SEMESTER 2

INTERDISCIPLINARY COURSE – 2

EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT.
MODULE I : FUNDAMENTALS OF EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT

Unit 1: Concept of Educational Management

Educational Management –Meaning, objectives and importance

Management

“Management is the art of “knowing what you want to do” and then seeing that it is done in
the best and cheapest way” F. W. Taylor

Management as a process “consisting of planning, organizing, actuating and controlling,

performed to determine and accomplish the objective by the use of people and resources”
G. R. Terry
Management is the process of planning, organizing, directing, controlling and evaluating to
accomplish predetermined objectives of an institution through coordinated use of human
and material resources.

Management is the Art/Science of:-

 Getting work done.
 With the help of other people
 Within the given budget
 Within the given deadlines
Management as an academic discipline refers to, substantive body of knowledge of
concepts, theories, laws and applications in practice.

Educational Management

"Educational management is the theory and practice of the organization and administration
of existing educational establishments and systems.”

Educational Management is ,the process of planning, organizing, directing and controlling

the activities of an institution by utilizing human and material resources so as to effectively
and efficiently accomplish functions of teaching, extension work and research.

Education is one instrument and one instrument only to bring change in the society and it is
through managing the education process in general. The realization of the country’s
aspirations involves changes in the knowledge, skills, interests and the values of the people
as a whole through the sound system of education. This is possible only through Educational
Management.
-Kothari Education Commission (1964-66)
Objectives of the Educational Management

1. Getting Maximum Results with Minimum Efforts - The main objective of

management is to secure maximum outputs with minimum efforts & resources.
Management is basically concerned with thinking and utilizing human, material and
financial resources in such a manner that would results in best combination.
2. Increasing the Efficiency of factors of Production - Through proper utilization of
various factors of production, their efficiency can be increased to a great extent
which can be obtained by reducing spoilage, wastages and breakage of all kinds, this
in turn leads to saving of time, effort and money which is essential for the growth &
prosperity of the enterprise.
3. Maximum Prosperity for Employer & Employees - Management ensures smooth
and coordinated functioning of the enterprise. This in turn helps in providing
maximum benefits to the employee in the shape of good working condition, suitable
wage system, incentive plans on the one hand and higher profits to the employer on
the other hand.
4. Human betterment & Social Justice - Management serves as a tool for the
upliftment as well as betterment of the society. Through increased productivity and
employment management ensures better standards of living for the society. It
provide justice through its uniform policies.

Importance of Educational Management

• Helpful in evaluating student achievement: Education Management is study of the
administration of the school. Thus progress of the students we find it form the
prospect card, which nothing but through examination.
• It helps in communication and managing information: A organization has consisted
of the human as well as physical resources. Education management helps to
maintain good relationship between the all human factors as well as managing
information, who are involved in the process education.
• Building effective teams: Effective team work is symbol of a successful institution.
Education management helps to building up this kind of a effective teams with spirit
of work, uniform decision.
• It helps in curriculum making and managing co–curricular planning, time table,
discipline: The concept of education comprise combination of curricular and co
curricular activities. Due to educational management, it’s become easy to planned
and executed very effectively.
• It is helpful in motivating staff and students: If the functioning of the work does
systematic. It definitely helpful for staff as well as students. Staffs get motivating,
through equal work distribution and students maintain discipline.
• Managing conflicts and stress: In concept of educational management, manager
plays a significant role. If he is aware and fulfil the responsibities, all the conflicts and
stress are going to be managed.
• Helpful in healthy and conducive school climate: Due to implementation of the
concept of educational management, works does smoothly, which create healthy
and conducive environment.
• Helpful in organization of counselling and guidance: Offenly diagnoses and remedial
teaching is going on in the each school. But due to educational management,
organization of counselling and guidance become easier and run effectively as well.
• Helpful in maintaining school records and financing and budgeting: Finance is a
very important aspect of educational institution. Because of the management it’s
became easy to maintaining records, financing and budgeting. The budgeting helps
to purchase optimum quality of things than going in for substandard quality of
things.
• It helps in Achieving Group Goals: By defining objective of organisation clearly there
would be no wastage of time, money, and effort. Management converts
disorganized resources of men, machines, money, etc., into useful enterprise, which
work towards attainment of goals.
• Optimum Utilization of Resources: Management provides maximum utilization of
scares resources by selecting its best possible alternate use in field of education from
out of various uses. It makes use of experts, professional, and these services leads to
use of their skills, knowledge, and proper utilization and avoids wastage.
• Reduces Costs: Management uses physical, human, and financial resources in such a
manner which results in best combination. This helps in cost reduction.
• Establishes Sound Organization: Management fills up various positions with right
persons, having right skills, training and qualification. All jobs should be cleared to
everyone.
• Establishes Equilibrium - It enables the organization to survive in changing
environment. With the change is external environment, the initial co-ordination of
organisation must be changed. It is responsible for growth and survival of the
organisation.
• Essentials for Prosperity of Society: Efficient management leads to better standard
of living and best quality of life, because of that society will get maximum output at
minimum cost and attaining prosperity.
• Good management makes a difficult task easier by avoiding wastage of scarce
resource: Efficient management leads to better economical production which helps
in turn to increase the welfare of people. Thus it is makes a difficult task easier by
avoiding wastage of scare resource.
 • It improves standard of living: Standard of living of the any institution depends of
the financial condition. Because of the systematic work, it improves standard of
living of the educational institution.

Principles of Management by Henry Fayol and its application to Educational

Management

Henri Fayol (1841 – 1925)

1. DIVISION OF WORK.
The whole work should be divided into different parts. Each individual should be assigned
only one part of the work according to his ability and taste. When a particular individual
performs the same job repeatedly, he will become an expert in doing that particular part of
the whole job.
Benefits:
Increase in the quality of work, in the speed of production, decrease in the wastage of
resources.

2. AUTHORITY
Right to give orders and the power to exact obedience. Responsibility: Being accountable,
and is therefore naturally associated with authority. Whoever assumes authority also
assumes responsibility. People should get sufficient authority to discharge his responsibility.
Fayol, “The result of authority is responsibility. It is the natural result of authority and
essentially another aspect of authority and whenever authority is used, responsibility are
automatically born.”

3. DISCIPLINE
A successful organization requires the common effort of workers. Discipline is essential for
any successful work performance. Fayol: Discipline means obedience, respect for authority,
and observance of established rules. Penalties should be applied judiciously to encourage
this common effort.
Discipline can be established:
 By providing good supervision at all levels,
 Clearly explaining the rules,
 Implementing a system of reward and punishment.

4. UNITY OF COMMAND
Workers should receive orders from only one manager at a time and he should be
answerable only to that superior.
 Not sure of priority.
 Confused situation.
 Adversely affects the efficiency
 Ego problem creates a possibility of clash.
 Own efficiency is likely to be affected.

5. UNITY OF DIRECTION
The entire organization should be moving towards a common objective in a common
direction.
Unity of direction means that:
• There should be one head for one plan for a group of activities having the same
objective.
• There should be one plan of action for a group of activities having the same
objective
• There should be only one manager at a time to give command to an employee.
• There should be only one manager exercising control over all the activities having
the same objective.
• There should be one manager to control them.
• Environmental conditions

6. SUBORDINATION OF INDIVIDUAL INTERESTS TO THE GENERAL INTERESTS

• The interests of one person should not take priority over the interests of the
organization as a whole.
• This principle can be named ‘Priority to General Interest over Individual Interest.’
• The general interest or the interest of the organization is above everything.

7. REMUNERATION
Fayol feels that in order to motivate the employees, apart from general remuneration, they
should be given some monetary and non-monetary incentives.
 The employees and the owners find equal amount of satisfaction.
• It is the duty of the manager to ensure that employees are being paid remuneration
according to their work.
• They will not do their work with perfect dedication, honesty and capacity.
• The organization shall have to face failure.
Many variables, such as cost of living, demand of labour and their ability supply of qualified
personnel, general, business conditions, and success of the, business, should be considered
in determining a worker’s rate of pay.

8. CENTRALIZATION
Centralization: lowering the importance of the subordinate role. Decentralization is
increasing the importance. The degree differs from organization to organization.
According to this principle, the superiors should adopt effective centralization which means
the superiors should keep the authority of taking important decisions in their own hands,
while the authority to take daily decisions and decisions of less importance should be
delegated to the Subordinates. The ratio of centralization and decentralization can differ in
different Situations.

9. SCALAR CHAIN: A FORMAL LINE OF AUTHORITY

It means each communication must move from top to bottom and vice versa in a straight
line.
The important condition here is that no step (post) should be overlooked during
communication.
Fayol has explained this principle with the help of a ladder.
Due to more clear system of authority and communication, problems can be solved faster.
It is the exception of the principle of scalar chain. This concept was developed to establish a
direct contact with the employee of equal rank in case of emergency to avoid delay in
communication.

10. ORDER
For the sake of efficiency and coordination, all materials and people related to a specific
kind of work should be treated as equally as possible.
Principle of order:
• A right person should be placed at the right job and a right thing should be placed at the
right place.
• Every enterprise should have two differentorders-Materials Order for Physical
Resources and Social Order for Human Resources.
• Everybody knows his workplace, what he is to do and from where he would get his
required material.
• All the available resources in the organization will be utilized properly.

11. EQUITY

All employees should be treated as equally as possible. The managers should treat their
subordinates in a just and kind manner to develop a feeling of dedication and attachment
for their work. All the employees should be treated impartially.
12. STABILITY OF TENURE OF PERSONNEL
Retaining productive employees should always be a high priority of management.
Recruitment and Selection Costs, as well as increased product-reject rates are usually
associated with hiring new workers. It is absolutely harmful to change the employees
frequently as it is a reflection of inefficient management. There should be stability of tenure
of the employees so that the work continues efficiently.
Instability in the tenure of employees is a cause of poor management. High rate of labour
turnover will result in increased expenses because of selecting them time and again, and
giving them training afresh. It also lowers the prestige of the organization and creates a
feeling of insecurity among the employees which keeps them busy in finding out new
avenues of work. Consequently, the sense of dedication cannot be created among them.

13. INITIATIVE
Management should take steps to encourage worker initiative, which is defined as new or
additional work activity undertaken through self direction. Initiative means the capacity to
work while expressing one’s thoughts.
According to Fayol, it is the duty of the manager to encourage the feeling of initiative among
his employees for doing some work or taking some decision but within the limits of
authority and discipline.
The manager should welcome the thoughts of his/her subordinates. The subordinates will
present new and useful ideas time and again and gradually they will become an integral part
of the organization. In order to make this process a success a manager will have to abandon
his false sense of prestige.

14. ESPIRIT DE CORPS

Feelings of loyalty, enthusiasm, and devotion to a group among people who are members of
the group. Management should encourage harmony and general good feelings among
employees. A manager should continuously make efforts to develop a team spirit among the
subordinates.
Use of word ‘We’ during the conversation with subordinates.

Application of Henry Fayol theory of management to Education:

 It helps to view the interrelationships between the development of theory, behaviour in

organizations and management practice.

 An understanding of the development of management thinking helps in

understanding principles underlying the process of management.

 Knowledge of the history helps in understanding the nature of management and

organizational behaviour and reasons for the attention given to main topic areas.

 Many of the earlier ideas are of continuing importance to the manager and later ideas
on management tend to incorporate earlier ideas and conclusions.
 Management theories are interpretive and evolve in the line of changes in the
organizational environment.
 Skills can be used to improve the basic effectiveness of a manager. Manager can utilize it
maximum quality and skill.
 Understand that management can be seen as a variety of activities, which can be listed
and grouped.

 Improve efficiency of the capacity of employees and employer. They work

for institution and not for self.

 Improve research work for development of education field. Theory

helps to focus on issue and steps in the management of the
school.

 Attain social goals through social agency like school, where

tolerance, integrity, love, social cooperation, and social skills are
to train.

 Clear goal and vision become attainable with the help of this theory. In less time, with
systematic study goal become achievable.

 Clear communication took place between the all members of the institution. All
prejudice wipe out within the mind of the employees and employer.

 Expect the best for the institution. Because of the implementation of the theory of the
Henry Fayol in the educational institution, expectation of director, principal, teachers,
students, parent, and government become to fulfill very easily.

 Encouragement to the all the members of the institution. Specially students. Its help to
development of their career.

 Recognition of the work of the any members of the educational institution.

 Stimulating work took place in the process of development of the institution. It creates
the interest as well as energy for the further work.

 Focus on team interest and need of the institution. According to the theory of Henry
fayol, team work is important and cooperation between the team. Feeling of the
oneness gets boosted.

 Inspiration gets increase day by day, while working with the theory of Henry fayol.

 Integrity becomes the part of the institution. They get socially productive. Unity within
the institution becomes permanent.
 Concept of System Thinking to Educational Management.

What is a System

Before digging into the details of systems thinking,

Let’s look at what a system is and what it isn’t.
Basic principles of systems thinking

 System thinking is a management discipline that concerns an understanding of a

system by examining the linkages and interactions between the components that
comprise the entirety of that defined system.

 The whole system is a systems thinking view of the complete organisation in relation
to its environment. It provides a means of understanding, analysing and talking
about the design and construction of the organisation as an integrated, complex
composition of many interconnected systems (human and non-human) that need to
work together for the whole to function successfully.

 Whole systems are composed of systems, the basic unit, which comprise several
entities (e.g. policies, processes, practices and people) and may be broken down into
further sub-systems.

 Systems may be thought about as having clear external boundaries (closed) or

having links with their environment (open). An open systems perspective is the more
common and realistic.

 The boundaries of a whole system may be chosen and defined at a level suitable for
the particular purpose under consideration; e.g. the education system or a complete
school system.

 Similarly, systems can be chosen and defined at different levels and can operate
alongside each other as well as hierarchically; e.g. the finance system, the decision-
making system, the accountability system.

 An organisation as an entity can suffer systemic failure. This occurs in the whole
system or high-level system where there is a failure between and within the system
elements that need to work together for overall success.
 Factors in systemic failure may include confused goals, weak system-wide
understanding, flawed design, individual incentives that encourage loyalty to sub-
ordinate (rather than super-ordinate) goals, inadequate feedback, poor cooperation,
lack of accountability, etc.

 Whole system success requires a performance management system that is pitched

above the level of individual systems and their functional leadership. Features may
include group or team-level goal-setting, development, incentives, communication,
reviews, rewards, accountability. The aim is to focus on what binds individuals
together and what binds systems together rather than functional silo performance.

 Whole system failure may co-exist alongside functional success. The leadership of
silos may individually be successful but not be sufficiently integrated into the whole
system owing to a shortcoming of systems design, management or understanding.

 A whole system can succeed only through managers collaborating in and across a
number of functional systems. The whole system can fail only if leadership at the
level of the whole system fails, and where several senior managers are involved.
Hence, such failure may be labelled a systemic failure of leadership.

 In cases of systemic failure, individual executives who operate at a lower sub-system

level may be free of responsibility and blame. They may argue (correctly) that it was
the wider system that failed. They may claim that particular systems that integrate
with their own work let them down. However, responsibility and accountability for
the successful design and running of the (integrated) ‘whole system’ should rest
somewhere.

 Understanding and anticipating how the whole system is intended to work, actually
works, and how it may buckle under pressure, can practically elude and defeat most
executives. To avoid censure for this tough challenge, they sometimes seek recourse
to the often hollow mantra “lessons will be/have been learned”. They also try to
divert attention and reassure investors by referring to a single bad apple (e.g. a
‘rogue trader’), behind which usually lurks a systemic failure.

 The leadership challenge is accentuated by the realisation that for every legitimate,
official or consciously designed system (which is intended to be and is supposedly
rational) there is a shadow system. The shadow system is where all the non-rational
issues reside; e.g. politics, trust, hopes, ambitions, greed, favours, power struggles,
etc.

 The system can confuse, overpower, block, and fail leadership. But leadership can
fail the system. A major failure of leadership within, across or down an organisation
is referred to as ‘systemic’.
How Systems Thinking Applies to Education

Frank Betts

Nearly a century of change has left schools playing catch-up, and it will take a whole-system
approach to meet society's evolving needs.

Our piecemeal change efforts of the last decade have taught us a valuable lesson about
Total Quality Management: we must seek improvement through systemic change. Current
approaches to solving problems in education are the same ones used by generations of
educators and are stoutly defended as having worked in the past. But we can now see
clearly that the environment within which education is embedded has been changing at an
increasing rate since about 1900. It wasn't until 1950 that the magnitude of change became
evident and stimulated a series of reforms, which have had little apparent impact (Banathy
1991).

Currently, the call for systemic change in education is becoming increasingly strident.
Unfortunately, the word system has been popularized without a fundamental
understanding of its implications, to the point where everything is a system but nothing
really is treated as one. Many people say they are using a systems approach, but almost no
one really is. Furthermore, popular interpretations of systems tend to use inappropriate
mechanical models and metaphors. Decision makers need to fully understand why our
current approaches won't work and what is different about the systems approach.

Current Approaches

The seeds of public education's current failures are found in its success in the past. From its
inception, public education has been called on to transmit core knowledge and cultural
values, provide custodial care, and prepare students for life after school, the most important
aspect of which is critical and creative thinking for problem solving and decision making.
Public education has been very successful in its first function, generally successful in the
second, and much less successful in the last. As a consequence, public education has
emerged as one of the prime sources of stability, or pattern maintenance, in our society.
Public education's overwhelming success as a pattern maintenance institution is at the heart
of its failure to match changing societal expectations.

Banathy (1991) suggests five reasons why our efforts to make a transition have met with so
little success:

 the piecemeal, or incremental, approach;

 failure to integrate solution ideas;
 a discipline-by-discipline study of education;
 a reductionist orientation;
  staying within the boundaries of the existing system (not thinking out of the box).

All five are examples of paradigm paralysis, or mumpsimus, which Webster defines as
“persistence in a mistaken belief,” the attempt to interpret current experience using old
models and metaphors that are no longer appropriate or useful. An examination of the key
evolutionary makers in Figure 1 illustrate that our schools remain firmly rooted at Stage 3,
when the rest of the world has moved into Stage 4.

If the old paradigms won't work, something fundamentally better suited to the task is
needed, a paradigm that illuminates the whole, not just the parts; one that is synthetic,
rather than analytic; one that integrates, rather than differentiates. This new paradigm is
systems thinking.

Figure 1. Key Evolutionary Markers

Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 4

hunter gathering groups agricultural industrial post-
societies society industrial
society
500,000 years 10,000 years 500 years 50 years
Speech writing print cybernetic
technology
wandering tribes communities nation-states potential of a
city-states global society
magico-mythic paradigm logico- deterministic systemic
philosophical scientific change
paradigm paradigm paradigm
survival technology fabricating machine intellectual
technology technology technology
Subsistence barter money credit/debit
nomadic subsistence cottage factory electronic
industry village
oldest member best farmer capitalist information
source
Words graphics analogue digital data
Adapted from Systems Design of Education:
A Journey to Create the Future, Bela H.
Benathy, 1991, Educational Technology
Publications, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New
Jersey. Used with permission of the
publisher.

Systems Definitions

Even a small child can use a hammer and saw, but it takes a master carpenter who fully
understands the tools and their limitations to build a house. We can begin to build a few
structures of our own by establishing some definitions for terms needed to discuss systems
thinking meaningfully.

A system is a set of elements that function as a whole to achieve a common purpose. A

subsystem is a component of a larger system; for example, the circulatory system is a
subsystem of a human system. Occasionally, the larger system is referred to as a supra-
system when it is talked about in relation to its subsystems.

An element is a necessary but not self-sufficient component of a system. That is, the system
cannot achieve its purpose without the element, and the element by itself cannot replicate
the system's functions.

Systems are characterized by synergy—the whole (system) is greater than the sum of its
parts (elements), because the relationship among the elements adds value to the system.

The relationship among the elements is maintained by an exchange of energy; for example,
money in a banking system, heat in a thermodynamic system, or information in a learning
system. The relationship among elements is maintained by a difference in energy potential
among elements, which allows for an interchange. A healthy system is constantly searching
for a dynamic balance through self-regulating mechanisms. For example, the human system
maintains body temperature in a dynamic balance around 98.6 degrees Fahrenheit by
increasing or decreasing the circulation of blood near the system boundary (skin) through
shivering, panting, or perspiring.

