
❖ Automatic protection is absolutely necessary.
❖ Differential method of protection is most commonly employed due to its
greater sensitivity and reliability.
❖ Also knows as Merz-Price system.
13
Differential Protection of Alternators
❖ Employs circulating-current principle.
❖ Currents at the two ends of the protected section are compared.
❖ Under normal operating conditions → currents are equal.
❖ On the occurrence of a fault → currents become unequal.
❖ The difference of the currents under fault conditions is arranged to pass
through the operating coil of the relay.
❖ The relay then closes its contacts to isolate protected section from the
system.
❖ Also known as Merz-Price circulating current scheme.
14
Schematic Arrangement
15
Explanation
❖ Identical current transformer pairs CT1 and CT2 are placed on either
side of each phase of the stator windings.
❖ The secondaries of each set of current transformers are connected in star
; the two neutral points and the corresponding terminals of the two-star
groups being connected together by means of a four-core pilot cable.
❖ Thus, there is an independent path for the currents circulating in each
pair of current transformers and the corresponding pilot P.
❖ The relay coils are connected in star, the neutral point being connected to
the current-transformer common neutral and the outer ends one to each
of the other three pilots.
16
Continued…
❖ In order that burden on each current transformer is the same, the relays
are connected across equipotential points of the three pilot wires.
❖ These equipotential points would naturally be located at the middle of the
pilot wires.
❖ The relays are generally of electromagnetic type and are arranged for
instantaneous action since fault should be cleared as quickly as possible
17
Operation
❖ Under normal operating conditions → the current at both ends of each
winding will be equal → the currents in the secondaries of two CTs
connected in any phase will also be equal.
❖ Therefore, there is balanced circulating current in the pilot wires and no
current flows through the operating coils (R1, R2 and R 3) of the relays.
❖ When an earth-fault or phase-to-phase fault occurs, this condition no longer
holds good and the differential current flowing through the relay circuit
operates the relay to trip the circuit breaker.
18
Continued…
❖ Suppose an earth fault occurs on phase R due to breakdown of its insulation
to earth.
❖ The current in the affected phase winding will flow through the core and
frame of the machine to earth, the circuit being completed through the
neutral earthing resistance.
❖ The currents in the secondaries of the two CTs in phase R will become
unequal and the difference of the two currents will flow through the
corresponding relay coil (i.e. R1), returning via the neutral pilot.
❖ Consequently, the relay operates to trip the circuit breaker.
19
Continued…
❖ If a short-circuit fault occurs between the phases Y and B, the short-circuit current
circulates via the neutral end connection through the two windings and through
the fault.
❖ The currents in the secondaries of two CTs in each affected phase will become
unequal and the differential current will flow through the operating coils of the
relays (i.e. R2 and R3) connected in these phases.
❖ The relay then closes its contacts to trip the circuit breaker.
Note
❖ The relay circuit is so arranged that its energizing causes
❖ (i) opening of the breaker connecting the alternator to the bus-bars.
❖ (ii) opening of the field circuit of the alternator
20
Continued…
❖ Generally, current transformers CT1 is mounted in the neutral
connections and current transformers CT2 in the switch-gear equipment.
❖ In some cases, the alternator is located at a considerable distance from the
switchgear.
❖ As the relays are located close to the circuit breaker, therefore, it is not
convenient to connect the relay coils to the actual physical midpoints of
the pilots.
❖ Under these circumstances, balancing resistances are inserted in the
shorter lengths of the pilots so that the relay tapping points divide the
whole secondary impedance of two sets of CTs into equal portions.
❖ These resistances are usually adjustable in order to obtain the exact
balance.
21
Circuit Diagram
22
Limitations
❖ It is a general practice to use neutral earthing resistance in order to
limit the destructive effects of earth-fault currents.
❖ In such a situation, it is impossible to protect whole of the stator
windings of a star-connected alternator during earth-faults.
❖ When an earth-fault occurs near the neutral point, there
may be insufficient voltage across the short-circuited portion to drive
the necessary current round the fault circuit to operate the relay.
❖ The magnitude of unprotected zone depends upon the
❖ value of earthing resistance and
❖ relay setting.
23
Limitations
❖ Faults in the 20% of the winding near the neutral point cannot cause
tripping i.e. this portion is unprotected.
❖ It is a usual practice to protect only 85% of the winding because the chances
of an earth fault occurring near the neutral point are very rare due to the
uniform insulation of the winding throughout.
24
Modified Differential Protection for
Alternators
❖ If the neutral point of a star-connected alternator is earthed through a
high resistance, normal differential protection will not provide sufficient
sensitivity for earth-faults.
❖ It is because the high earthing resistance will limit the earth-fault
currents to a low value, necessitating relays with low current settings if
adequate portion of the generator winding is to be protected.
❖ However, too low a relay setting is undesirable for reliable stability on
heavy through phase-faults.