The total quantity of energy in a system is fixed; however, energy is constantly redistributed
among subsystems. Individually, all systems and subsystems are subject to entropy, the
process by which energy becomes distributed evenly throughout the system. When there is
no longer a difference in energy levels among subsystems or elements, the system breaks
apart or dies.

To continue to exist, a system must be able to import energy across its boundary or have a
capacity to create new sources of energy. A system that is able to import and export energy
is called an open system. One that cannot import energy is called a closed system. A closed
system that cannot generate a sufficient amount of energy internally to replace what is lost
to entropy will die. A recent dramatic example of this is the demise of the U.S.S.R., a closed
political system. The Soviet Union simply required more energy to maintain itself than could
be generated internally or imported.

With these definitions and examples in mind, we can see why general solutions to
educational problems do not work. Each educational system is composed of a unique set of
elements arranged in a unique constellation of relationships. Furthermore, the relationships
among elements, subsystems, and supra-systems are continually changing in search of
equilibrium while avoiding entropy.

Open Systems

Social systems such as a school are generally regarded as open systems. Katz and Kahn
(1966) have defined the attributes of an open system.

 Energy is transformed, and something new is produced.

 A product is exported into the environment.
 The pattern of energy exchange is cyclical; the product that is exported into the
environment is the source of energy for repetition of the cycle of activities.
 The system aims to “maximize its ratio of imported to expended energy.”
 The system exhibits differentiation, a tendency toward increased complexity through
specialization.

In addition to the degree of openness, systems are also characterized by three important
concepts: hierarchy, homeostasis, and purposiveness.

Hierarchy. A system's hierarchy refers to the number of levels within the system. Each
successively higher level of the hierarchy encompasses all of the processes at each lower
level and is increasingly complex as the number of elements and the relationship among
elements increases. As the number of elements, or subsystems, increases linearly, the
number of relationships increases exponentially. What is of particular significance from the
systems perspective is that the energy required to maintain the relationships increases at an
even faster rate.

Hierarchies may be natural, for example, birth order in a family, or arbitrary, as is the case in
a designed system, such as a school or business. Arbitrary hierarchies require more energy
to maintain than do natural hierarchies, and they frequently divert energy from goal
attainment. For example, maintaining the age-grade hierarchy is schools can be shown to be
counterproductive in many cases.

Furthermore, Kenneth Boulding has suggested a useful rule-of-thumb related to hierarchies.

For example, if a teacher is having problems in classroom management (classroom level),
we tend to discuss the difficulties in terms of the teacher's behaviors (individual level), but
the solution may be more readily found at the school level in the nature of the supportive
structures, unrealistic expectations of teachers, or even the notion of a classroom itself.
Russell Ackoff suggests the most elegant way to handle a problem is to dissolve it. The only
way an individual teacher can have problems of classroom management is if instruction has
been arbitrarily organized into teacher-managed self-contained classrooms.

Homeostasis. A second important characteristic is homeostasis, which refers to self-

regulation through feedback mechanisms. Machines are relatively simple systems with few
variables, which operate in a stable relationship. Mechanical systems require little feedback
from the environment to function.

At the other extreme, organic systems are very complex with many variables, which require
a great deal of feedback. The larger and more complex the system, the more energy, in the
form of feedback, is required to maintain a dynamic balance among elements.

Purposiveness. A final characteristic of a system is it purposiveness. Some systems have a

single, clear goal, which Banathy (1991, p. 35) classifies as a “unitary” system. Other systems
have many, sometimes even conflicting, goals; these are “pluralistic” systems.

We have attempted to treat education as a unitary system, but in reality it is highly

pluralistic with many conflicting goals. The compromises that we have reached by applying
old paradigms in a new context are proving to be unsatisfactory, but paradigm paralysis
prevents us from seeing what is really needed. By placing systems along a descriptive
continuum for each characteristic, we can better differentiate between system types.

Schools as Open Systems

As a system, a school is moderately open. The primary types of energy are financial and
intellectual. The school is not a natural system; it operates under a series of sometimes
conflicting legal mandates rather than a social mandate that represents a consensus of the
participants. Consequently, substantial amounts of systems energy are consumed in
maintaining relationships rather than achieving goals.

Similarly, schools tend to be more mechanistic than organic, as evidenced by rigid structures
that tend to treat all elements similarly: class periods of fixed length, a single textbook for all
students in a class, classes of the same size for different subjects, and so on.

Schools, as proposed earlier, have a limited set of goals: the same goals for each student.
While they are unitary in character with respect to goals, schools generally have some
latitude with respect to the means to achieve those goals.

Finally, schools have a restricted hierarchy with relatively few levels of complexity. The more
constraints under which a school must work, such as legislative mandates or environmental
pressures in the form of racial tensions, drug abuse, or poverty, the more closed,
mechanistic, unitary, and restricted they become.

The improvement of quality involves the design of an educational system that not only
optimizes the relationship among the elements but also between the educational system
and its environment. In general, this means designing a system that is more open, organic,
pluralistic, and complex. Banathy (1991, p. 80) has described such a system.

 It interacts with constantly changing (multiple) environments and coordinates with

many other systems in the environment.
 It copes with constant change, uncertainty, and ambiguity while maintaining the
ability to co-evolve with the environment by changing itself and transforming and
the environment.
 It lives and deals creatively with change and welcomes—not just tolerates—complex
and ambiguous situations.
 It becomes an organizational learning systems, capable of differentiating among
situations where maintaining the organization by adjustments and corrections is
appropriate (single-loop learning) and those where changing and redesigning are
called for (double-loop learning) (Argyris 1982).
 It seeks and finds new purposes, carves out new niches in the environment, and
develops increased capacity for self-reference, self-correction, self-direction, self-
organization, and self-renewal.
 It recognizes that the continuing knowledge explosion requires a two-pronged
increase in specialization and diversification and integration and generalization.
 It increases the amount of information it can process, processes it rapidly, distributes
it to a larger number of groups and people, and transforms the information into
organizational knowledge.

Implications for Education

The inevitable conclusion from the evidence at hand is that the old system is no longer
adequate to the task. If we accept this assertion, we must also conclude that no amount of
fine-tuning of the old system will produce significant improvement. What kind of a system is
needed to produce the breakthrough achievement we are looking for?

An analysis of the literature and practice in both educational and management suggests we
are moving from deterministic systems toward purpose-seeking systems. In social terms, we
are moving from “dictatorial” to “participative” organizational styles.

In order to make this kind of transition, it is necessary only to shift perspective from a one-
to-many toward a many-to-one orientation. For example, in education this means a shift
from viewing education as a system in which one teacher provides information to many
students toward a system in which there are many information resources accessible by one
student, only one of which is the teacher. This shift can accurately be characterized as
moving from an emphasis on instruction to an emphasis on learning.

From the perspective of systemic change, the implications of this idea are huge. Clearly,
there is no place in the new system design for the old “2-4-6 model”: all information
between two textbook covers, taught within four walls, in six periods. Equally clearly, the
new designs will include an increasing number of the following elements:

 outcomes (broad statements of purpose);

 outcome-related standards;
 benchmarks for each standard against which to measure individual and program
progress continuously;
 assessment based on performance compared to benchmarks, not to other students
(feedback);
 self-assessment;
 triangulation (use of multiple forms of assessment by multiple assessors to increase
the validity and reliability of feedback);
 immediate intervention;
 generative learning (Wittrock 1974);
 reflective practice (Schon 1987, Educational Leadership 1991);
 balanced instructional design (Betts and Walberg, unpublished manuscript);
 varied learning structures (self-directed, one-to-one, small groups, lecture, field
study, apprenticeships, mentoring);
 year-round schooling;
 assignment to learning groups based on individual performance, rather than age-
grade distinctions;
 intact teams working over an extended period of time (more than one year) to
achieve a common goal
 increased sources of information via telecommunications from school and home,
through peer and cross-age relationships, using cooperative learning structures,
from video and optical media, supported by fully integrated, interactive computer-
assisted instruction through a variety of electronically linked community resources
(home, school, work, libraries, recreation centers, health care facilities, churches);
 increased access to information;
 digitized student information and instructional resources, fully accessible via touch-
tone phone;
 “electronic books”;
 multilingual resources;
 multimedia delivery (sound, graphics, and/or text options);
  tightly integrated curriculum, instruction, and assessment, such as total immersion
second language instruction;
 hierarchy of small, six-to-eight person, self-sufficient, semiautonomous teams (sub-
systems).

These are not completely new elements; however, the effort to incorporate all of these
elements in a designed system has not been made. Total Quality Management in education
means a total system approach and, as it appears increasingly apparent, a totally new
system.

Concept of System Approach to Educational Management.

Definition of System Approach-
Systems approach is a management tool that allows individuals to examine all aspects of the
organization, to interrelate the effects of one set of decisions to another and to optimally use all the
resources at hand to solve the problem

Concept of Systems Approach

SA enables us to design complex systems by the use of resources in form of men, money,
machine and materials so that the total system may be designed, fitted together, checked
and operated to achieve the goal in the most efficient way.
SA provides a framework for planning, decision-making, controlling and problem `to
combine’ or `to together’ solving. The word system is derived from the Greek word which
means ‘to combine’ or ‘to bring together’.

A system is a set of inter related & inter dependent parts working towards a common
purpose.

E.g. the human body is a system with all the organs, muscles, bones & conscious that like all
its part.

System approach is a framework for decision making planning, controlling & most
important problem-solving

Neil’s view “system approach to education is defined as a particular method of exploration

to find effective ways of problem solving, designing & organizing learning situation in
education”.

Definitions

Keshon and Michean SA is one of the techniques which aim in finding the most efficient and
economically intelligent method for solving the problems of education scientifically.’

SYSTEM APPROACH TO EDUCATION

introduction • The education system, which was once very easy ; today, has become very complex. •
System approach has been introduced in the field of education to manage, control and improve the
process and products of education. It focuses required to him. Let us understand about system
approach.

Meaning of system The word “System” has been taken from latin word “systema” which means: a
part made up of multiple parts or members. In other words we can say that “system” means
mutually joined things.

Definition of system According to Craw Ford Rob; “SYSTEM” is a systematic organization of the
elements that operate in a unique way.” According to R. L. Acoff “ a SYSTEM is the set of interrelated
and interdependent elements”.

Characteristics of “system” System is a general term. It is applicable to various fields including

education. It is dynamic. It functions as a whole and acheives better results. It is integrated whole
comprising inter related.

CHARACTERISTICSOFSYSTEM APPROACH

CENTRALIZED ON THE LEARNER

EMPHASIZE ON EVALUATION
INTERRELATED ELEMENTS

FAST FEEDBACK

INDEPENDENCY

EVALUATION OF RESOURCES

SYSTEMS APPROACH:

System approach is a systematic attempt to coordinate all aspects of a problem towards specific
objectives. ... In the context of education, system is a unit as a whole incorporating all its aspects
and parts, namely, pupils, teachers, curriculum, content and evaluation of instructional objectives.

The systems approach is a problem-solving method which helps to:

1. Define the problem as clearly as possible.

2. Analyse the problem and identify alternative solutions.

3. Select from the alternatives and develop the most viable solution mix.

4. Implement and test the solution.

5. Evaluate the effectiveness and worth of the solution.

Example

Polya´s approach to mathematical problem solving is an example of the

systems approach in practice (see Polya (1945) How To Solve It ).

1. You must first understand the problem.

2. You must find the connection between data and the unknown and obtain a plan of the
solution.

3. Carry out the plan.

4. Examine the solution obtained

 Steps involved in using System Approach
„

Input -Formulation of objectives

„
Pre assessment of the pupil’s entry behaviour
„
Desirable attitude and aptitude of pupils is to be considered
„
Content to be taught and instructional material to be used is planned.
„

Cost factor.
Process – b) Deciding suitable teaching strategies/methods
- Selection of appropriate media and material.
-- Selection of appropriate evaluation procedures.
-- Formulating a scheme of comprehensive programmes/ timetable for the working of the system in
relation to its parameters and stimulated objectives

Process – c) Systems operation /implementation

The role and function of the elements teaching , pupils, and material resources .
Evaluation of learning outcomes/objective
Output – c) Attainment of objectives.
„
If the objectives are achieved as per desired the system is allowed to continue.
„
If the objectives are not achieved certain
If the objectives are not achieved certain modification need to be made in the system.
„
The system in this case can be restructured, reorganized and its function may be replanned for
better results.
Importance of System Approach for Education
1. Framework for planning, decision making control and problem solving.
2. Throws light on dynamic nature of management.
3. Provides a unified focus to institutional efforts.
4. Helps to look at institution as a whole and not as parts.
5. Helps the manager to identify the critical sub systems and their interaction with each
other.
6. Helps in improving
7. Helps in bringing efficiency in school administration and management.
8. Helps in systematic educational planning.
9. Maximum utilization of resources.
10. Helps in improving examination and evaluation system.
11. Maintaining controlling and improving the guidance services.
12. Designing, controlling and improving non-formal and adult education system.
13. In improving quality of education.

14. In improving the teacher t raining programmes- in –service as well as pre – service
institution

15. Improving the instructional system

16. Bring efficiency Help in systematic planning

17. Improving evaluation system

18. Maintain control

19. Improving the better training

20. Improve the quality of education

Unit 2: Educational Institution - Organizational Perspective

 Organizational Culture

Organizational culture is a set of values, beliefs, behaviors, customs and attitudes that
govern how people behave within organizations. The culture of an organization provides
boundaries and guidelines that help the employees of the organization to know the correct
way of performing their jobs.

The culture of an organization is ingrained in the behavior of the employees within an

organization and in a way it shows the ‘personality’ of the organization. The unique culture
of an organization creates a distinct atmosphere that is felt by the people who are a part of
the group, and this atmosphere is known as the climate of an organization.

Culture

The term has its origin from the Latin word cultura which is related to cultus, which
can be translated as cult or worship. Members of a cult believe in specific ways of
doing things and develop a culture that enshrines those beliefs. Generally the term is
very hard to define, however different scholars have been defining the term
differently. It is a learned beliefs, values, rules, norms, symbols and traditions that
are common to a group of people. Kluckhohn & Strodtbeck, (1961) define culture as
a shared, commonly held body of general beliefs and values that define what is right
for one group. Both the two definitions agree that culture should a shared beliefs
and values which are common to a group of people. Therefore, it is impossible to
have culture outside the group of people with a shared goal.

Organizational Culture

“Organizational culture is a system of shared meaning and beliefs held by

organizational members that determines, in large degree, how they act toward each
other and outsiders” (Robbins & Coulter, 2007, p. 52). Tosi et al. (1994) considers
culture as a pattern way of thinking, feeling and reacting that exists in an
organization or its sub-sectors. It refers to the attitudes, values, beliefs, norms and
customs which distinguish an organization from others (Carnall, 1995). According to
Jacques (1952) organizational culture refers to customary and traditional ways of
thinking and doing things noting that new employees must learn to adopt them
sufficiently to gain acceptance in the organization.

Therefore, it represents a common perception held by organization’s members that

influences how they behave. In every organization there are values, symbols, rituals, myth
and practices that have evolved over time. These shared values and experiences determine
in a large degree what employees perceive and how they respond to their world. The
definitions of culture imply tree things; first culture is a perception which means, individuals
perceive the organization culture on the basis of what they see, hear or experience within
the organization; two, despite the fact that individuals may have different backgrounds or
work at different organizational levels, they tend to describe the organization’s culture in
similar terms (that is the shared aspect of culture); and finally, organizational culture is
descriptive term. It is concerned with how members perceive the organization, not with
whether they like it. It describes rather than evaluates (Robbins & Coulter, 2007).

Characteristics of organizational culture

Kreitner & Kinicki (2007) identified three main characteristics of organizational culture
which include the following:

- Organizational culture is passed onto new employees through the process of

socialization
- Organizational culture influences our behavior at work
- Organizational culture operates at different levels

How cultures are implanted in organizations

Cultures are promoted in an organization through various ways such as the following:

- Formal statements of organizational philosophy, mission, vision, values and material

used for recruiting, selection and socialization.
- The design of physical space, work environments and buildings.
- Deliberate role modeling, training programs teaching and coaching by managers and
supervisors.
- Slogans, language, acronyms and sayings.
- Explicit rewards, status symbols (for example, titles) and promotion criteria.
- Stories, legends or myths about key people and events.
- The organizational activities, processes or outcomes that leaders pay attention to
measure and control (Kreitner & Kinicki, 2007).

Foundation of Organizational Culture

The founders of an organization traditionally have a major impact on that organization’s

early culture (Robbins & Langton, 2000; and Robbins & Coulter, 2007). Therefore, the
ultimate source of an organization’s culture is its founders. The founders have a vision or
mission of what the organization should be. They are unconstrained by previous
customs or ideologies.

The process of organization culture creation occurs in three ways;

- Founders only hire and keep employees who think and feel the way they do.
- The founders indoctrinate and socialize these employees to their way of thinking
and feeling.
 - The founders own behavior acts as a role model that encourages employees to
identify with them and thereby internalize their beliefs, values and assumptions
(Robbins & Langton, 2000).

When the organization succeeds, the founders’ vision becomes seen as a primary
determinant of that success. At that point the founders’ entire personality becomes
embedded in the culture of organization (ib Definitions of Organizational Culture

At culture's most global level, Merriam-Webster's On-Line Dictionary (2005) provides the
following definition:

The integrated pattern of human knowledge, belief, and behavior that depends upon
man's capacity for learning and transmitting knowledge to succeeding generations; b : the
customary beliefs, social forms, and material traits of a racial, religious, or social group; c :
the set of shared attitudes, values, goals, and practices that characterizes a company or
corporation.

As the focus narrows to organizational culture, there are seemingly as many definitions as
there are authors attempting to define this construct. Probably the greatest overarching
issue concerning the definition of an organizational culture centers around whether culture
is a root metaphor or merely one aspect of the organization; in simpler terms, is culture
what the organization is or is it something the organization has (Rousseau, 1990; Sathe,
1985; Thompson & Luthans, 1990)? The preponderance of opinion seems to fall on the side
of culture being something that most organizations have.

Kilman, Saxton, and Serpa (1985b)provided an apt analogy that helps to illuminate the
nature of organizational culture: “Culture is to the organization what personality is to the
individual a hidden, yet unifying theme that provides meaning, direction, and mobilization”
(p. ix). As such, it is emotional and intangible (Connor & Lake, 1988), individually and socially
constructed (Hall & Hord, 2001; Rousseau, 1990), and evolves over a period of years
(Wilkins & Patterson, 1985), especially as organizations find acceptable and unacceptable
solutions to internal and external problems or threats and attempt to integrate more
effectively internally (Schein, 1985a, 1992). This culture can also be developed and learned
by organizational members through the connection of behaviors and consequences and
through multiple reinforcement mechanisms and agents (Thompson & Luthans, 1990). It can
be learned through the reduction of anxiety and pain or through positive rewards and
reinforcements (Schein, 1985a).

A fairly common, simplistic definition of organizational culture is ”The way we do things

around here.” Although this statement appears in many books and articles, the earliest of
such entries found by this author was by Deal (1993, p. 6). Deeper discussions expand this
definition to cover such issues as the basic assumptions and beliefs shared by members of
the organization regarding the nature of reality, truth, time, space, human nature, human
activity, and human relationships (Schein, 1985a; 1985b). It also consists of the philosophies,
ideologies, concepts, ceremonies, rituals, values, and norms shared by members of the
organization that help shape their behaviors (Connor & Lake, 1988; Kilman, Saxton, & Serpa,
1985b; Owens, 2004; Rousseau, 1990). Among the norms it includes are task support norms,
task innovation norms, social relationship norms, and personal freedom norms. Among the
rituals are such issues as passage, degradation, enhancement, renewal, conflict resolution,
and integration (Connor & Lake, 1988).

Organizational culture embraces such organizational needs as common language, shared

concepts, defined organizational boundaries, methods for selecting members for the
organization, methods of allocating authority, power, status, and resources, norms for
handling intimacy and interpersonal relationships, criteria for rewards and punishments,
and ways of coping with unpredictable and stressful events (Schein, 1985a). This shared
culture helps to create solidarity and meaning and inspire commitment and productivity
(Deal, 1985).

Culture may operate both consciously and sub-consciously in the organization (Rousseau,
1990; Schein, 1984, 1985a, 1985b; Wilkins & Patterson, 1985). At the surface level, culture
can be observed through examination of behaviors and artifacts, including such things as
the physical setting, rituals, languages, and stories. At a slightly deeper, less conscious level,
organizational culture is defined by the unwritten rules and norms of behavior, often
conveyed by stories, rituals, language, and symbols. At the deepest levels, often totally sub-
conscious, lie such things as the fundamental assumptions and core values of individuals,
groups, and the organization (Connor & Lake, 1988). It is at this deepest level that the
organizational culture can be most tenacious and most powerful (Wilkins & Patterson,
1985).

Culture is experienced differently by members of the organization (Rousseau, 1990). Sub-

cultures may arise within an organization as small groups share values, perceptions, norms,
or even ceremonies that differ from those of the wider organization (Cooper, 1988; Louis,
1985; Thompson & Luthans, 1990). For example, in many high schools, coaches of male
athletic teams form a sub-culture within the faculty; they typically sit together at faculty
meetings, generally at the back of the room. They often miss faculty meetings and are
unable to participate in general faculty activities due to their coaching obligations
immediately after school. They can often be observed commenting and joking among
themselves at times when other faculty members are more attentively engaged with the
content of the faculty meeting. Similarly, new faculty members may form a sub-culture
somewhat distinct from those who have been in the school for a prolonged period of time.

Culture is also contextually influenced. It is the interaction of an organization's people

variables with physical and structural (ecological) variables (Hall & Hord, 2001). For example,
many high schools are built in a design in which hallways radiate from a central hub; in
these schools, it is very common for the teachers in each hallway to build a culture slightly
different from the culture of teachers in hallways with whom they have less personal
contact. School culture can be influenced by such physical surrounding variables as noise,
heat, and light (Thompson & Luthans, 1990). The open classroom designs popular in the late
1960s and early 1970s promoted more sharing and contact among teachers than fully-
walled individual classrooms. Learning cultures among students in the Southern and
Southwestern United States have changed significantly with the addition of air conditioning
to classrooms.

As far back as 1932, Waller noted that “schools have a culture that is definitely their own”
(p. 103). Waller went on to describe the rituals of personal relationships, the folkways,
mores, irrational sanctions, moral codes, games, ceremonies, traditions, and laws that were
so very similar in many schools and which define what happens in schools. This perspective
of a shared culture among schools has been commented on by many observers of the
sociology of schools, including Deal (1993), Sarason (1996), and Swidler (1979). From this
author's conversations with educators and students around the globe and observations in
schools internationally, there is a basic culture of schooling that transcends national, ethnic,
and socio-cultural borders. International exchange students often express how similar their
host school is to their school in their native country. In this author's experience, in
developing nations there is often a greater cultural similarity between the private schools
serving the more wealthy students and sub-urban schools in the U. S. than there is between
those private schools and the public schools serving their nation's poorer children. However,
as Deal (1993) and Maehr and Buck (1993) commented, each school also possesses
individualized, unique cultural aspects. Schools have distinct personalities, highly unique
ceremonies, and varying discipline norms. Some schools revere their athletic teams,
whereas in other schools art, music, or drama programs are given great attention; in yet
other schools, academic achievement is at the apex of community respect. Organizational
culture can be a highly powerful force in the school improvement process; given this
definition of culture, it stands to reason that, as Owens (2004) noted, it may often be the
most powerful determinant of the course of change in an organization (p. 191).

Types of Organizational Culture

There are four types of cultures that can be identified in organizations as follows:

• Clan culture – It is where employees are behaving as an extended family, mentoring,

nurturing and participation can be seen.

• Adhocracy culture – It is where employees of the organization are dynamic, risk-taking

and innovative.

• Market Oriented culture – It is where employees are result oriented and focus on the
job, competition and achievements.
 • Hierarchically oriented culture – It is where the employees undergo a rigid structure,
controls, former rules and policies. They expect to maintain stability, consistency and
uniformity in their processes.

For example, an educational institute has a hierarchically oriented culture. It is the way
all the activities function and also people perceive, think, and feel about things at the
institute.

Example of Organizational Culture - School : 638 Students

Introduction to the School - Located in an urban environment, the school was built along
noisy main road in the city centre. There is no school yard nor outside facilities. When
students arrive and during recess, they gather on the sidewalk since the area behind the
building is reserved for parking. The cafeteria is the only place that is large enough to
accommodate all the students. Teachers use staff rooms located throughout the two floors,
which, like the lounge, are no more than functional. When the school is open, supervision is
carried out by the teaching staff and a security guard. There appears to be no strict control
over comings and goings. The doors are open from 7:30 a.m. until 5:00 p.m.

Administration - The administration team is made up of two people, one of whom is the
principal who has been in this position for two years. There are 40 teachers, of whom 24 are
not permanent and 14 are on probation.

Curriculum - The school offers Secondary levels 1 to 5 general program courses and
temporary individualized paths for learning in years 1 and 2. A section of the school
accommodates approximately twenty adolescent girls with learning difficulties in years 4
and 5.

Socio-economic Environment - The socio-economic level is average and 53% of the families
are headed by single parents. Part-time work is not widespread among the students. The
school is characterized by a multi-ethnic population and its proximity to private schools

History of the School - The history of the school, which was founded in 1961, has not been
influenced by any one individual in particular, although some have left their mark. Of note
are a principal and teacher who imparted on the school an orientation which still remains
today. They are given credit for the current dynamism of the school. Administrators have
changed at regular intervals and have not encountered any major problems

Prevailing Human and Educational Value - The school is characterized by cultural diversity
and an openness to the arts (approximately 15 nationalities are represented there). It
appears that this racial mix and the socio-economic differences that exist among students
do not pose problems at the school. The school does not experience any vandalism or racial
conflicts. Given this cultural diversity, the school has emphasized tolerance and self and
mutual respect. The school copes with both the advantages and inconveniences of this
heterogeneity.
Educational Values - Academic achievement and autonomy are values lauded by the school.
The combination of co-operation and competition which prevails in the school produces
good results. Giftedness has been rejected as a value that gives rise to individualism and
elitism. The school has developed a policy of recognition which is revised annually. The
awards ceremony, which seeks to encourage and reward students as much for their
academic performance as for their general conduct, is in line with this philosophy

Team Spirit and Conflict Resolution - Presently, the school is going through a period of
transition associated with changes in personnel due to retirements. The irregular
employment status of many teachers reduces their commitment to the school. This type of
situation has a negative impact on continuity and on the enhancement of a sense of
belonging. On the other hand, through the parents’ committee, parents exert pressure on
the school to ensure that all activities have an educational value. Although there is no open
conflict, this situation creates a tense atmosphere.

Evidence of the School’s Cultural Life - Several sports, cultural and enrichment activities are
offered to students. However, the participation level is low. On the other hand, some festive
events are very popular and enjoy great success. In general, teachers participate in activities
prepared for and by students and do not hesitate to help out with preparations. However,
few social activities are organized by the different staff groups at the school

Sense of Belonging and Satisfaction - The poor reputation that the school has acquired over
the years, the absence of a gathering place, and the constant comparison of the school with
the private sector are all factors that have worked against the development of a sense of
belonging among both students and teachers. Moreover, teachers are rarely present at the
school once work is finished

Nicknaming and Interpersonal Relations - Relationships are open between people in the
same department, but otherwise they are either non-existent or superficial. The words «
trust » and « satisfaction » are used to describe relations with the administration. There is
good communication between teachers and students. Relations among students are cordial.

School image - The active and dynamic aspect of the urban environment is noted, as well as
the heterogeneous nature of the school, given the presence of numerous ethnic groups.
Leadership - The leadership style is discreet and low-profile. Both accessibility and
availability take precedence over visibility. The establishment of participatory management
is important for the principal. In general, the teachers feel that they are listened to and
supported by the administration. The students do not feel they have strong ties to the
administration because of the latter’s low-profile approach

Educational Project - The general aim of the educational project is expressed as follows:
« the school does its utmost to develop pride in the expression of the students intellectual
and personal resources. » This goal is pursued through the promotion of certain values, such
as Instruction , which means awareness of academic requirements; Education , which is
achieved by learning to be autonomous; and Respect , which means being aware of the
diversity and differences that exist in the school. The educational project appears to work
best with respect to the right to be different and to have that difference respected.

Academic Progress - The school’s administration and orientation committee emphasize the
importance of family support for academic achievement. According to them, the family
holds the key to the students success, and, by this very fact, is the reason for failure and
dropout. According to the teachers, besides the family, the little support given students by
the school environment can also account in part for academic failure and dropout.
Pedagogical approaches of a cooperative nature as well as the policy in favour of
valorization of school could encourage achievement.

What Students Think About Their School - The students’ comments about their school are
generally positive. Relations with the administration tend to be distant and cold, however,
there is general satisfaction with the teaching staff. The school’s regulations are not really
challenged and are even considered all right . For most of the students, a post-secondary
education is a normal part of their educational path. In general, they value the absence of
racism, the small size of the school and the fact that co- operation rather than competition
is encouraged.

Organizational Climate
Organizational climate (sometimes known as Corporate Climate) is the process of
quantifying the "culture" of an organization, and it precedes the notion of organizational
culture. It is a set of properties of the work environment, perceived directly or indirectly by
the employees, that is assumed to be a major force in influencing employee behavior.

Organizational climate is about the perception and feeling of each regarding the culture of a
particular organization. The climate of an organization is subject to change frequently with
the direct influence of top management within the organization. Organizational climate is
much easier to experience and measure than organizational culture.

Jack Brunson is a jack-of-all-trades. Whenever someone has a special job they need done,
they call Jack. Because he can do just about anything, Jack has had some very interesting
jobs over the years. Last year, for example, Jack worked in Yosemite National Park all
summer as a park ranger and learned a lot about the wildlife there. Jack then spent that fall
on a ranch in California picking kumquats out of kumquat trees. After that, Jack was hired by
the FBI to test stun guns.

Because he can do just about anything, Jack has worked for many different types of
businesses and has experienced firsthand the variety of cultures and climates that are part
of these organizations. Before we can explore organizational climate, let's define
organizational culture. Organizational culture is a system of shared assumptions, values and
beliefs that governs how people behave in organizations. The culture of an organization
provides boundaries and guidelines that help members of the organization know the correct
way to perform their jobs.

The culture of an organization is ingrained in the behavior of the members of an

organization and is very difficult to change. For this reason, culture can be thought of as the
'personality' of the organization. The unique culture of an organization creates a distinct
atmosphere that is felt by the people who are part of the group, and this atmosphere is
known as the climate of an organization. We define organizational climate as how members
of an organization experience the culture of an organization.

The climate of an organization is subject to change frequently and can be shaped by the
upper management of an organization. If culture represents the personality of the
organization, climate is the organization's mood. Organizational climate is much easier to
experience and measure than organizational culture and also much easier to change.

Types of Organizational Climate

There are many different types of climates that can be produced by the culture of an
organization and they can be grouped in many different ways. One way to categorize the
different types of organizational climates is climates that are

 People-oriented climate – It is a climate that focuses on perceptions of individuals

who are working in the organization.
 Rule-oriented climate – It is a climate based on established rules, policies and
procedures in an organization.
 Innovation-oriented climate – It is a climate that encourages creative or new ways
of doing tasks.
 Goal-oriented climate – It is a climate that focuses on achieving organizational goals.

Examples of Organizational Climate

It is known by people everywhere that Jack can do just about anything, so when a cactus
farm in Arizona needed some help, they called Jack. The culture of the cactus farm consisted
of a core value that emphasized care and concern for the people of that organization. This
culture produced a people-oriented climate that was obvious to Jack. He felt an immediate
sense of belonging to the organization and could tell they genuinely cared about his well-
being. The owner of the cactus farm spent two days training Jack on the best way to care for
cacti, and a supervisor was always nearby to make sure that none of the farm workers ever
got too hot or thirsty in the scorching Arizona desert.

One of Jack's most dangerous jobs was the time he was hired as a crab fisherman in Alaska.
The culture of this organization valued attention to detail by its members, and this culture
produced a climate that was very rule-oriented. The crab fisherman had a very established
way of performing their jobs and were quick to correct Jack if he did anything that did not
conform to the established procedures. Jack was quick to notice that this was a very stable
environment built on a tradition of doing each job a certain way. Since it was such a
dangerous job, it was important that no one do anything that went against the established
rules in order to ensure the safety of all members of the group.

Difference between Organizational Culture and Climate

 Difference between organizational culture and organizational climate is that the

culture is about the norms, values and behaviour adopted by the employees within
the organization while the climate is about the atmosphere of the organization that
is created based on the culture. Organizational culture and climate differ from one
organization to another. This article presents you with a brief description of the two
concepts and an analysis of the difference between organizational culture and
climate.
 Climate and culture are often used interchangeably by school leaders. However, the
literature differentiates these inter-related concepts in important ways. Climate
describes the shared perceptions of the people in a group or organization, while
culture includes how people feel about the organization and the beliefs, values, and
assumptions that provide the identity and set the standards of behavior (Stolp &
Smith, 1995).

 Simply stated, culture refers to “the way we do things around here” (Deal &
Peterson, 1999, Loc 108 of 1537). Climate, on the other hand, refers to the feel of
the school environment. Both impact behaviors of the people in the group, but
climate is viewed as a narrower concept than culture. Culture goes deeper to include
the immediate environment and what people believe and value. Culture is a product
of the relationship history in a school while climate is a function of how people
perceive those relationships in the present (Stolp & Smith, 1995).

 According to Dr. Wayne Hoy(1990), organizational climate of a school is a set of

internal characteristics that distinguishes one school from another and influences
the behavior of its members. It is the relatively enduring quality of the school
environment that is experienced by participants, affects their behavior, and is based
on their collective perceptions of the behavior in schools.
 Organizational culture is a system of shared orientations that hold the unit together
and gives it a distinctive identity. Three symbol systems communicate the basic
contents of an organization’s culture: stories,icons, and rituals

 Stories are narratives that are based on true events, but they frequently combine
facts and fiction. Some are myths and some are legends.
 Icons are physical artifacts that are used to communicate culture for example, logos,
mottoes, and trophies.
 Rituals are the basic ceremonies that provide tangible examples of what is important
in the organization.
 Organizational climate can be clearly identified with the perceptions of individuals
regarding the quality and characteristics of the organizational culture.

 Culture represents the true image of the organization, whereas climate represents
individuals’ perceptions, although there might be differences between each of their
ideas.
 Organizational culture is concerned with the macro vision of an organization,
whereas organizational climate is very much concerned with the micro image of the
organization.
 According to Rosario Longo in 2012, the relationship between the organizational
culture and climate can be indicated as follows:

 Researches on organizational climate were mainly based in psychology, whereas, the

study of organizational culture is based in anthropology and sociology.
 Organizational climate does not deal with values and norms in most cases. On the
other hand, organizational culture is very often described as the means through
which people in an organization learn and communicate what is acceptable and
 unacceptable in an organization. It si based on the history and traditions of an
organization and focuses on values and norms concerning teacher behaviours.
 Organizational climate usually refers to current situations in an organization and the
linkages among work groups, employees and work performance. Organizational
culture usually refers to the historical context within which a situation occurs and
the impact of this context on employee behaviours.
 Organizational climate is usually more easily manipulated by management to directly
influence teacher behaviours. In contrasts, organizational culture is generally
considered much more difficult to change/modify in short-run situations since it has
been defined over a period of years of traditions and history.
 Organizational Culture has depth and is ingrained over time. It is deeply rooted in the history
of the organization. It is the values, beliefs and guiding principles of the organization that
ultimately govern behavior and engagement. It’s hard to change as it typically frames
employees attitudes, boundaries, guidelines and constraints.
 A company may have deeply ingrained, positive, and living corporate values — but still
have a stressful or negative climate if that company is in the midst of a recession or
downturn. The climate is reflecting the current state of the organization, but its values
remain consistent in good times and in bad.
 It’s also important to note that differentiations in climate can exist within the same overall
organizational culture and can be traced to variations in supervisory leadership, resources,
department responsibilities, etc.

The subtle differences between climate and culture are important for any leader to
understand. Effective superintendents attune themselves to the climate and culture of
the schools and district to foster a safe, orderly environment that is student centered,
high performing, and embraces continuous improvement.

FUNCTIONS OF MANAGEMENT (MEANING & IMPORTANCE)

PLANNING
According to KOONTZ, “Planning is deciding in advance - what to do, when to do & how to
do. It bridges the gap from where we are & where we want to be”.
Importance
• Provides directions – For attaining institutional goal, it very much important to plan
it. Planning give us a perfect direction for utilizing physical as well as human
resources.
• Reduces risk of uncertainty – Management nothing but managing uncertainty,
which is part of any work. But due to well plan, it is reduces.
• Reduces overlapping and wasteful activities – Many times in an institution, due to
lack of planning, many activities are overlapping and wasteful. It will definitely
decrease.
• Promotes innovative ideas - Planning encourages the new and innovative activities,
with the experts, which are going to implement very easy with team spirit.
 • Facilitates decision making – Due to well plan activities, decision making power
works worthful. Decision always in the favour of better of the institution.
• Establishes standards for controlling – During function of the institution, many
things goes out of control. But if planning will be well establish then it will easy to
maintain standards for controlling.
ORGANIZING
According to Henry Fayol, “To organize a business is to provide it with everything useful
Or its functioning i.e. raw material, tools, capital and personnel’s”.
Importance:
a) Benefit of Specialization:
a) All activities are sub-divided into various works or various jobs.
b) The work is divided among groups of workers by division of labour.
c) This helps in the completion of maximum work in minimum time.
d) Thus, it gives benefit of specialization.
b) Transparency: Organizing clarifies the working relations among employees.
c) Optimum utilization of Resources: There is a different employee performing every job.
By doing this, it can be ensured that no task is left undone or overdone. Therefore, there
is optimum utilization of resources in the organization.
d) Adaptability: Organizing makes a company capable of adapting any change which is
connected with the post of employees. Whenever, a manager's post falls vacant, it is
filled up by promotion, since every subordinate is aware of the working of his boss.

STAFFING
According to Kootz & O’Donell, “Managerial function of staffing involves manning the
organization structure through proper and effective selection; appraisal & development of
personnel to fill the roles designed and the structure.
Importance:
• Good Employees = Good Service – Every institutional success depend on the persons
works in each unit. If they appointed on perfect seat, works goes smoothly.
• Customer-friendly service – In the institution, if they provide customer friendly
service, every things goes perfect.
• Smart Scheduling Streamlines Service – Smart scheduling streamlines service enrich
the functioning of the institution.

DIRECTING

• It is that part of managerial function which actuates the organizational methods to

work efficiently for achievement of organizational purposes. It is considered life-
spark of the
• Enterprise which sets it in motion the action of people because planning, organizing
and staffing are the mere preparations for doing the work. Direction is that inert-
 personnel aspect of management which deals directly with influencing, guiding,
supervising, motivating sub-ordinate for the achievement of organizational goals.

Importance:
 It initiates actions – It is the starting point of the work performing of subordinates.
Here the action takes place, and subordinates understand their jobs and do it.
 It ingrates efforts – It is through direction the efforts of every department can be
related and integrated with others. Integration of efforts brings effectiveness and
stability in concern.
 It is a means of motivation- Motivation can be done by providing incentives or
compensation, whether monetary or nonmonetary, which serves as aMoral booster.
 It provides stability- It is an index of growth of an enterprise. It can brought through
four elements, judicious blend of persuasive ledership,effective communication,strict
supervision and efficient motivation.
 Coping up with the changes –Adaptability with changing environment helps in
sustaining planned growth and becoming a market leader. Effective communication
helps in coping up with the changes.
 Efficient utilization of resources – If manager makes use of his supervisory, the
guidance, the instructions, and motivational skill to inspire the subordinates, it will helps
to reducing costs and increasing profits.

CONTROLLING

• According to Theo Haimann, “Controlling is the process of checking whether or not

proper progress is being made towards the objectives and goals and acting if
necessary, to correct any deviation”.
• According to Koontz & O’Donell “Controlling is the measurement & correction of
performance activities of subordinates in order to make sure that the enterprise
objectives and plans desired to obtain them as being accomplished
• According to Brech, “Controlling is a systematic exercise which is called as a process
of checking actual performance against the standards or plans with a view to ensure
adequate progress and also recording such experience as is gained as a contribution
to possible future needs.”
Importance:
 It facilitates coordination – Effective planning need coordination and its lead to
controlling the avoidable things. Education institution needs a controlling in such
manner that help to accomplished the objectives.
 It helps in planning – Controlling leads to maintain the performance of the workers from
the beginning in the planning.
 Effective and efficient utilization of organizational resources – Physical and mental
resources are the key factor of the successful institution. Controlling makes effective and
efficient utilization of that both resources.
 It helps to in taking corrective actions - Due to controlling, it help to taking corrective
action for the betterment of the institution to the manger.
 It is in contributing to possible future needs – Management is nothing but the future
planning also. If they have ,then controlling help them to do it.