❖ In order to overcome this difficulty, a modified form of differential
protection is used in which the setting of earth faults is reduced without
impairing stability.
25
Circuit Diagram
26
Explanation
❖ Modification is achieved by connecting two relays for phase-fault
protection and the third for earth-fault protection only.
❖ The two-phase elements (PC and PA) and balancing resistance (BR) are
connected in star.
❖ The earth relay (ER) is connected between this star point and the fourth
wire of circulating current pilot-circuit.
❖ Under normal operating conditions → currents at the two ends of each
stator winding will be equal → balanced circulating current in the phase
pilot wires → no current flows through the operating coils of the relays
→ the relays remain inoperative.
27
Continued…
❖ If an earth-fault occurs on any one phase, the out-of-balance secondary
current in CTs in that phase will flow through the earth relay ER and
via pilot S1 or S2 to the neutral of the current transformers.
❖ This will cause the operation of earth relay only.
❖ If a fault occurs between two phases, the out of-balance current will
circulate round the two transformer secondaries via any two of the coils
PA, BR, PC (the pair being decided by the two phases that are faulty)
without passing through the earth relay ER.
❖ Therefore, only the phase-fault relays will operate.
28
Balanced Earth Fault Protection
❖ In small-size alternators, the neutral ends of the three-phase windings are
often connected internally to a single terminal.
❖ Therefore, it is not possible to use Merz-Price circulating current
principle because there are no facilities for accommodating the necessary
current transformers in the neutral connection of each phase winding.
❖ Under these circumstances, it is considered sufficient to provide
protection against earth-faults only by the use of balanced earth-fault
protection scheme.
❖ This scheme provides no protection against phase-to-phase faults.
29
Circuit Diagram
30
Explanation
❖ It consists of three-line current transformers, one mounted in each
phase, having their secondaries connected in parallel with that of a
single current transformer in the conductor joining the star point
of the alternator to earth.
❖ A relay is connected across the transformer's secondaries.
❖ The protection against earth faults is limited to the region between
the neutral and the line current transformers
31
Operation
❖ Under normal operating conditions → the currents flowing in the alternator
leads and hence the currents flowing in secondaries of the line current
transformers add to zero and no current flows through the relay.
❖ Also under these conditions, the current in the neutral wire is zero and the
secondary of neutral current transformer supplies no current to the relay.
❖ If an earth-fault develops at F2 external to the protected zone, the sum of the
currents at the terminals of the alternator is exactly equal to the current in the
neutral connection and hence no current flows through the relay.
❖ When an earth-fault occurs at F1 or within the protected zone, these currents are
no longer equal and the differential current flows through the operating coil of
the relay.
❖ The relay then closes its contacts to disconnect the alternator from the system.
32
Stator Inter Turn Protection
❖ Merz-price circulating-current system protects against phase-to-
ground and phase-to-phase faults.
❖ It does not protect against turn-to-turn fault on the same phase
winding of the stator.
❖ It is because the current that this type of fault produces flows in a
local circuit between the turns involved and does not create a
difference between the currents entering and leaving the winding at
its two ends where current transformers are applied.
❖ However, it is usually considered unnecessary to provide protection
for inter-turn faults because they invariably develop into earth-faults.
33
❖ In single turn generator like large steam-turbine generators), there is no
necessity of protection against inter-turn faults.
❖ However, inter-turn protection is provided for multi-turn generators such
as hydro-electric generators.
❖ These generators have double-winding armatures (i.e. each phase winding
is divided into two halves) owing to the very heavy currents which they
have to carry.
34
Circuit Diagram
35
Working
❖ The relays RC provide protection against phase-to-ground and phase-to-
phase faults whereas relays R1 provide protection against inter-turn
faults.
❖ Two CTs are connected on circulating current principle.
❖ Under normal conditions → Current in two windings are equal →
current in the secondaries of CT’s are equal → no current through relay
R1.
❖ Under short circuit on S1→ currents in stator winding S1 and S2 are not
equal → unequal currents in the secondaries of CTs→ difference current
flows through R1 → Relay operates.
36
References
1. Olle.I.Elgerd, “Electric Energy Systems theory – An introduction”, McGraw Hill Education Pvt.
Ltd., New Delhi, 34th reprint, 2010.
2. Allen. J. Wood and Bruce F. Wollen Berg, “Power Generation, Operation and Control”, John Wiley
and Sons, Inc., 2016.
3. Kothari D.P. and Nagrath I.J., “Power System Engineering”, Tata mcgraw-Hill Education, Second
Edition, 2008.
4. Hadi Saadat, “Power System Analysis”, McGraw Hill Education Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 21st reprint,
2010.
5. Kundur P., “Power System Stability and Control, McGraw Hill Education Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi,
10th reprint, 2010.
6. B.M. Weedy, B.J. Cory et al, ” Electric Power systems” Wiley 2012
37
Thank You
38