PETER SENGE’S MODEL OF LEARNING ORGANIZATION MANAGEMENT

The learning organization are:…organizations where people continually expand their
capacity to create the results they truly desire, where new and expansive patterns of
thinking are nurtured, where collective aspiration is set free, and where people are
continually learning to see the whole together. ----Peter Senge

The Learning Company is a vision of what might be possible. It is not brought about
simply by training individuals; it can only happen as a result of learning at the whole
organization level. Learning Company is an organization that facilitates the learning
of all its members and continuously transforms itself. (Pedler et. al. 1991: 1)

Learning organizations are characterized by total employee involvement in a process

of collaboratively conducted, collectively accountable change directed towards
shared values or principles. (Watkins and Marsick 1992: 118)

Personal Mastery

Is the discipline of continually clarifying and deepening our personal vision to create
the results most desired?
Is the discipline of personal growth and learning?
People with personal mastery are continually expanding their ability to create the
results in life they truly seek.
Mastery in this sense is not dominance over something, but a special level of
proficiency (i.e. Master craftsperson.)
Is not something you possess? It is a process you learn and improve upon through
your entire life.
Organizations learn only through individuals who learn and also:
• Continually clarifying what is important.
• Continually learning how to see reality more clearly.
• Learning is a lifelong process
• Live in a continual learning mode
• A sense of why you are alive.
• Integrating reason and intuition.
 • Seeing more of our connectedness to the world.
• Compassion feeling what it is like to be in someone else’s shoes
• never “arrive”; in continual learning mode
• strive to clarify and deepen personal vision
• deeply aware of growth areas and tension between vision and reality

Mental Models

• They determine how we see the world

• They shape how we act.
• Is why two people can see the same event and describe it differently? Because of
their MMs they look at different details of the event.
• Even when we know our Mental Models they are hard to change.
• deeply ingrained assumptions and generalizations
• honest and critical scrutiny of entrenched mental models
• transcend mental models in order for change to take place

Shared Vision

A vision is the what - the picture of the future we seek to create. A purpose (or mission) is
the Why (Why do we exist?) Core values answer the question, how do we want to act,
consistent with our mission, along the path toward achieving our vision?

A genuine vision leads to people wanting to excel and learn. Leaders must translate personal
visions into shared visions. Unearthing shared ‘pictures of the future’ that foster genuine
commitment rather than compliance. Leaders learn the counter-productiveness of trying to
dictate a vision, no matter how heartfelt

A shared vision is the answer to the question:

• What do we want to create?
• A shared vision is a force in people’s hearts, a force of impressive power.
• They derive their power from a common caring.
• They can create a spark.
• It fosters risk taking and experimentation.
• They emerge from personal visions.
• The origin of vision is much less important than the process whereby it comes to be
shared.
• They take time to emerge.
• They become the reinforcing process of increasing enthusiasm, communication and
commitment.
• One of the deepest desires underlying a shared vision is the desire to be connected
to a larger purpose and one another.
Team Learning

Team learning starts with ‘dialogue’= the capacity of members of a team to suspend
assumptions and enter genuine ‘thinking together’. Allows the group to discover insights not
attainable individually. Shows group how to recognize the patterns of interaction that
undermine learning

Dimensions

• A group functions as a whole.

• Is needed for individual and group empowerment.
• The need to think insightfully about complex issues.
• The need to be innovative in coordinating action
• Teams' effects on other teams.

Systems Thinking

 interdependency and change

 focus on whole not individual parts
 long-term goals vs. short-term benefits
 better appreciation of systems leads to more appropriate action
 A systems parts must all be present for the system to carry out its purpose optimally
 Systems parts must be arranged in a specific way for the system to carry out its
purpose.
 Systems have specific purposes within larger systems.
 Systems maintain their stability through fluctuations and adjustments
 Systems have feedback. Feedback is the transmission and return of information.

Learning organizations and Education

• Provide continuous learning opportunities.

• Use learning to reach their goals.
• Link individual performance with organizational performance.
• Foster inquiry and dialogue, making it safe for people to share openly and take risks.
• Embrace creative tension as a source of energy and renewal.
• Are continuously aware of and interact with their environment.
• The five disciplines are the keys to achieving this sort of organization.
• Where people continually expand their capacity to create the results they truly
desire
• Where new patterns of thinking are nurtured
• Where collective aspiration is set free
• Where people are continually learning to see the whole together
 • “When you ask people about what it is like being part of a great team, what is most
striking is the meaningfulness of the experience. People talk about being part of
something larger than them, of being connected, of being generative.”
Conclusion:

No learning organization is built overnight. Success comes from carefully cultivated

attitudes, commitments, management processes that accrue slowly and steadily. Seeing
the world with a new light and acting accordingly.

Peter Senge has given 5 components which play very important part in learning
organization. Pursuing the goal with these 5polished components takes the organization
to the new heights of achievements.

UNIT – 3 – ORGANIZATIONAL MANAGEMENT

QUALITY MANAGEMENT: CONCEPT, PROCESS AND INDICATORS

The term quality, which encompasses economic, social, cognitive and cultural aspects of
education, is perceived as an integral feature of the educational process and its results. By
providing high quality educational services, educational institutions play an important role
in the development of the national economy, of the society as a whole and of its individual
members. Total quality can only be achieved by establishing an innovative organization, one
that is flexible, which can adjust quickly to changes in its environment and is capable of
learning. To improve education quality, an essential factor of economic and social
development in the 21st century, it is crucial to reduce the huge amount of knowledge
students are supposed to master, focusing their attention to a system of basic knowledge,
on creativity, problem-solving and lifelong learning.

Meaning of institutional quality-Institutional quality is an integrated institutional approach

in delighting customers (both internal and external ) by meeting their expectations on
continuous basis through everyone involved with the organization working on continuous
improvement in an academic performance , services and processes along with proper
problem solving methodology.

Institutional quality refers to –

“ Meeting the expectations of internal and external customers consistently by continuous

improvement in the quality of work , functioning , academic performance , services
rendered to the customers and the processes which goes on in the an educational
institutions.” Thus, it means a continuous improvement in an academic performance and
services to meet the needs of customers in the most efficient manner.

Importance of Institutional Quality

1.Satisfaction of internal and external customers- This incorporates satisfaction of
students, parents, societies, industries and higher education with respect to the academic
performance and quality of output.

2. Meeting the demands of parents and society- Parents and society raise questions about
the adequacy of infrastructure, resources and effectiveness of the processes of educational
institutions.

3. Competition- Educational institutions should be in better position to face the cut-throat

competitions in the market. E.g. Reputed coaching classes, emerging schools in the same
area, Competitions with the schools run by different educational boards etc.

4. Goodwill- Institutions which provide quality education generate name and reputation to
the institution. This is the output of constant efforts to bring the improvement in the
product or services. To maintain and enhance and upgrade the quality of teaching and
service offered to the students.

5. Highly motivated personal-Personal and job satisfaction of employees directly affects the
quality of the institution. Institutions need dedicated and disciplined faculty. Motivated
employees receive recognition and reward for their services. They add to the reputation of
the institution and contribute in the quality maintenance.

6. Lower rejection rate- Quality improvement helps institutions to produce the output at
acceptable quality. E.g. students from reputed institutions are easily and highly welcome to
the industries.

7. Reduction in stakeholders complains- Institution quality enhances the confidence and

trust level of the stakeholders. It also leads the institution to reduce the turnover rate
failure and wastage and stagnation of students.

8. Quality of input- Quality improvement focuses on better facilities to the employees in

terms of working conditions, pay, training, amenities like recreation facilities, educational
facilities for students. This enhances reputation of the institution. It attracts the
stakeholders and institutions can get better inputs.

9. Expansion and diversification- Quality programmes generates a good name in the

society. It also brings in high returns in terms of input. This enables an institution to expand
and diversity. E.g. introducing new courses, new academic disciplines etc.

Institutional quality incorporates 3 terms:

Benchmarking
Benchmarking involves comparing a set of products or services against the best that can be
found within the relevant field of education. It incorporates regularly comparing aspects of
performance (functions or processes) with best practitioners, identifying gaps in
performance, seeking fresh approaches to bring about improvements in performance,
following through with implementing improvements, and following up by monitoring
progress and reviewing the benefits.
Quality Assurance
Quality Assurance is a process oriented to guaranteeing that the quality of a product or a
service meets some predetermined standard. Quality assurance makes no assumptions
about the quality of competing products or services. The aim in quality assurance is to
ensure that a product or service is fit for the market.
Quality Improvement
Quality Improvement is concerned with raising the quality of a product or service. The type
of comparison that is made when engaged in quality improvement is between the current
standard of a product or service and the standard being aimed for.

The success of quality management depends on its eight components: ethics, integrity,
trust, education, teamwork, leadership, recognisability and communication. The Quality
Management Process is undertaken to ensure that the Quality Targets identified within the
Quality Review Form are achieved by applying clearly defined Quality Assurance and Quality
Control techniques.

Processes of Quality Management:

The educational institutions of today are concerned with quality. With the emergence of
competition among schools, the identification of the academic institutions that have a high
level of quality has become a crucial issue. In the school setting, students and their parents
should attain satisfaction from educational services. The services in school should be
rendered with the perspective that the students are paying for the services that are
provided by the school.

Quality management process includes “all activities of the overall management function
that determine the quality policy, objectives, and responsibilities and implements them by
means such as quality planning, quality control, quality assurance, and quality improvement,
within the quality system.”

Three key processes of Quality Management:

1. Establish Quality Criteria and Standards (plan),

2. Measure Quality of Deliverable ( Do),
3. Enhance Quality Achieved (Check and Act).

PROCESS OF QUALITY MANAGEMENT.

Though there are many steps in to implementing a Quality Management System, the
following steps are essential:

Step 1: Identify Organizational Goals: The process of quality management starts by defining
how employees’ jobs are tied to organizations goals. Employees need to know the
organization’s mission, vision, values, how they relate to the organization and their role in it.
All new employees should receive a thorough orientation with regards to the organization’s
vision, mission, values and goals. Knowing their individual goals and how it relates to the
organization’s goals is the first step in the process of quality management.

Step 2: Identify Critical Success Factors: The factors that make an organization’s quality
management system successful should be identified. These factors can be a well-designed
teaching learning process, curriculum design, technical support, stake holder’s support,
financial security, or employee satisfaction. One need to make a list of the primary factors
that influence the process of quality management and continuously and consistently
manage those factors.

Step 3: Identify Internal and External Customers and their feedback: Identifying the key groups
of stakeholders that make quality management system work. Knowing these stakeholders
and their needs can help organization develop programs and services for these people.
Often customers are parents, students, employees, schools employers, etc. Stakeholder’s
feedback is essential in the process of quality management. Consistent stake holders
feedback enables organizations to detect and solve quality problems before it become a
serious issue.

Step 4: Plan At this step the organisation has to decide the quality in accordance with the
expected output policy. It also has to set the overall policy, objectives and processes
necessary to deliver results in accordance with the expected target or goals to enhance
quality. Established structure and provision of resources is also a part of the targeted
improvement.

Step 5: Implement Continuous Improvements: Quality management is synonymous with

continuous improvement. The results or information gleamed from feedback from
stakeholders must be used to make the necessary changes to the quality management
process. At this stage the plan or policy is implemented through the organisation, the
process is executed. Resources are allocated. This could entail more leadership
development, staff training, higher levels of staffing, corrections to the teaching learning
process, Curriculum design and planning etc. The essential factor is to study the feedback
received and uses it to continuously improve the organizations processes in delivering the
services to its stakeholders.

Step 6: Check Quality: Study the actual results and compare against the expected results,
targets or goals from the "PLAN" to ascertain any differences. Look for deviation in
implementation from the plan and also look for the appropriateness and completeness of
the plan to enable the execution

Step 7: Measure Results: At this stage the plan or policy is implemented through the
organisation is an improvement to the prior standard, then that becomes the new standard
for how the organization should ACT going forward If the CHECK shows that the PLAN that
was implemented is not an improvement, then the existing standard will remain in place. In
either case, if the CHECK showed something different than expected (whether better or
worse), then there is some more learning to be done. When an organization does not reach
its goals, make sure everyone is clear on what required corrective action is necessary to
ensure the goals are achieved.

Indicators of quality in education

The system of indicators of quality in education, as well as the quality criteria associated
with the indicators, helps schools to point out the important areas of their own activities -
their own advantages and disadvantages and development opportunities. School quality
team can debate about representation and development of particular indicator aspect and
search for method for upgrade and meliorate indicator representation in specify school
circumstances. The indicators are grouped into seven areas with specific topics:

1. Curriculum - structure of the curriculum (program/goals, tasks, focus on development of

functional tasks, focus on students’ activities, courses and programs and integration of
programs within and between areas). Curriculum revision should be done on regular basis.
Hence, there is a need for a certain amount of flexibility in the curriculum to incorporate the
emerging concerns. In other words, school curriculum should respond to both the current
and the futuristic scenario of higher education. The institution should emphasize that the
faculty members use interactive and participatory approach in the transaction of
curriculum.

2. Achievements: - Educational outputs, including indicators of educational attainment of

institutions, brand image created by the institution, learning achievement, course
completion, equity outcomes and social outcomes of education. Achievement results by
grade and subject, student attendance, completion of admissions coursework, student
discipline, and teacher credentialing, among others. Institutions’ accountability results,
which are derived from student outcome data to indicate Institutions’ overall performance
and the extent to which they have met their annual state goals. Internal branding (students,
faculty and staff) and external branding (industry, society, media and accreditation councils
etc.

3. Learning and teaching - Curriculum transaction is the most crucial dimension of an

institution’s functioning. The dynamism, flexibility and intentions of the curriculum
visualised/planned need to be explicated in the transaction modes, which means, these
features must be observable in the manner in which the curriculum design is put to practice.
The extent of teacher involvement and commitment, student interest and motivation,
coordination between and among the various units of the institution as well as the several
learning activities, meaningful interconnections among the theoretical and practical
activities on the one hand and the institutional and the field based activities on the other
are important considerations for effective curriculum transaction.
4. Students’ support–(students’ personal, social and spiritual growth - progress and
achievement monitoring - support in all aspects of learning, progress, students’ and
teachers’ personal development.)The institution has to identify the needs of the students
and provide individualized support depending on the nature and extent of problems
confronting the students. The various support services thus need to take into account the
students’ educational, social, personal and vocational needs comprehensively. Facilitating
mechanisms like guidance cell, and financial aid to support students are some examples.
Through the various activities on and off the campus the institution encourages positive
social interaction and self-motivation fostering the holistic development of the student.

5. School ethos–A clear statement of Policies, Regulations, and Committees is essential for
organizing the programme as envisioned in the curriculum. It also brings uniformity in
implementation by more than one unit of the institution and ensures equivalence in
successive implementation.
An effective internal quality management demonstrates dealing with the processes through
team work, involving people from all units and levels, improvement and training in
management systems, identification and elimination of barriers to teaching-learning and
constant review and analysis of data for development. Participatory management
procedures and creative governance of human and material resources are important areas
which reflect the quality of an institution and ensure that the academic and administrative
planning in the institution move hand in hand. The goals and objectives need to be
communicated and deployed at all levels to ensure every individual employee’s contribution
towards institutional development.

6. Resources –(efficient human and material resources )

Faculty – Quality educational processes require qualified and professional principal, well-
trained teachers able to use learner-centered teaching and learning methods, and life skills
approaches, which tend to emphasize capabilities. Teacher’s classroom performance,
turnover rate of faculty, moral and motivational level of the faculty, commitment of the
employees and staff development mechanism etc. are the indicators of institutional quality.

Other Resources: There must be adequate hygiene and sanitation facilities accessible to all,
and, if possible, health and nutrition services in the vicinity. Physical environment i.e.
Building standards, Sanitation standards, Furniture standards, Equipment standards should
be maintained. School policies and their implementation must promote physical and mental
health, safety, and security. While the physical environment is better understood, the
psycho-social one, which is at least as important, deserves serious attention so that
practices such as gender discrimination, bullying, corporal punishment, and forced work are
eliminated.
7. Management, leadership and quality assurance–
These element include clear, vision-driven management and effective leadership; keeping
the goals of the
organization limited and ensuring that these schools are addressed; making standards
explicit and operational; introducing continuous change, improvement and innovation;
building in high-involvement, commitment, participation, ownership, and empowerment of
colleagues; informed an pro-active leadership; devolution of responsibility to autonomous
teams; the use of management information systems to monitor and measure activities and
outcomes; and the development of creativity through problem solving approaches and
reward systems.

Human Resource Management - Meaning, Need and Processes

Meaning:

Before we define HRM, it seems pertinent to first define the term ‘human resources’. In
common parlance, human resources means the people. However, different management
experts have defined human resources differently. For example, Michael J. Jucius has
defined human resources as “a whole consisting of inter-related, inter-dependent and
interacting physiological, psychological, sociological and ethical components”.

According to Leon C. Megginson “From the national point of view human resources are
knowledge, skills, creative abilities, talents, and attitudes obtained in the population;
whereas from the view-point of the individual enterprise, they represent the total of the
inherent abilities, acquired knowledge and skills as exemplified in the talents and aptitude
of its employees”.

Sumantra Ghosal considers human resources as human capital. He classifies human capita
into three categories-intellectual capitals, social capital and emotional capital. Intellectual
capital consists of specialized knowledge, tacit knowledge and skills, cognitive complexity,
and learning capacity.
Social capital is made up of network of relationships, sociability, and trustworthiness
Emotional capital consists of self-confidence, ambition and courage, risk-bearing ability, and
resilience. Now it is clear from above definitions that human resources refer to the
qualitative and quantitative aspects of employees working in an organisation.

Let us now define human resource management.

In simple words, HRM is a process of making the efficient and effective use of human
resources so that the set goals are achieved. Let us also consider some important definitions
of HRM.

According to Flippo “Personnel management, or say, human resource management is the

planning, organising, directing and controlling of the procurement development
compensation integration, 4intenance, and separation of human resources to the end that
individual, organisational and social objectives are accomplished”.

The National Institute of Personnel Management (NIPM) of India has defined human
resource/personnel management as “that part of management which is concerned with
people at work and with their relationship within an enterprise. Its aim is to bring together
and develop into an effective organisation of the men and women who make up an
enterprise and having regard for the well-being of the individuals and of working groups, to
enable them to make their best contribution to its success”.

According to Decenzo and Robbins “HRM is concerned with the people dimension in
management. Since every organisation is made up of people, acquiring their services,
developing their skills, motivating them to higher levels of performance and ensuring that
they continue to maintain their commitment to the organisation are essential to achieving
organisational objectives. This is true, regardless of the type of organisation-government,
business, education, health, recreation, or social action”.

Thus, HRM can be defined as a process of procuring, developing and maintaining competent
human resources in the organisation so that the goals of an organisation are achieved in an
effective and efficient manner. In short, HRM is an art of managing people at work in such a
manner that they give their best to the organisation for achieving its set goals.

Objectives:

The primary objective of HRM is to ensure the availability of right people for right jobs so as
the organisational goals are achieved effectively.

This primary objective can further be divided into the following sub-objectives:

1. To help the organisation to attain its goals effectively and efficiently by providing
competent and motivated employees.
 2. To utilize the available human resources effectively.
3. To increase to the fullest the employee’s job satisfaction and self-actualisation.
4. To develop and maintain the quality of work life (QWL) which makes employment in
the organisation a desirable personal and social situation.
5. To help maintain ethical policies and behaviour inside and outside the organisation.
6. To establish and maintain cordial relations between employees and management.
7. To reconcile individual/group goals with organisational goals.

Need of Human Resource Management :

Some of the reasons for need of human resource management are:

1. for Good Industrial Relations

2. Create Organisational Commitment

3. Meeting with Changing Environment

4. Change in Political Philosophy

5. Enhanced Pressure On Employees

6. Meeting Research and Development Requirements.

Human resource management tries to create a better understanding between management

and employees.

It assists employees in attaining individual and organisational goals. This approach has been
gaining the attention of management professionals in the last decade or so.

1. for Good Industrial Relations:

There is large spread unrest, labour- management disputes, lack of trust in each other,
increasing expectations of workers, growing of militancy in trade unions etc. These factors
have generated a gap among workers and managements. Both sides are blaming of
exploitation by the other side. In the absence of cordiality in an organisation, the
performance of workers is adversely affected. HRM approach is needed to bring proper
understanding among workers and management. The workers are trained and developed to
meet their individual and organisational objectives. The workers are made to understand
that various managerial actions will assist them in achieving their aspirations and
organisation’s goal.
2. Create Organizational Commitment:

There is a humanisation of work environment in industrially advanced countries like Japan,

U.S.A., and Germany etc. Globalisation of economy has exposed Indian industries to
international competition. An improvement in efficiency and quality of work can come only
when workers develop organisational commitment. HRM approach helps in creating a sense
of pride for the organisation among the employees.

3. Meeting with Changing Environment:

The business environment is changing rapidly. Technological improvements have

revolutionised production processes. Automation has been introduced in office operations.
Good co Therefore, there is a need to cope with new and changing situation. The
operational efficiency of workers must cope up with a revolutionary change in the
technology which necessitates a new approach to manpower communication methods have
revolutionised important areas of business.

4. Change in Political Philosophy:

Political philosophy has also undergone a substantial change all over the world. The new
approach is to develop human resources properly for making their better use. In India,
Central Government has created a separate ministry as Human Resource Development and
put it under a Senior Cabinet Minister.

This shows the importance given to human resources in India, which opened up a door for a
fresh approach to human resource development in the industrial sector too.

5. Enhanced Pressure On Employees:

The technological innovations have made possible the use of sophisticated machines. The
installation, monitoring of machines, maintenance and controlling of operations etc.,
require large number of trained and skilful personnel. Technicians, repairers and service
people are also necessary. The more the technical development and automation, the more
would be the dependence on human beings. There should, therefore, be greater need for
humane approach to manpower. Similarly, use of more capital intensive methods would
result in greater productivity of men necessitating greater motivating and greater human
resources approach to management.

6. Meeting Research and Development Requirements:

Fresh initiatives and emphasis on research and development in the realm of industry also
led to a new policy of human resource development to cope with the increasing demand for
technically capable people. As a result of this, a need arose for a new approach to human
resources.
PROCESS OF HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT
HRD asserts the importance of an organizational climate conducive the development
of human potential. According to Rao, such a climate comprises of the following dimensions:
(a) Proactively : Employees are willing to take initiative, are action oriented and able to
create or control a situation through a a high degree of proactivity.
(b) Openness and risk-taking :Employees feel free to express their ideas and the institution
is willing to experiment with new id as, methods and procedures.
(c) Collaboration : There is a feeling of affiliation among employees and a sense of working
for a common cause for which they col aborate with each other.
(d) Trust and Authenticity : Employees, departments and groups trust each other and will
do what they claim they will.
(e) Constructive Confrontation : Employees face problems and issues squarely without
hiding them or avoiding them for fear of hurting each other.
(f) Autonomy : Employees have some freedom to act independently within the boundaries
of their job/role definition.
(g) General Development Climate : Employees are continuously helped to acquire new
competencies through a process of performance planning, feedback, training, periodic
review of performance and assessment of the developmental needs and creation of
development opportunities through training. Job-rotation, redefinition of responsibility,
etc
In addition to these climate variables, the following HRD processes are necessary for
organizational effectiveness :
(1) Role clarity
(2) Planning of development by every employee.
(3) Awareness of competencies required for a job
(4) Proactive orientation.
(5) Trust
(6) Collaboration and teamwork.
(7) Authenticity.
(8) Openness.
(9) Risk-taking
(10) Building values.
(11) Clarification of norms.
(12) Increased communication.
(13) More objective rewards.
(14) Generating objective data of employees etc.

(1) Self-managing Resources : Every human being is a fundamentally different and

unique resource, in the he/she is simultaneously a source, a resource and the end of
all economic and social activity. i.e., he/she is the means as well as the purpose.
 (2) Potential : people have potentials, though the nature and degree of potential differ
from person to person. These potentials can be developed and utilized with
reference to task challenges, responsibility and commitment.

(3) Limitations : People’s weaknesses and limitations are the result of a variety of
circumstances, events and factors; and can be overcome with support, awareness
and rectification so as to ultimately allow the potential to bloom.

(4) Quality of work Life : It includes opportunities for a meaningful career, job
satisfaction and professional development.

(5) Meritocracy : People accept meritocracy as a just and equitable system and
contribute best under conditions of open opportunities and challenges and
differential rewards commensurate with performance.

(6) Membership : People are capable of blending leadership. Followership and peership
harmoniously.

(7) Actualization : The design, implementation and update of human resource

management systems, enhancement of skills and creation of an enabling climate will
facilitate the self-actualization of individual employees as well as an institution.

A conducive climate is one where people can own their strengths and successes
with grace rather than arrogance; where they can own their failures and vulnerabilities in
dignity and not in shame. The institutional processes provide a sense of winning to all the
employees through varied and differentiated processes of individual self-actualization.

HRD OUTCOME VARIABLES

These include the following;
(1) More competent people
(2) Better developed roles.
(3) Higher work-commitment and job-involvement.
(4) More problem solving.
(5) Better utilization of human resources.
(6) Higher job-satisfaction and work motivation.
(7) Better generation of internal resources.
(8) Better organizational health.
(9) More team-work, synergy and respect for each other.

Change Management –Meaning, Need and Process

The Concept of Change:
Change is a process, not an event. It can be planned or unplanned and can be influenced by
forces inside and outside of the educational institution. Change is the process of altering
behavior, purposes, structure, procedure or product of some unit within an institution.
Causes of change:
 Environmental factors:- government policies and regulations
 Need of the stakeholders
 Demand for better conditions
 Change in the curriculum
 Impact of social media
 Globalization
 Change in the technology etc.
 Economic, political, social , legal and labour market environment( Please elaborate
the points)
Factors Affecting the Change Process:
 Capacity for change
 Forces that positively influence change
 Forces that negatively influence change
 Theories that inform change

Need of Change Management

Organizations change for a number of different reasons, so they can either react to these
reasons or be ahead of them. These reasons include:

1. Crisis: Obviously September 11 is the most dramatic example of a crisis which caused
countless organizations, and even industries such as airlines and travel, to change.
The recent financial crisis obviously created many changes in the financial services
industry as organizations attempted to survive.
2. Performance Gaps: The organization's goals and objectives are not being met or
other organizational needs are not being satisfied. Changes are required to close
these gaps.
3. New Technology: Identification of new technology and more efficient and
economical methods to perform work.
4. Identification of Opportunities: Opportunities are identified in the market place that
the organization needs to pursue in order to increase its competitiveness.
5. Reaction to Internal & External Pressure: Management and employees, particularly
those in organized unions often exert pressure for change. External pressures come
 from many areas, including customers, competition, changing government
regulations, shareholders, financial markets, and other factors in the organization's
external environment.
6. Mergers & Acquisitions: Mergers and acquisitions create change in a number of
areas often negatively impacting employees when two organizations are merged and
employees in duel functions are made redundant.
7. Change for the Sake of Change: Often times an organization will appoint a new CEO.
In order to prove to the board he is doing something, he will make changes just for
their own sake.
8. Sounds Good: Another reason organizations may institute certain changes is that
other organizations are doing so (such as the old quality circles and re-engineering
fads). It sounds good, so the organization tries it.
9. Planned Abandonment: Changes as a result of abandoning declining products,
markets, or subsidiaries and allocating resources to innovation and new
opportunities.

What Organizations Can Change

What organizations can change fall into the following broad areas:

1. Mission, Vision, & Strategy: Organizations should continually ask themselves, "What
is our business and what should it be?" Answers to these questions can lead to
changes in the organization's mission (the purpose of its business), its vision for the
future (what the organization should look like), and its competitive strategy.
2. Technology: Organizations can change their technology (for example the way they
produce whatever they sell) in order to increase efficiency and lower costs.
3. Human-Behavioral Changes: Training can be provided to managers and employees
to provide new knowledge and skills, or people can be replaced or downsized. As
result of the recent financial crisis, many organizations downsized creating massive
unemployment that continues to this day.
4. Task-Job Design: The way work is performed in the organization can be changed
with new procedures and methods for performing work.
5. Organizational Structure: Organizations can change the way they are structured in
order to be more responsive to their external environment. Again to be more
responsive to the marketplace, this also includes where decisions should be made in
the organization (centralized or decentralized).
6. Organizational Culture: Entities can attempt to change their culture, including
management and leadership styles, values and beliefs. Of all the things organizations
can change, this is by far the most difficult to undertake.

These are the major elements that organizations can change. It is important to note that
changes in one of these elements will usually have an impact on another element. As an
example, changing technology may require changes in the human-behavioral area (new
knowledge and skills on how to use the technology).

Managing change as a process takes place on two levels:

 Individual level
 Organizational level

Individual level: Individuals are successful at change when they have Awareness, Desire,
Knowledge, Ability and Reinforcement. This results-oriented description of the individual
change process gives change management practitioners a new focus.

Organizational level: When it comes to managing change at the organizational level,

viewing change as a process helps determine the sequencing and content of the change
management effort.

Process of Change Management:

The change management process is the sequence of steps or activities that a change
management team or leader follow to apply change management to a change in order to
drive individual transitions and ensure the organisation meets its intended outcomes.
1. Preparing for change (Unfreeze)
This first stage of change involves preparing the organization to accept that change is
necessary, which involves break down the existing status quo before building up a new way
of operating. The first step in managing change is awareness is created around the
employees’ reasons or need for change and the risk of not changing.
2. Managing Change (Change)
This is the phase where the changes that have been planned are actually initiated and
carried out. Changes could relate to the mission, strategy, objectives, people, task work role,
technology, structure, culture or any other aspect of institution. Well thought out changes
have to be carefully implemented with the participation of members who will be affected by
change. Members start to believe and act in ways that support the new direction.
3. Reinforcing change (Refreeze)
At this phase it is ensured that the changes that have been introduced are working
satisfactorily, that any modification , extra considerations, or support needed for making the
change operational are attended to, and that there is reasonable guarantee that the
changes will indeed fill the gap and bring the system to the new ,desired state of
equilibrium. The results are monitored and evaluated and whenever necessary, corrective
measures are taken to reach the new goal.
MODULE – II RESOURSE MANAGEMENT AND ADMINISTRATION
Unit – 4 – HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

CONCEPT OF LEADERSHIP.

Definition of Leadership :

‘’ Leadership is the quality of behavior of individual whereby they guide people for their
activities in organized effort” – C.I. Bernard.

“ Leadership may be defined as the ability to expert interpersonal influence by means of

communication towards the achievement of a goal “ - Koontz and O’ Donnel.

“ The leadership is the process through which one member of a group cite leader, influence
other group members towards the attainment of specific group goals “ - Hollarder.

What is Leadership

Leadership is a process by which an executive can direct, guide and influence the behaviour
and work of others towards accomplishment of specific goals in a given situation.
Leadership is the ability of a manager to induce the subordinates to work with confidence
and zeal.

Leadership is the potential to influence behaviour of others. It is also defined as the capacity
to influence a group towards the realization of a goal. Leaders are required to develop
future visions, and to motivate the organizational members to want to achieve the visions.
According to Keith Davis, “Leadership is the ability to persuade others to seek defined
objectives enthusiastically. It is the human factor which binds a group together and
motivates it towards goals.”

Characteristics of Leadership

1. It is a inter-personal process in which a manager is into influencing and guiding

workers towards attainment of goals.
2. It denotes a few qualities to be present in a person which includes intelligence,
maturity and personality.
3. It is a group process. It involves two or more people interacting with each other.
4. A leader is involved in shaping and moulding the behaviour of the group towards
accomplishment of organizational goals.
5. Leadership is situation bound. There is no best style of leadership. It all depends
upon tackling with the situations.

Importance of Leadership

Leadership is an important function of management which helps to maximize efficiency and

to achieve organizational goals. The following points justify the importance of leadership in
a concern.

1. Initiates action- Leader is a person who starts the work by communicating the
policies and plans to the subordinates from where the work actually starts.
2. Motivation- A leader proves to be playing an incentive role in the concern’s working.
He motivates the employees with economic and non-economic rewards and thereby
gets the work from the subordinates.
3. Providing guidance- A leader has to not only supervise but also play a guiding role
for the subordinates. Guidance here means instructing the subordinates the way
they have to perform their work effectively and efficiently.
4. Creating confidence- Confidence is an important factor which can be achieved
through expressing the work efforts to the subordinates, explaining them clearly
their role and giving them guidelines to achieve the goals effectively. It is also
important to hear the employees with regards to their complaints and problems.
5. Building morale- Morale denotes willing co-operation of the employees towards
their work and getting them into confidence and winning their trust. A leader can be
a morale booster by achieving full co-operation so that they perform with best of
their abilities as they work to achieve goals.
6. Builds work environment- Management is getting things done from people. An
efficient work environment helps in sound and stable growth. Therefore, human
relations should be kept into mind by a leader. He should have personal contacts
with employees and should listen to their problems and solve them. He should treat
employees on humanitarian terms.
 7. Co-ordination- Co-ordination can be achieved through reconciling personal interests
with organizational goals. This synchronization can be achieved through proper and
effective co-ordination which should be primary motive of a leader.

Educational Leadership

Educational leadership involves working with and guiding teachers toward improving
educational processes in elementary, secondary and postsecondary institutions. Those in
educational leadership roles tend to go above and beyond just management and
administrative tasks, however. They are trained to advance and improve educational
systems and create and enact policies. Educational leaders usually are employed as school
principals or administrators but can take on additional roles, such as department chair or
academic dean.

FUNCTION OF LEADERSHIP

 Vision – Leaders must articulate a strong and positive vision of how they want to see
the school change as well as be adept at identifying problems and creating solutions
for what they believe is needed to achieve changes and improvements under
consideration.
 Planning and goal-setting – Leaders need to be able to identify clear and achievable
goals and communicate those to others involved in the restructuring process.
 Sharing the decision-making process – Leaders cooperate and work with faculty
and staff as well students, parents and others involved in the process and are flexible
enough to let the plans grow and change as necessary to achieve the desired results.
 Empowering and taking initiative – An effective leader starts the process moving,
then allows his or her faculty and staff to bring their own visions and initiatives to
the planning table, thereby helping them to ‘own’ the process of sharing ideas and
perspectives of programs under consideration.
 Development of faculty and staff – Leadership also includes providing support and
opportunities for development to the faculty and staff, especially the newest
teachers, for whom the first three years as an instructor are usually the most critical
of their careers. Principals may visit classrooms on a regular basis to observe and
evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of teachers and support staff, and offer
constructive feedback.

The 8 functions of leadership

Adair noted the following 8 key functions for which team leaders are responsible. (Examples are given in
brackets)

1. Defining the task, (by setting clear objectives through SMART goals)
2. Planning, (by looking at alternative ways to achieve the task and having contingency plans in
case of problems)
 3. Briefing the team, (by creating the right team climate, fostering synergy, and making the most of
each individual through knowing them well)
4. Controlling what happens, (by being efficient in terms of getting maximum results from
minimum resources)
5. Evaluating results, (by assessing consequences and identifying how to improve performance)
6. Motivating individuals, (by using both external motivators such as rewards and incentives as
well as eliciting internal motivators on the part of each team player)
7. Organizing people, (by organising self and others through good time management, personal
development, and delegation)
8. Setting an example, (by the recognition that people observe their leaders and copy what they
do).

Wallace Foundation’s perspective

According to the Wallace Foundation’s Wallace Perspective, their version of five key
functions include:

 Creating a vision
 Facilitating a hospitable educational climate
 Encouraging others in leadership
 Improving instructional quality
 Managing human and other resources and processes to bring about needed
improvements within the school.

LEADERSHIP STYLES -

Transformational Leadership ( Meaning, Characteristics, Merits, and demerits)

Transformational leadership looks at leadership differently. It sees a true leader as one who
can distil the values and hopes and needs of followers into a vision, and then encourage and
empower followers to pursue that vision. A transactional leader thinks of improvement or
development as doing the same thing better: an organization that reaches more people, a
company that makes more money. A transformational leader thinks about changing the
world, even if only on a small scale.

Transformational leadership

Transformational leadership is defined as a leadership approach that causes change in individuals

and social systems. In its ideal form, it creates valuable and positive change in the followers with the
end goal of developing followers into leaders. Enacted in its authentic form, transformational
leadership enhances the motivation, morale and performance of followers through a variety of
mechanisms. These include connecting the follower's sense of identity and self to the mission and
the collective identity of the organization; being a role model for followers that inspires them;
challenging followers to take greater ownership for their work, and understanding the strengths and
weaknesses of followers, so the leader can align followers with tasks that optimize their
performance....

The full range of leadership introduces four elements of transformational leadership:

1. Individualized Consideration – the degree to which the leader attends to each follower's needs,
acts as a mentor or coach to the follower and listens to the follower's concerns and needs. The
leader gives empathy and support, keeps communication open and places challenges before the
followers. This also encompasses the need for respect and celebrates the individual contribution
that each follower can make to the team. The followers have a will and aspirations for self
development and have intrinsic motivation for their tasks.

2. Intellectual Stimulation – the degree to which the leader challenges assumptions, takes risks and
solicits followers' ideas. Leaders with this style stimulate and encourage creativity in their followers.
They nurture and develop people who think independently. For such a leader, learning is a value and
unexpected situations are seen as opportunities to learn. The followers ask questions, think deeply
about things and figure out better ways to execute their tasks.

3. Inspirational Motivation – the degree to which the leader articulates a vision that is appealing
and inspiring to followers. Leaders with inspirational motivation challenge followers with high
standards, communicate optimism about future goals, and provide meaning for the task at hand.
Followers need to have a strong sense of purpose if they are to be motivated to act. Purpose and
meaning provide the energy that drives a group forward. The visionary aspects of leadership are
supported by communication skills that make the vision understandable, precise, powerful and
engaging. The followers are willing to invest more effort in their tasks; they are encouraged and
optimistic about the future and believe in their abilities.

4. Idealized Influence – Provides a role model for high ethical behavior, instills pride, gains respect
and trust. As a development tool, transformational leadership has spread already in all sectors of
western societies, including governmental organizations. As an example, the Finnish Defence Forces
is using widely Deep Lead© Model as basic solution of its leadership training and development. The
Deep Lead© Model is based on the theory of transformational leadership.

Characteristics of transformational leaders.

1. Keep their ego in check

It is easy to let ego take over when you are in a position of power. However, in
transformational leadership, it is important for the leader to keep their ego under
control and not let it interfere with the best interest of their team or the
organization. By keeping their ego in check, the transformationa l leader is able to put
the organization before their own personal gain and also elicit the best performance
from others.
2. Self-management

Transformational leaders typically don’t need much direction from others, and are
able to manage themselves well. They are also highly internally motivated, and they
use this motivation to direct the organization to the right path. These leaders do
what they love, and the values are aligned with those of the organization that they
lead.
3. Ability to take the right risks
The ability to take calculated risks is a key characteristic of a transformational leader.
They trust their instinct, and use the intelligence gathered by team members to make
informed decisions. A transformational leader’s team is right behind them and is ever
willing to do the research that is necessary to evaluate the situation appropriately.
The leader seeks inputs from the team to make risky decisions that facilitate growth.
4. Make difficult decisions
Being a leader is not always smooth sailing, you often have to make tough decisions.
Transformational leaders do not shy away from difficult decisions. They make their
decisions with a clear focus on the values, vision, objectives, and goals of the
organization.
5. Share collective organizational consciousness
A transformational leader shares and understands the collective consciousness of the
entire organization. This makes them particularly attuned to the feelings of their
team members, and gives them a clear idea of what actions to take to elicit desired
actions from the employees. Since they’re tapped into the organizational
consciousness, they are able to make decisions that spur growth, and also create a
shared vision for the organization that all employees feel a part of.
6. Inspirational
People seek to be inspired and transformational leaders are perhaps the most
inspiring of all. They have the ability to motivate others to rise to the occasion. Their
style of inspiration is not just limited to formal acknowledgement of a job well done,
rather they treat each employee as a valued individual and take the time to
understand what motivates them.
7. Entertain new ideas
Transformation can rarely be achieved if the leader is not open or receptive to new
ideas. Transformational leaders understand the truth that success is dependent on
the effort of the entire team, and growth happens only in an organization with a
culture of openness to new ideas from all levels. A transformational leader makes
deliberate efforts to solicit new ideas from team members, and also use their insights
in making decisions.
8. Adaptability
The leader knows that it is important to constantly adapt to changing market
conditions to keep moving forward. They are ever willing to adapt to new situations,
and seek creative ways to respond to the dynamic business environment.
9. Proactive
These leaders are proactive in their approach. These leaders take risks, and take an
active role in growing the organization.
10. Lead with vision
Transformational leaders set a realistic and achievable vision for the organization.
They then communicate the vision effectively to their followers, and also inspire a
sense of commitment and purpose. By getting every person to buy into the common
vision, transformational leaders are able to strongly guide the organization i n the
direction that they want.
11. Extraversion
The two main characteristics of extraverts are affiliation and agency, which relate to the social and
leadership aspects of their personality, respectively. Extraversion is generally seen as an inspirational trait
usually exhibited in transformational leadership.

12. Neuroticism
Neuroticism generally gives an individual an anxiety related to productivity which, in a group setting can
be debilitating to a degree where they are unlikely to position themselves in a role of transformational
leadership due to lower self-esteem and a tendency to shirk from leadership responsibilities.

13. Openness to experience

Creative expression and emotional responsiveness have been linked to a general tendency of openness
to experience. This trait is also seen as a component of transformational leadership as it relates to the
ability to give big-picture visionary leadership for an organization.

14. Agreeableness
Although not a trait which specifically points to transformational leadership, leaders in general possess an
agreeable nature stemming from a natural concern for others and high levels of individual
consideration. Charisma and idealized influence is a classic ability of individuals who possess agreeability

15. Conscientiousness
Strong sense of direction and the ability to put large amounts of productive work into tasks is the by-
product of conscientious leaders.This trait is more linked to a transactional form of leadership given the
management-based abilities of such individuals and the detail oriented nature of their personality.
Advantages of transformational leadership
Transformational Leadership characteristics that impact organizational growth
In order to put your organization in a position to grow effectively and on a consistent basis, leaders
with the following characteristics not only make them an effective leader — but also a
transformational leader:
1. Internal motivation and self-management: Transformational leaders find motivation from within
and use that as the driving force to effectively manage the direction of the company. The best
natural form of motivation is to love what you do and ensure that your values are aligned with the
organization you work with.
2. The ability to make difficult decisions: Difficult decisions are a part of being a leader.
Transformational leaders do not back away or put off tough decisions. Difficult decisions are made
easier when decisions align with clearly defined vision, values, goals, and objectives.
3. Check their ego: When placed in a position of power, it is easy to let your ego get the best of you.
However, transformational leaders keep their ego in check and do not let it get in the way of doing
what is best for business. The benefit of checking your ego ensures you put the company first over
personal gain and encourages the best input from others within the organization — because when
the company succeeds, you as a leader also succeed.
4. Willing to take the right risks: Anyone can take a risk. Transformational leaders take calculated
risks that more often than not result in positive outcomes. Trusting your instinct, as well as your
team to gather the necessary intelligence is important. Trusting your gut is easier when you have
taken the time to research, evaluate and inform your decisions with input from those around you.
Failure to take the appropriate risks and make these difficult decisions will inhibit change and your
ability to grow.
. Organizational consciousness: Transformational leaders share the collective conscious of their
organization. They understand what actions to take to evoke change, spur innovation, and make
decisions that will create growth. Since their own values are aligned with the organization they share
a joint purpose with the organization and do not just view their position in the company as just a job.
6. Adaptability: Transformational leaders are willing to adapt and are always seeking new ways to
respond to a constantly changing business environment. They know that the second they stand still
is when they will be passed by their competitors; which means they are open-minded to change and
lifelong learners.
7. Willing to listen and entertain new ideas: It is a rare individual who can build an empire.
Transformational leaders understand that success is a team effort and growth is derived from the
willingness to be open and listen to ideas from all levels of their organization. Transformational
leaders create intentional ways to listen to their team and incorporate their insights.
8. Inspiration: People want to be inspired. Transformational leaders have the ability to make those
around rise to the occasion. Inspiration comes not just from a formal motivational speech or simple
recognition for a job well done, but by treating people as individuals and taking the time to
understand what motivates and inspires their team.
9. Proactive: Transformational leaders are proactive decision makers. They do not wait around for
others to make decisions and then react. They are willing to take risks, try new things and take an
innovative approach to growing the organization. However, they also understand how to manage
risk and make decisions that are backed by research, multiple insights and are well thought out.
10. Visionary: Being a visionary is about setting a realistic and concise company mission, vision, and
values that fit the culture of your organization. Transformational leaders have the ability not only to
effectively communicate the vision, but also get every person to buy in and work toward that vision
by communicating with passion and clearly emphasizing the direction they want the company to
pursue.
10.Tranformation. Let’s start by peering at the positives. The advantage of transformation
leadership is engraved in the name itself: transformation. The framework is aimed at creating
change, and in business, the need for change is inevitable.
11.Remove of stagnant approach. As we mentioned earlier in the guide, a stagnant approach to
running a business can lead to problems. Examples of this kind of behavior are plentiful. For
example, consider the phone giant Nokia. For a long time it ruled mobile sales, but it didn’t
continue to innovate quickly enough and once the iPhone entered the market, the company was
too slow to follow. Transformational leadership can remove this behavior from a company, as it
puts change and innovation to the core of what the organization does.

12.Focus on clear vision. The reason transformational leadership is effective in implementing

change is due to its focus on a clear vision. A transformational leader is supposed to create a
clear vision of the change the organization needs, which will make it easier for the subordinates
to follow it. The framework helps an organization define its objectives clearly and create
structures that support the vision.

13. Balance between short- and long-term objectives. Sin Furthermore, the leadership theory
tends to strike a balance between short- and long-term objectives. Since the framework focuses
on meaningful and achievable objectives, it starts the long-term process by establishing short-
term objectives to keep things going. Transformational leadership adds focus to an organization
by understanding the key actions that need to be taken, without forgetting about the future
goals the organization wants to achieve.

14.Leader has an important role. In addition, the style is effective because it doesn’t just set out
the objectives it wants to achieve, but the leader has an important role in supporting the
subordinates in achieving this goal. The leader’s example provides motivation and inspiration for
the subordinates, with a focus on pushing employees to higher standards. As mentioned above,
transformational leadership provides the subordinates with opportunities for growth, both
personally and professionally.

15.High emotional intelligence. Transformational leaders need to have integrity and high
emotional intelligence. The empathy towards other people can help create meaningful
relationships with others and ensure the leader-subordinate relationship is built on mutual
respect and trust. These two qualities are crucial for creating a collaborative environment,
which is passionate about achieving tasks.

16.Higher levels of performance and motivation” Ronald E. Riggio, psychologist and leadership
expert, pointed out in an article published on the Psychology Today website, how studies have
shown groups with a transformational leader exhibit “higher levels of performance and
motivation” compared to other types of groups. Subordinates under the leadership style have
more support and options for personal development. While they might not be as involved in
decision-making as in certain other types, there is still the notion of being part of something.
The sense of community is often a powerful motivator for people. In essence, the increased
motivation can boost a company’s profitability.
17.Creates other leaders with transformational qualities. In terms of operational efficiency,
another big benefit to the style comes from how it creates other leaders with transformational
qualities. Since individuals are using self-motivation and self-actualization as part of their work,
they can use these talents to become transformational leaders themselves. In the event of the
current leader leaving, the organization might have a line of potential leaders ready to take on
the role.

18.Emphasizes collaboration instead of personal gains. Furthermore, the leadership

framework emphasizes collaboration instead of personal gains. Psychological studies, such as
the Game Theory test, have repeatedly shown that co-operation is more effective in achieving
goals compared to a more competitive approach. Transformational leadership’s focus on
creating a common vision to work towards can result in faster results and more deep-rooted
change within the organization.

Disadvantages of transformational leadership

There are certain problems and disadvantages to the theory as well.

1.Perhaps the main issue deals with the idea that transformational theory would always act as a
force for good.

2.In fact, sometimes the transformational leader can make things worse and cause huge
suffering within the structure they are hoping to change. An example of this could be Mao Tse
Dung. If you look at his leadership, then it has most of the hallmarks of transformation
leadership, yet the changes led to human suffering.

3.This essentially boils down to the problem of defining transformation. What constitutes as
transformation? Even the official MLQ test has trouble clarifying this and the test could
potentially suffer from the so-called test effect. The person being tested could see what factors
the test is analyzing and looking for, answering with this knowledge in mind.

4. Furthermore, the leader’s focus on change and the vision can cause ‘reality blindness’. The
enthusiastic and passionate approach can be a force for positive change, but it could also
diminish the leader’s willingness to investigate things further and face up to inconvenient facts.
Being driven by one’s own ideals and vision might not lead to the right results.

5. An element of becoming blind can also take place with the subordinates’ relationship with the
leader. Since the leader creates a positive and supportive relationship with the subordinates,
the subordinates’ ability to critique the leader or indeed the project might become
compromised. The leadership’s enthusiastic approach can lead to overdependence, in which the
team ends up chasing goals that aren’t realistic or obtainable.

6. The leader’s enthusiasm and his or her call for unity can also lead to conformity rather than
collaboration. Subordinates might find it easier to just ‘go along’ with the leader, instead of
truly buying the vision or feeling confident about the plan. If you don’t have people believing in
the mission, the effectiveness of change can drastically reduce.
7. Similar to charismatic leadership, the transformational leader needs to use impression
management as a basis for motivating his or her subordinates. But the focus on ‘leading through
example’ has the downside of slipping into the territory of self-promotion. There can be a
danger to become more concerned about the protection of self-image and self-promotion that
the support and empowerment of subordinates fades into the background.

8. Transformational leadership is not an easy leadership style to implement or master. It can

take plenty of experience to become truly good at creating meaningful change and therefore,
teaching and learning this style can be difficult. The person needs to spend enough time
understanding the concepts, gaining enough knowledge on leadership and different industries,
and developing emotional intelligence. The process can therefore seem overwhelming and
people might find it more comfortable to result to other types of leadership models.

9. leader must have the right characteristics detailed in the previous section. Thus, the
pressure on the leader to achieve and to be able to motivate all of his or her subordinates is
rather high. If the leader is unable to convince the subordinates about his or her vision, then the
framework won’t work at all.

Situtational Leadership ( Meaning, Characteristics, Merits, and demerits)

Situational leadership is an adaptive leadership style. This strategy encourages leaders to take stock of
their team members, weigh the many variables in their workplace and choose the leadership style that
best fits their goals and circumstances. In the words of leadership theorist Ken Blanchard, “In the past a
leader was a boss. Today’s leaders can no longer lead solely based on positional power.”

Situational leadership is the model of choice for organizations around the world that want to do the
following:

 Develop people and workgroups

 Establish rapport and to bring out the best in their people
 Use a common leadership style across all units in an organization, be it local, national, or
international

The four leadership styles associated with situational leadership.

According to Hersey and Blanchard, there are four basic leadership styles associated with
the situational leadership® model. The four are: telling, selling, participating and delegating.

Style 1: Telling

As the name suggests, this leadership styles refers to an almost autocratic leadership role in
which the leader tells the subordinates what to do. Furthermore, the leader also explains
how to do the tasks.
Style 2: Selling

The second style refers to a slightly more democratic model in which there is some
discussion between the leader and the subordinates. The leader is aiming to ‘ sell’ the idea
and message to subordinates and to get them to buy into the process and the tasks.

Style 3: Participating

The third model is largely a democratic leadership approach, as the leader allows more
leeway to the subordinates. The amount of direction from the leader remains limited and
the subordinates have an active role in making decisions and directing the way the tasks get
finished.

Style 4: Delegating

Finally, Hersey and Blanchard identified the final leadership style, which is characteristically
a hands-off approach to leadership. The style means the leader is less involved in how
decisions are made, allowing subordinates to make them and to take most of the
responsibility in getting the job done.

characteristics of the situational leadership

1. Flexibility
The fundamental idea of situational leadership is that there is no such thing as a
single best or fixed type of leadership. Leadership changes according to the
requirements of the group or organization, and successful leaders are able to be
flexible and adapt their style of leadership to the level of maturity of the group that
they’re trying to lead.

2. Changes according to the situation

The leadership style that the situational leader brings into play will be dependent on
the situation at hand and the development level of the individuals involved. If the
development level is low, the situational leader becomes more task-oriented. If the
individuals are sufficiently developed, the leader will be more supportive.

3. Directing
Situational leadership will be high on the “directive” aspect when the subordinates
are not sufficiently developed and need constant supervision. Here, the leader gives
specific instructions about what the goals are, and exactly how the goals need to be
achieved. It is similar to a parent supervising the actions of a toddler.

4. Coaching
If the situation demands it, the leader will also coach their team. This is an extension
of the directive approach; the leader still provides detailed instructions but they also
focus on encouraging the subordinates, soliciting inputs, and explaining why they
have made certain decisions.

5. Participating
The situational leader may try to encourage a team to become more independent
performing the tasks by letting them take routine decisions. High -level problem-
solving is still under their purview, but they allow team members to actively
participate in the decision-making process.

6. Delegating
When dealing with a highly matured and capable team, the situational leader will
gradually reduce their supervision and involvement in the daily activities of team
members. The leader is involved while discussing the tasks and deciding on the goals
to be achieved, but after that team members have complete freedom on how they
want to accomplish these goals.

7. Integrity
The situational leader does not change their approach merely to take advantage of
the situation. They simply adapt in a way that is most appropriate considering factors
such as the maturity level of followers, the organizational structure and culture, and
the goals to be achieved. They do so with integrity, and are not motivated by a desire
to unfairly capitalize on the weaknesses of the team or organization.

8. Courage
It takes a lot of courage for a leader to try out different leadership approaches and
figure out which one is ideal. Most leaders stick to a particular way of doing things –
whatever has worked best for them in the past. But situational leader is n ot afraid to
take chances and to adopt a radically different leadership style if the situation
demands it.

9. Clear vision
The situational leader has a clear vision of where the team is going. This is what
allows a leader to identify and adopt the most effective behaviors and strategies to
get to the goal.

10. Humility
The situational leader does not claim to know it all. With a group of highly developed
and mature followers, they have the humility to accept limitations and seek the
higher wisdom of the group.
Advantages of situational leadership
Situational leadership does not work well in all circumstances. Let’s look at the advantages and
disadvantages of the leadership style:

 Easy to use: When a leader has the right style, he or she knows it
 Simple: All the leader needs to do is evaluate the situation and apply the correct leadership style
 Intuitive appeal: With the right type of leader, this style is comfortable
 Leaders have permission to change management styles as they see fit

“What is the best leadership style?” Hersey and Blanchard found it fruitless to provide one answer to this
question. Everything depends on the specific situation, which is why they collaborated to develop the
situational leadership model.

Situational leadership means “choosing the right leadership style for the right people,” according to
Blanchard and Hersey. It also depends on the competence and maturity of the followers. This is a time in
history when leaders look less like bosses and more like partners.

Disadvantages of situational leadership

 This North American style of leadership does not take into consideration priorities and
communication styles of other cultures
 It ignores the differences between female and male managers
 Situational leaders can divert attention away from long-term strategies and politics

Team Leadership ( Meaning, Characteristics, Merits, and demerits)

Characteristics of the team leadership

1. Leverage Influence for the Team

Great team leaders leverage their influence and power to promote and serve their teams.
(Andy Stanley talks extensively about this.)
2. Approachable

A team leader that creates a culture of approachability is a leader worth following.

3. Solid Grip on Reality

In Steve Jobs’ biography, the author uses a phrase that Steve had reality depravation.
Leaders who are not in-tune with reality create teams that are unhealthy and frustrated

4. Relational
Over and over again, leaders talk about and point to relational leaders as being more
effective than results–first leaders. It doesn’t mean results do not matter because they
clearly do. It’s how do you lead people to results. Emotional Intelligence is central to this
conversation.

5. Consistent
Let’s be honest, no one wants to be on a team that they have to guess which mood the
leader is in or what today is going to hold because of the inconsistencies of the team leader.

6. Calm/Stable
Rorke Denver talked recently about a Commander that gave their team one of the greatest
leadership lessons ever while they were in the field. He simply said, “Calm is contagious.” So
true.

7. Release Ownership/Delegate
Nothing shows the commitment of the team leader more than a leader who is willing to
release ownership and delegate important tasks, projects, and relationships. It shows way
more than just trust; it shows character and priority.

8. Self-aware
There is something attractive about leaders who just know who they are and operate with
an extensive self–awareness. I’ve always said the quicker we can be proud of how God
wired us, the quicker we will become the leader he wants us to be.

9. Trustworthy
I’m pretty sure this requires no explanation, but integrity will always be at the top of the list
for the greatest leaders in the world.

10. Respected
As much as I wish that all respect comes from relational investments over time with your
team, I’ll be the first to admit that competency to achieve results is also crucial to this
characteristic. You can’t lead well without a standard of excellence and a strong skill.

11. Make time to lead.

To be effective, team leaders need to invest time in the role. Too often, this responsibility is
simply added onto someone’s already lengthy task list, thus setting the new leader up for
failure. As a team leader you need to be visible to the team and available to support them. If
you’re predominantly tied up with your own critical hands-on tasks, you won’t be. So, be sure
to review and re-negotiate your workload before taking on a leadership role in the first place.

12. Get to know your team.

Leadership is all about how you influence your team to achieve its objectives—something
you’ll struggle to do if you don’t get to know your team members and what makes them tick.
While it might be tempting to jump in and start making big moves from day one, remember
that you’re not there to flex your ego.

Take time to listen to your team members; find out what their issues and aspirations are,
gather ideas, and identify potential strengths and weaknesses. Only then can you formulate a
leadership approach that stands a chance of success. Getting to know who you’re working
with is the first all-important step to bonding with the team and establishing their respect and
trust. The old adage of listening twice as much as you speak still holds true.

13. Communicate, communicate, communicate.

Once your team is up and running, it’s imperative to keep the communication going to build
relationships, assess progress, and identify risks and issues. Plus, you’ll get more engagement
from team members if they see you investing time in them and showing interest in their
activities. Make expectations and responsibilities clear so that everyone knows who’s doing
what, why and by when. This seems obvious but don’t assume everyone has your detailed
understanding of the project at hand. Encourage and embrace new ideas. The more your
team can contribute to the project, the happier they’ll be.

14. Lead by example.

Think about the behaviors you want and expect from your team members and be sure to
exhibit those traits yourself. You’re the role model, so what you say and do will impact the
team’s daily work habits and attitudes. That said, it’s important to be yourself and to believe
in yourself. If you fake it, you’ll soon be unmasked and you’ll lose credibility and trust.

Be open, honest and passionate. Treat everyone on the team fairly, with respect and without
favouritism and you’ll find those behaviors returned. Extend the same courtesy to the rest of
the organisation as well. Never undermine or criticise other individuals or departments in
front of the team. Make it clear you’re all there to work towards success for the big picture.

15. Reward the good and learn from the bad (and the ugly).
Be quick to recognise a good performance and reward it where appropriate. You might not be
in a position to hand out pay raises and promotions but a little bit of verbal praise goes a long
way in showing your team you are both aware of and appreciative of their achievements.

Be equally as timely in tackling poor performance issues. The longer you leave them, the
tougher they’ll be to fix. Look for the best in people and understand that mistakes will
happen. When they do, learn from them and see how they can be prevented in future. And
whatever you do, don’t play the blame game.
If you need to have a challenging conversation, do it in private; no public floggings. And don’t
try to win a popularity contest. Not all your feedback and initiatives will be well-received, but
if you concentrate more on being everyone’s friend instead of being a strong leader, the work
will suffer, as will your integrity.

16. Delegate.
Trust your team to do its job. Being team leader doesn’t mean you’re there to do other
people’s work for them. Be clear on what’s expected of everyone and let them get on with it.
When issues or opportunities arise, empower the team to find a resolution themselves with
your support—don’t add every new issue to your own to-do list.

17. Be decisive.
Don’t procrastinate. Grab the nettle when you need to. It’s all too easy to defer the difficult
decisions, but ultimately costly for the job in hand and how you’re viewed as a leader. If things
go wrong, take a breath, gather the information you need to make an educated decision and
make it. Don’t be afraid of seeking help (it’s a sign of strength, not weakness). Team
management is an ongoing learning process and you will never have all the answers.

18. Enjoy it!

Team leadership is often challenging but frequently rewarding. Heading up a team that’s
working well and delivering results is a great feeling, so go do it.

Advantages of Team leadership :

1. Team leadership provides a living demonstration of the principle of the entire body
contributing to the whole.

2. In teaching present day truth, more than one voice speaking the same thing makes a
better impact.

3. A team can more effectively find the mind of the Lord for a meeting or series of meetings
and pray towards the fulfillment of God’s will.

4. Team leadership provides a greater possibility for safety and balance in ministry.

5. Team leadership helps guard against the traps set by the enemy, which have snared so
many individual leaders.

6. Team leadership provides strength and encouragement for the ministries themselves.
Leading and ministering with others provides a sense of inspiration and spiritual growth.

7. When less experienced leaders can accompany more mature ones, the process of
discipleship and training is strengthened.
8. Productivity- Leadership can be advantageous to businesses if leaders are able to
delegate tasks efficiently and increase worker productivity. Good managers are able to
determine the strengths and weaknesses of different employees and delegate work
accordingly. Efficient division of labor can result in higher work output, which ultimately
results in higher sales and higher profit. On the other hand, ineffective leadership can
reduce productivity. For example, if a manager decides to keep easy tasks to himself and
delegates difficult tasks to employees, it could result in suboptimal productivity.

9. Employee Morale- Sound leadership can improve employee morale and make workers
more loyal to the company. Loyal employees trust their managers and may be willing to
work harder and stay with the company when times are tough. Recruiting and training new
workers can be expensive, so fostering high morale through good leadership can have an
impact on the bottom line

10. It fits almost every business.- Democratically derived solutions generally last for very
long, ensuring that they are reviewed on a continuous basis. As they involve engaging team
members, effective processes that will fit almost every business will be maintained. Also,
team members are encouraged to work well with each other, which is important to every
organization however small or large it is.

11. It often has solutions for complex problems.-This type of leadership uses leaders who
are typically excellent at solving complex problems, with their ability to work collaboratively
with their members gathering a consensus of opinions to address issues properly. It also
encourages innovation, so solutions to strategic and complex problems will be found.

12. It promotes a creative environment.- The democratic leadership style fosters a creative
environment by encouraging innovation and input among team members. For example,
creative professionals usually succeed under this type of leadership due to the support
embodied in it.

13. It builds strong teams.-Under this type of leadership, team members tend to be
supportive and strong. Collaboration and honesty would flourish, as everyone’s opinions
would be taken into consideration.

Disadvantages of Team leadership :

1. It tends to become apologetic.

In the democratic leadership style, leaders would foster an environment where individuals
expect their idea to be implemented. However, only one should be implemented, which
means that leaders will have to take some of their time to apologize and smooth things out
with members whose ideas were not implemented.

2. It is time-consuming.
The consultation process under this approach could result in procrastination, which means
that leaders cannot work within a required timeframe, which can be bad for urgent projects
or issues.

3. It takes long to process decisions.

Somehow related to the previous disadvantage, the decision-making process under this
leadership style might be a long drawn, as every team member must be consulted. Also,
putting all ideas in place requires a great deal of understanding and patience.

4. It can seem to be uncertain.

Democratic leaders would sometimes become indecisive in certain situations, especially
during a crisis. These individuals would not function well in an authoritarian role.

5. Inter-Office and Geographical Distance

In an office building, having employees in different department sections on one floor or on

different floors gets in the way of their natural inclination to engage in face-to-face
interaction. Email is useful for certain purposes, but it loses the context of effective face-to-
face conversations. Virtual work teams made up of people spread throughout the globe is
even more challenging to manage However, it takes away the benefits of close, intimate
relationships and cohesion.

6. Team Conflicts

One highly challenging obstacle to effective team communication is conflict, which Mind
Tools suggests is inevitable with long-term teams. A primary purpose of work-team
communication is idea generation and discussion. The challenge is that people sometimes
get personal when their ideas aren't valued or when another employee debates their
merits. Heated conversations can produce putdowns and negative tension, which puts a lot
of pressure on a manager to resolve conflicts and keep communication productive. Retreats
and conflict-resolution coaching are strategies to help employees improve their own
abilities to work through dissension.

7. Time and Resource Allocations

A natural drawback of a team-based business structure is that it takes more time to make
decisions. Even forming and developing work teams is a process that takes significant time.
The goal is to inspire more and better ideas and resolutions with collaboration, but multiple
voices take longer to play out than one person thinking and acting. There are also costs
involved in forming and managing effective work teams. Businesses can invest in retreats,
training, team-building workshops and office resources to support effective teams.

8. Lack of Clear Leadership

Effective team communication is reliant on strong formal or informal leadership. In some

cases, companies or business units leave work teams permanently or temporarily without a
formal manager or team leader. Though not a given, a lack of a guiding hand or go-to
authority figure can contribute to misguided and nondirectional communication. Even when
a team leader is in place, a lack of vision, direction and motivation from that person can
allow for the same limited communication.

9. Time is Money

One reason that leadership can be a disadvantage in education field is that leadership itself
is not a productive activity. While spending time leading and instructing workers is essential
to make sure that they perform their duties well, managers do not actually produce goods
or services while acting as leaders. An entrepreneur who hires a few employees might find
that the time he spends performing leadership tasks cuts into the time he has to spend
communicating with clients and making sales. Some owners hire manages to lead
employees on their behalf, but hiring administrators can be expensive.

10. Clash of Personalities

Another potential drawback of leadership in business is that leaders and workers do not
always see eye to eye. In some cases, workers may feel that they cannot relate to their
leaders, and an "us versus them" mentality can develop. Disagreements between managers
and employees may result in disputes that waste time and reduce productivity. Managers
need to have excellent people skills and be able to adapt their leadership styles to mesh
with the personalities of different employees.

Leadership: Skills-(Concept, process and strategies),

 Grievance Management (Meaning and Need )

 Decision making(Meaning and process),
 Crisis Management(Meaning and Need)

Grievance Management (Concept and Need )

Meaning of Grievance:

Grievance is formal complaint which demonstrates any kind of dissatisfaction in an

employee, arising out of the factors which are related to his job.

Definition of grievance

 Dale Yoder- “Grievance is a written complaint filed by an employee and claiming

unfair treatment.”

 Keith Davis- “any real or imagined feeling of personal injustice which an employee
has concerning his employment
 The International Labour Organisation Defines Grievance as a complaint of one or
more workers in respect of wage payments, overtime, leave, transfer, promotion,
seniority, job assignment and discharges constitutes grievances.
 Beach-A grievance is any dissatisfaction or feeling of injustice having connection with
one’s employment situation which is brought to the attention of management.

Speaking broadly, a grievance is any dissatisfaction that adversely affects organizational

relations and productivity. To understand what a grievance is, it is necessary to distinguish
between dissatisfaction, complaint, and grievance.

 Dissatisfaction is a state or feeling of discontent, unexpressed or expressed.

  A dissatisfaction which is orally made known by one employee to another is known
as complaint.
 A complaint becomes a grievance when this dissatisfaction mostly related with work
is brought to the notice of the management.

A Grievance is thus

I) A word which covers dissatisfaction and which has one or more of the following
characteristics

 a) It may be unvoiced or expressly stated by an employer.

 b) It may be written or verbal

 c) It may be valid and legitimate, untrue or completely false or ridiculous and

 d) It may arise out of something connected with the organisation or work

ii) An employee feels that an injustice is done to him.

Need of Grievance Management :

 An employee may not be operating efficiently and this could result in such things as
increased sickness absence.

 An employee may complain to other colleagues and distract them form their normal
work.

 How a grievance is managed may be a reflection of how well other issues are dealt
with, and

 There is an ethical and statutory duty to look after employees.

 The aim of the procedure is to provide a fair arrangement by which individual

employees (or a collective group of employees) may raise grievance in the course of,
and connected with their employment and have the grievance settled promptly and
satisfactorily as near to the point of origin a possible.

 The existence of an effective grievance procedure reduces the need of arbitrary

action by supervisors because supervisors know that the employees are able to
protect such behavior and take protests to be heard by higher management.

 The very fact that employees have a right to be heard and are actually heard helps to
improve morale. In view of all these, every organization should have a clear-cut
procedure for grievance handling.

Process of Grievance redressed

  A grievance procedure is a formal process which is preliminary to an arbitration,
which enables the parties to attempt to resolve their differences in a peaceful,
orderly and expeditious manner.

 The procedure may have as few as two steps or as many as ten, depending on the
size of an organization.

 The grievance maybe of an open-door or step ladder type.

Kinds of Process

 Open Door Policy

In open door policy the any employee can directly approach the management with his
grievance. This is possible in small organizations.

 The step ladder

The step ladder type of procedure may have 3, 4 or 5 steps.

The step ladder Procedure

 In a Unionized Organization

 Step One-The aggrieved employee explains his grievance to his immediate supervisor
verbally or in a conference /discussion specially arranged for the purpose.

 Step Two-This step is taken if the grievance is not settled by the supervisor. The
grievance is sent to a higher level manager

 Step Three-The grievance will now need to be submitted to the Grievance

Committee as the decision of the supervisor and higher level manager has not solved
the problem. The Committee will consist of fellow-employees and a combination of
Union and management representatives.

 Step Four-If decision of the Committee not acceptable then the grievant will
approach the Management

 Step Five-The final step is when it is referred to an arbitrator who is acceptable to

the employee as well a management.

General Steps in Grievance addressal

i.) Accepting the grievance and acknowledging it

ii.) Carefully listening to the problem
iii.) Understanding the redefining the problem to ensure that both the parties are at
the same level of understanding
iv.) Gathering the information – all facts and figures
 v.) Offering the best solution
vi.) Follow up

Decision making (Meaning and process)

Definitions of Decision making

 Decision-making is the selection based on some criteria from two or more possible
alternatives. “-—George R.Terry

 A decision can be defined as a course of action consciously chosen from available

alternatives for the purpose of desired result —J.L. Massie

 A decision is an act of choice, wherein an executive forms a conclusion about what

must be done in a given situation. A decision represents a course of behavior chosen
from a number of possible alternatives. -—D.E. Mc. Farland

 From these definitions, it is clear that decision-making is concerned with selecting a

course of action from among alternatives to achieve a predetermined objective

 The thought process of selecting a logical choice from the available options.

 When trying to make a good decision a person must weigh the positives and
negatives of each option, and consider all the alternatives. For effective decision
making, a person must be able to forecast the outcome of each option as well, and
based on all these items, determine which option is the best for that particular
situation.

Process of Decision making :

Planning Process.

There are several models that could be used for planning, but they are all very similar.
 This one should work fine as an example o f effective planning.

The planning process contains six steps:

1. Stating Organizational objectives – This is necessary beginning point of successful

planning and should remain a focal point throughout the planning process.

2. Listing alternatives for reaching objectives – Managers should list many different
ways to possibly reaching the objectives.

Developing assumptions about each alternative – Managers should special time

think about what might happen depending on which alternative is assumptions.

3. Choose the best alternative – Evaluate the assumptions and choose the best
alternative.

4. Develop plan to purse the chosen alternative – Manager begins to develop plans.

5. Develop Plan into action – This is where the organization benefits from all the
planning.

Control process :

6. Comparison of planned and actual results.

7. Response to divergences form plan.

Crisis Management (Meaning and Need )

 Crisis management is the application of strategies designed to help an organization

deal with a sudden and significant negative event. A crisis can occur as a result of an
unpredictable event or as an unforeseeable consequence of some event that had
been considered a potential risk.
 The art of dealing with sudden and unexpected events which disturbs the
employees, organization as well as external clients refers to Crisis Management
Crisis management has four objectives
1. Reducing tension during the incident
2. Demonstrating organizational commitment and expertise to handle the crisis.
3. Controlling the flow and accuracy of information
4. Managing the available resources effectively.

Types of Crisis
 Natural Disasters-Flooding, Earthquake, Storm
 Manmade disasters
 Campus violence
 Accidents due to breakdown of safety regulations-Fire
 Shoot out/murders/suicide
 Attack on staff
 Technical Breakdown
  Strikes
 Rumors

Need of Crisis Management:

1. Crisis Management prepares the individuals to face unexpected development and

adverse conditions in the organization with courage and determination.

2. Employees adjust well to the sudden changes in the organization.

3. Employees can understand and analyze the cause of crisis and hope with it in the
best possible way.

4. Crisis Management helps the managers to devise strategies to come out of uncertain
conditions and also decide on the future course of action.

5. Crisis Management helps the managers to feel the early signs of crisis, warm the
employees against the aftermaths and take necessary precautions for the same.

6. Crisis Management reduces the tension during and after incident or any accident.

7. Crisis Management increases the demonstrating organizational commitment and

expertise to handle the crisis.

8. Crisis Management controls the flow and accuracy of information.

Crisis Management becomes expert to managing the available resources effectively

Process/Steps of Crisis Management

Step One: Create a Crisis Management Team and Assess Potential Crises
The CMT team can include legal counsel, investigators, and the institutional staff who would
have to carry out the roles of public relations communicating with different stake holders,
risk manager, internal and external safety and security committee, technical experts.

Step Two: Develop Crisis Management Team Plans

 The primary objective of any plan is to set up a flexible structure that is capable of
responding to any type of crisis quickly, decisively and in a coordinated manner.
 The CMT plan should establish relationships, responsibilities and continuity. It should
include a notification system with a specific and up to date listing of current contact
information on the team members, chain of command, outside relevant agencies.

Step 3: Establish Guidelines for Gathering Information and Internal Investigations

 Formulate a preliminary list of employees and management with knowledge about

particular crisis risks;
 Formulate guidelines that establish an initial schedule for the investigation and
identify the information needed; and
  Determine which team member will evaluate the results and what will be done with
them.

Step Four: Provide Periodic Crisis Training Evaluation

 The best way to ensure that everyone understands his or her roles in the plan is to
have training on managing a crisis. The training will help address legal issues before
they occur, develop investigation procedures; identify systems and equipment
needed during a crisis and develop good media relations skills.
Step Five: Develop Guidelines for Crisis Communications
 Good communication is the heart of any crisis management plan Communication
should reduce tension, demonstrate a corporate commitment to correct the
problem and take control of the information flow.
 Crisis communications involves communicating with a variety of stakeholders:
employees and students, parents, regulators and lawmakers and media. Public
relations are the single most important element of the crisis response.
 Create guidelines for designated spokesperson covering how working with the media
and community leaders. Prepare templates for communicating with various
scenarios.

UNIT IV - EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION

TIME TABLE (IMPORTANCE, TYPES AND PRINCIPLES OF CONSTRUCTION)

INTRODUCTION
Time management refers to a range of skills, tools and techniques used to manage
time when accomplishing specific tasks, projects and goals. This set encompass a wide scope
of activities, and these include planning, allocating, setting goals, delegation, analysis of
time spent, monitoring organizing, scheduling and prioritizing. Initially time management
referred to just business or work activities, nit eventually the term broadened to include
personal activities also. A time management ability to use and keep track of time efficiently.
It is a life skill and something that helps in success throughout life. Even though it is
important for school and life-success, Time management consists of keeping track of time,
or scheduling, and using time effectively. Thus, a timetable or schedule is an organized list,
usually set out in tabular form, providing information about a series of arranged events : in
particular, the time at which it is planned these events will take place.
The school timetable is a chart which indicates all the activities undertaken by each
member of the staff and the student in each class or labs or field or workshop at a particular
time of the day when the school is functioning. It is the school mirror which reflects the
school programme. Time-table is an indispensable document of the school. It is an outline of
the day’s work in a school. It gave the idea as to how much time is to be given to different
subjects in 16th Century. According to Dr.Jaswant Singh, “The schedule is the spark plug of
the school which sets into motion its various activities and programmes”.
DEFFINITIONS OF TIMETABLE
 A timetable is the second school clock on the face of which are shown the intervals,
the hours of the day between which lessons are given, the kind of activity in progress
each classes, recreation interval as well as time for assembly and dismissal.
 It also shows art, craft, community, social services and sports activities, which
though regularly recurring do not rank as ordinary lessons.
 “well arranged time is the surest mark of a well-arranged mine” by Pitman.
 “Timetable supplies the frame work within which the work of the school proceeds”
by H.G. Stead ?
 It is the instrument through which the purpose of the school is to function.
 The affairs of a school can be conducted in an organized way through a timetable.
 The timetable is necessary for the proper management of the affairs of a school.
NEED AND IMPORTANCE OF THE TIMETABLE
Timetable In Any Institution Or Organization Is Very Important For The Following Reasons :-
 To ensure smooth and orderly working of the school.
 To prevent waste of time and energy of both the student and teacher.
 To maintain discipline among the students.
 To ensure equitable distribution of work load among the teachers.
 To help in adjusting school work according to the needs of the people.
 To facilitate supervision work of the teachers and students.
 To help in the formation of good habits.
 To aid the school discipline.
 To bring efficacy and efficiency in the school work.
 To train the students and teachers to make proper use of their time.
 To plan all the school activities (academic, curricular, co-curricular, extra-curricular)
in given fixed time.
 To make maximum utility of the school building (by running in two shifts and extra
classes during holidays and night )
 To provide a psychological environment – by removing fatigue during teaching –
learning process.
 To develop moral valued – punctuality and regularity.
 To ensure due attention to every subject or activity.
 To work in co operation and gain varied experience.
 It helps in conduction all management work or process properly and in time.
 To know the free periods of teachers for any work by the school.
 To arrange for proxies.
 To locate the class and the concerned subject teacher.
 To know the number of :-
 Names of teachers
 Classes and divisions
 Number of class rooms
  Number of subjects
 Location of classes, etc.

TYPES OF SCHOOL TIMETABLE

The school timetable is typical in the sense that it is weekly and periodically having a
fixed pattern, which is followed for that entire academic year. For the next year as soon as
the school reopens the school continues to follow the previous ears timetable till the new
one is made after confirming the staff turnover and student’s subject options. Primary
schools typically have timetables, however the timetable is usually so simple that they can
be constructed manually or in a basic spreadsheet package.
In some countries, such as China and Peru, high school students are not given any
choice in subjects, and this makes timetabling easy e.g., the students can remain in one
room all day while the teachers rotate.
In other countries, such as USA, the whole school is typically run on a system of
units, where each subject has the same number of lessons per cycle and subjects are placed
into ‘lines’. This also makes timetabling easy. Other schools use block scheduling.
In other countries, such as Australia and most European Countries, timetables can be
extremely difficult to construct. The process can take weeks of effort and typically
computers are needed in the process.
The typical or normal schools have the following types of timetables:
 Class timetable. This type of timetable displays the class timetable of each individual
class. It shows the distribution of subjects with teachers for each period. It also
indicates the short and long breaks and the period for games and other co curricular
activities all the sections and classes in any school follow their respective class
timetable. A copy of it is always displayed in that class and in the staff room.
 Teacher’s timetable. This type gives the placement of teacher in the class at any
particular time. It accounts for the workload of teachers and free time allocated to
teacher. Such timetable ensures no overwork or overlapping of teacher at two
different places simultaneously. This timetable is displayed r kept in the staff room
and the copy is with headmaster.
 Consolidated timetable. It is also known as general timetable. This timetable gives
the entire timetable for the whole week at a glance of the entire school and is
possible only if the school is managed by weekly periods. If shows the workload
(curricular and co-curricular) of each teacher of the school. It also includes the
visiting faculty schedules, e.g., Sanskrit, German, French teachers etc., who comes on
hourly basis or professionals who visit school for counselling, music and dramatics,
etc., this timetable is meant for headmaster because this timetable facilities the
schedule for monitoring the teaching-learning process in the class. The use of closed
circuit television (CCTV) and the public address system that works both ways, along
with intercom facility ensures communication when required.
 Vacant/free periods timetable. This timetable ensures a free time for teachers in
the school premises and assures the teacher recovers from continuous activity, allots
 time for preparation like collecting teaching aids, other materials like CD s and
preparation for the next class etc., the free period timetable is important to fill the
proxy periods for the absent teachers. In the daily logbook of teachers must record
the use of free period. This period can be utilized for library reference work,
laboratory work, surfing the net, preparation of different question papers for
assessment etc., the free period is meant for utilizing constructive school activities,
that engaging in their personal non-school activities. These regulations are
mentioned in the secondary school code.
 Co-curricular activities timetable. This timetable ensures an adequate distribution of
stimulus variation in terms of games, visit to audio-visual room, music period,
dramatics or competitions. This timetable gives at glance the distribution of a variety
of co-curricular activities adequately to each class and with no clashes between
classes. It also takes care of the use of halls, auditoriums or extra rooms and
allocation of staff to the different co-curricular activities. In this timetable the venue
or place is of much importance, e.g., skating, judo, karate, dance, gymnastics require
special spacious rooms or halls that need to be vacant at the right time for the right
group.
 Games and sports timetable. This timetable takes care of the fair distribution of
different sports to different classes age-wise and proficiency in games, and also
keeps track of the availability of the venue and the physical trainer/coach for the
same. The games timetable and the practice of the games ensure the health of the
children because many a times the teachers engage these periods to compete their
portion of the academic type without the consent of students and sometimes the
headmaster. This timetable helps to curtail the problem of discipline of students as
well as teachers in skipping the allotted period.
 Homework timetable. The timetable is made to monitor the homework allotted by subject
teachers on a weekly basis. It ensures that students are not overloaded with home
assignments and there is fair distribution of different subjects to students. This is done to
avoid students’ mental strain and informed to parents to maximize the assignment purpose
to secure their cooperation in its completion. Many schools maintain homework book
record, which also gives the dates for submission and rechecking of the same. Some day –
schools with longer duration have homework period as the last period in school, where the
homework or assignment is completed under supervision of either class teacher or subject
teacher. Many schools use worksheets, which may be graded to sustain student interest and
challenge for further learning. Such occasions are utilized for out of syllabus learning to
supplement the topic or content.
 Exam unit-test timetable. This timetable is an important one. It is an indicator of
assessment pattern of the curriculum. This timetable gives the detail information about the
duration, subjects, time and location (seating arrangement) and supervision. This timetable
is planned in advance and a copy of it is given to both students and parent. Many schools
give their exam schedule in the school calendar, which helps parents in preparation of their
ward for exams test. It also helps the parents to plan the vacations. The school prepares for
the exam in terms of getting the question papers, printing them, storing adequately for
distribution during the exam as per the schedule. This timetable is of great importance to
set deadlines for teachers in completion of portion and setting question papers. The exam
department committee keeps a check on availability of stationeries for the exam/test.
 University timetables – are quite different from school timetables. The main
difference is the fact that in high schools, students have to be occupied and
supervised every hour of the school day, or nearly every hour. Also, high school
teachers generally have much higher teaching loads than is the case in universities.
As a result, it is generally considered that university timetables involve more human
judgments, whereas high school timetabling is a more computationally intensive
task, etc.
PRINCIPLES OF TIMETABLE CONSTRUCTION
It is not an easy task to prepare a good timetable. It is a more complicated piece of
work because it is determined by number of factors and conditions, which changes from
place-to-place and school-to school. Framing a timetable is a time absorbing and complex
task. Hence, its construction, is possible with concentration and perseverance of mind.
Some of the chief factors which determine the construction of timetable are given
below:-
1. Principle of considering the type of school. The timetable is based on specific needs
of the school for which it is meant for example primary, secondary, Jr. College
(urban, rural), single teacher and double shift, day school, co-ed school, etc.
2. Principle of following Departmental Regulations. The regulations re-obtained from
the educational board which has fixed the length of school year, duration of the
school day, duration of each teaching and even the number of each teaching
subjects, etc.
For example, in secondary school academic subjects like first language maths/science
have eight periods per week, second languages and social studies has five periods per
week, respectively. Non-academic subjects like Computers. P.T., Art and craft, etc., have
two periods per week. Total periods per week are of 48 to 50. The duration of period
varies from 30 minutes to 40 minutes.
Total number of working days excluding exams and unit test is 180 and total of 80
holidays including the two vacations Diwali and Christmas. The summer vacation of 30
days (excluding Sundays) is intermittent between the two academic years while the
Diwali vacation is of 21 days and Christmas vacation is for 8 days. The different states of
India have liberty to give any short vacation in place of Christmas vacation, e.g., in
Maharashtra many schools give any short for Ganapati festival/Ramzan and
Eid/Paryushan of Jains. In West Bengal a short vacation is given for Durga puja for
Navratri. The other bank holidays and national holidays account for 21 days out of which
only 3 days are kept as reserve holidays for any emergency.
3. Principle of amount of time available. According to the type of school (day school/
shift school, etc.,) and total time available to school for maximum utility of all
resources a timetable has to be planned.
 4. Principle of relative-importance and diccicult of subject. English and Maths are
important and difficult subjects are to be allotted more time and in the beginning of
the school as the students are fresh to learn the difficult subjects.
5. Principle of incidence of fatigue. Those subjects required more brainwork are to be
placed when students are fresh and capable of doing hard and difficult work. For
e.g., English and Maths to be placed in 1st to 3rd period, manual work (PT, craft, art)
to be kept in last period or after break. One must take a note that P.T period is not to
be kept after lunch break for scientific reason that body must rest for digestion after
eating.
6. Principle of justice. It is very important to keep in mind equal distribution of work
amongst teachers has to be there for two reasons. First of all, all teachers must have
equal number of teaching periods so that there is justice. Secondly, all must have
nearly same number of free periods in between equally spread so that all are not
free at same time and on same day. Also care has to be taken to see that there is no
continuous 5 to 6 teaching periods and thereafter continuous free periods which
tend to develop a habit in teachers of taking either full-day or half-day leave or even
demanding concession to go home early. Also care must be taken that none of the
day must be too hectic with teaching periods which brings fatigue in teachers and
they tend to take leave to escape work as a result students are at loss and proxy
teachers are burdened. All these affect the working of the school and no one
benefits.
7. Principle of variety. Children have a very short span of attention and they get bored
very soon. If there is variety then learning will become fruitful and meaning. For this,
a change of room, of seat, of posture is an antidote against weariness. Varieties can
be introduced by variation in subjects (by using a blen/combination of different
subjects for using both the left and the right hemisphere of the brain so that it gives
opportunities for using the entire brain).

STAFF MEETING (NEED, TYPES AND PROCESS)

INTRODUCTION

Efficient functioning of the school demands that members of the staff meet regularly
under the leadership of the head of the school for sharing responsibility as well as
experience. No Principal can run an institution single-handedly. Principal needs to share
his/her responsibilities as well as information with the staff from time –to – time. For this
co-ordination of the staff is required.

Co-ordination of work of the staff is achieved through staff meetings, which is a

democratic way of :

 Reducing Headmaster’s burden

  Enhancing staff’s enthusiasm
 Staff ’s involvement
 Staff ’s confidence
 Staff ’s co-operation etc. To achieve all these, headmaster has to make use of staff
meetings.

DEFINITION OF STAFF MEETING

 Staff meeting is a part of Human Resource Management (HRM) in the process of

management.
 Staff meeting is a formal meeting with a specific purpose of either solving problem
or decision making or planning an action plan of an activity or to review the work
officially or preparing a report under a chairman, i.e., HM/Management.
 According to Briggs, the expectations of teachers from staff meetings are:-
 Help in their problems
 A wider outlook of education
 Meeting to be happy and wholesome
 Meeting based on appreciation of effort and accomplishment rather than
shortcomings and faults.

NEED OF STAFF MEETING

For any staff meetings to happen there must be specific reason or purpose. They can
be many but very important once are given below:
 Giving and gathering information (anything related to academic).
 Solving problems (of the school or class or teacher or parents, etc).
 Decision-making (about the course/academic, student, teacher, parent, society,
management, etc).
 Persuading others to a course of action (make all responsible for any
action/decision).
 Developing team spirit of the staff.
 Developing spirit of cooperation among the staff/parents.
 Reviewing performance of students, teachers and institution.
 Identifying future programmes (both academic and non-academic).
 Identifying course of action for improvement total quality management
 Handling grievances of staff, students and parents.
 Planning for new activities, projects and experiments.
 Formulating policies jointly and democratically.
 Assigning different tasks (academic, co-curricular and administrative) to the staff
members in accordance with their interest, abilities and aptitudes.
 Contribution by staff to the effective functioning of the institution and in shaping the
institution’s academic and professional life,
 According to Verghese, the purpose of a staff meeting is to :-
 Stimulate and encourage teachers individually and co-operatively.
  To help them to ascertain their needs,
 To accept their responsibilities
 To analyse their problems, and
 To grow professionally and effectively.

TYPES OF STAFF MEETING

There are basically 4 types of staff meetings:-
 Formal meeting.
 Informal meetings
 Planned meetings.
 Emergency meetings

FORMAL MEETINGS:
 Formal Meetings includes 2 types of meetings :
1. Committee meetings which are 3 types :
(a) School committee meetings (b) Academic council meetings (c) PTA-meetings
2. Project progress meetings.
 Held at regular intervals.
 There is a strict adherence of time limits.
 Rigid, structured agendas with a specific time allotted to subjects by agreement with
participation
 To control large groups covering varied topics.

Every meeting has an agenda and so also the formal meeting. Hence, the agenda of
formal meetings is as given below :
 Formulation of curriculum.
 Allotment of duties and subjects to teachers
 Decisions concerning co-curricular activities.
 Issues concerning examinations dates, timetable paper-settings, allotment of
invigilation and classrooms, assessment dates....etc.
 Discipline, enforcement of rules and regulations.

INFORMAL MEETINGS :
As the name suggests, informal meetings are informally conducted. Informal
meetings are conducted when staff feels
“It’s time we need to talk”. It is Adhocin nature. It is dealt with specific issues to
discuss a problem-child in a class/staff/parent. Usually informal/little notice is
needed for conveying such a meeting. Informal meetings could be a sub-group of a
formal meeting.
 Outcome of informal meetings is usually :-
 A plan
  A solution
 A request to hold a large, formal meeting.

1. PLANNED MEETINGS :
As the name suggests, planned meetings are formally conducted meetings with proper
agenda and proper planning. Planned meeting is most useful for planning institutional
tasks and activities. Here headmaster decides the :
 objectives,
 identifies and selects participants,
 prepares case and
 deals with staff members singly or in group
 For any planned meeting it is necessary to think about all the possible individuals
who can provide help in the process of planning before – hand to avoid random
results, misunderstanding and wastage of both time and energy.
2. EMERGENCY MEETTINGS:
They are of a very special type as its needs are very special. These meetings are only
in emergencies when things are not in our control and no one in school has a proper
and final solution or even power to take any decision. At such time all staff has to
meet to come to concise and take unanimous decision for any emergent problem or
accident, etc.
 Emergency meeting are :-
 Called at short notice
 When unforeseen or unexpected situations arise.
 Examples are :
 Fire food, heavy rains, riots, bandh, attack by hooligans.....etc.
 A visit of educational/govt. officials, an inspecting authority of the
institution.... etc.
 A case of gross misbehaviors, negligence or indiscipline either by
student or teacher.

PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE STAFF MEETING

 Principle of agenda – a well throughout agenda is circulated well in advance, so that
teachers come prepared to participate in the discussion and give proper solution or
even to the information.
 Principle of objectives – comprehensible and clear objectives to be framed so that
the entire meeting goes in the desired fruitful direction. Thus, there is no scope for
any digression. This helps to do both convergent and divergent thinking in the
meeting on any issues.
 Principle of systematic and orderliness – to conduct the task of the meeting. It has
to be very systematic and in an order of priority. To discuss each point in detail and
then take decision before moving to the next point of agenda.
  Principal of co-operation – a spirit of goodwill and tolerance to prevail. There is
every possibility that some or few members may totally diverge from both the issues
for discussion or the solutions suggested for the issues.
e.g. 1. To set the question paper in the school and not at home.
2. to prepare a model answer with marking scheme of all the papers. Such situation can
lead to unnecessary prolonged arguments, which required tolerance of others to listen and
them come to consensus.
 Principle of non-dominance – no domination by anyone. Usually people/staff, which
have vested interest or are dominating in nature takes the whole show and other are
totally passive as they are not heard at all. As a result, these non-dominance staff
skips the meetings under some or the other pretext. Hence, the principal must see
that there is no dominance of any kind by any one under any circumstances.
 Principle of constructive criticism – the discussion must involve all members, i.e., all
must contribute their views. All must take care to avoid personal attack, unnecessary
arguments, mudslinging and destructive comments. All these puts down the morale
of the meeting and the staff. One has to think that the discussion is for making the
system and mechanism better and not point mistakes of each other. Every aspect
must be taken in positive stride, i.e, in constructive way for improvement.
 Principal of non-digression- not to depart from main point of agenda as leads to
waste of time, energy and no positive achievement is seen. People start thinking that
such meetings are of no use as there in no outcome from it. They even skip or sleep
in the meetings.
 Principle of constructivism – disagreements, conflicts and criticisms to be handled
constructively and amicably. Principal has to handle these issues in a very tactful
and constructive manner to avoid all negativism and bring constructivism as this is a
very sensitive issue.
 Principle of consensus/democracy – decision made should be general
agreement/opinion of all as all have to follow it. They should agree from heart the
decision and not by force. The democratic functioning facilitates and considers the
decision of the majority.
 Principle of mutual respect – is to be shown by all. Even individual is an important
element of the staff meeting and all belong to the same institution. Hence, all must
respect others views or opinion because it is their experience and their way of
thinking which may be totally different from others. Mutual respect is one of the
ways of showing tolerance, acceptance, loving...etc., which are the values to be
practiced in our democratic country.
 Principle of commitment – towards the group’s collective purpose and a willingness
to make positive, constructive contributions in all staff. Once the decision is taken
with the above ingredients there must be commitment to fulfill that.

CHARACTERISTICS OF AN EFFECTIVE STAFF MEETING

The characteristics of an effective staff meeting are based on the psychological principles of
staff meeting given above
 Atmosphere – cordial, informal, relaxed, comfortable and tension-free
 No Bordem – all are fully involved in the activities with interest
 Discussion – all participate, discussions remain to-the-point. If they get-off the
subject gate-keepers’ bring them back to the topic immediately.
 Acceptable – to all in the group
 Comprehensible – to all in the group
 No Jumps of Ideas – by any one
 Patience – in listening to all
 NOT SCARED – of talking and not be laughed at
 Disagreements and differences – are handled with maturity and resolved rationally
 Decisions – are taken by consensus
 Criticism – handled with comfort and maturity. Criticism is treated as constructive,
for improvements and removal of barriers and weaknesses
 Expression – all can express their ideas openly without fear
 Domination – HM should not dominate
 Struggle of Power – should be minimized in use when the group operates
 Self – Assessments – frequent, concerning operations and outcomes

PROCESS OF STAFF MEETING.

There are 3 major stages of conducting staff meeting.

1) Preparation and planning.
2) Actual meeting.
3) Post-meeting activities.

PROCESS – 1 PEPARATION AND PLANNING OF MEETING.

 State the purpose of the meeting.
 Notify the venue and time of the meeting in advance to all the staff members.
 Make arrangements for recording the proceedings of the meeting and notify down
the minute of the meeting.
 Do your “home work” in advance by getting your facts and figures and information
before convening a meeting.
 Carefully identify the priorities or sequence of items.

PROCESS – 2 ACTUAL MEETING.

This stage has 2 major components.
1) Systematic attainment of the meeting purpose.
  Outlining the subjects = the opening statement for a meeting should be
prepared in advance and should be spoken slowly, clearly, gently and briefly.
The language should be simple. While discussion topic should be evoked.
 Encouraging discussions = At the stage, the creative potential of teachers is
brought to the forefront so as to generate ideas and solve problems. In order
to discussion, a leader needs to express his/her own interest in the topic and
give attention without disrupting thoughts.
 Following up key thoughts = this helps in clarifying and fully understanding
the theme of the discussion. It sets participants thinking, encourages them
for further discussions and leads towards constructive conclusions.
 Summarizing and checking = this step helps in defining group thinking,
highlighting main thoughts and decisions, clearing up misunderstandings,
holding the group together, combining best thoughts and producing a feeling
of accomplishment.
2) Creating a congenial climate for meeting.
 The atmosphere is cordial, informal, relaxed, comfortable and free of tension
 People are fully involved in the activities with interest.
 The group tasks are comprehensible and acceptable to everyone.
 The group is comfortable with disagreements and arguments.
 Criticisms are handling with comfort and maturity.
 Principal of the institution does not dominate.
 There is a frequent self-assessment by the group concerning its operations
and outcomes.
PROCESS – 3 POST- MEETING ACTIVITIES.
Follow-up of meeting consists of the following.
 Ascertain whether the pre-determined goals of the meeting were attained.
 Find out if you could have adopted a different approach.
 Determine the goals and the extent of your contribution in the involvement and
participation in future meetings.
 Decide whether you were able to prevent discussions from going off a tangent.
 Check with the secretary whether he/she has recorded the minutes accurately.
 Determine the agenda, venue, and time for the next meeting.

ABSENTEEISM - CAUSES AND MEASURES (STAFF AND STUDENTS )

Meaning
Student absenteeism has been consistently identified by educators as a major
concern (Marvilde 1981). Classroom absence is a major factor responsible for falling
standard in school education system today. Future of the nation always takes place in
schools. School is such an organization which deals with the betterment of society (Khatri,
2013).
 School absenteeism has a far-reaching impact on a child’s academic progress and
future. Absenteeism creates a dead, tiresome and unpleasant classroom environment that
makes students who come to class uncomfortable and the teacher irritable (Marburger,
2001).
It disturbs the dynamic teaching learning environment and adversely affects the
overall well being of classes (Segel, 2008).
Inequality terms, absenteeism is a waste of educational resources, time and human
potential. Students who have absenteeism problem generally suffer academically and
socially (William,2000).
Absenteeism can be defined as persistent, habitual and unexplained absence from
school (Brooks, 1997, as cited in Bond, 2004).
They noted that chronic absenteeism occurs when a student is absent without
reason. The Auditor General Victoria (Australia, 2004) identified four major dimensions of
absenteeism truancy, school refusal, school withdrawal and early leaving. It is important to
identify the different dimensions of absenteeism in tackling the problem because they
require different interventions. Truancy as the persistent, habitual and unexplained absence
from school of a child of compulsory school age, although it can occur with parental
knowledge and sometimes consent.
Bond (2004) included fractional truancy, which occurs when student arrive late or
leave early or spend entire days away from school. School refusal differs from truancy in
that children refuse to attend schools even in the face persuasion and punitive measures
from parents and school. These students stay at home with the knowledge of their parents
and school administrators (Mcshane, Walter & Ray, 2001).
School withdrawal means children are absent from school because their parents
keep them away from school on a frequent basis. Their parents do not enroll them at
school. Early leaving refers to children fewer than 15who drop out of school before
completing their schooling.

Common Causes of Absenteeism of the students.

When a student misses a day of school he/she must have lost the chance to hear
others, interpret and analyzing the lessons or joins the interaction within the class. This lost
is being routed to varying factors that contribute to a child’s regular truancy. These may be
family situation or an individual problem, finance concerns, disability, psychotic imbalance,
poor school climate, family health, transportation problems, drug and alcohol use, and
differing community attitude towards education (Savers et al. 2005).

Some possible causes of school absenteeism are listed here.

 Lack of Subject Interest and Personal Interest in studies.
 Available opportunities for entertainment like malls, movie halls etc.
 The mental capacity of a student does not matches with the course opted.
 Too much pamperness from family.
 The poor teaching skills of a teacher also keep away student from the school.
 Unfavorable learning environment, unconducive interpersonal relations between
students & teachers in schools.
 Lack of confidence and Ragging also cause absenteeism.
 Lack of allied activities also causes absenteeism like no sports program, no fresher or
farewell parties, no annual day celebration etc.
 Poor food of canteen and poor infrastructure facility in school such as no place in a
library to sit may also be considered as reasons for absenteeism.
 Teacher absentees or lacking of efficient teachers in schools is a major cause to shift
towards private tuitions which further lead to student absenteeism.
 Most of the students are doing private coaching’s for their entrance examinations
such as medical engineering or are preparing for their board exams through private
tuition causes absenteeism in school & college.
 Preparation for examination, excess of homework and sometimes fear from
examination keep away students from school/college.
 Preparation for the participation in TV shows in dance musical or acting, G.K. contest
programs also increase the percentage of absenteeism.
 If school or college is far off the percentage of absenteeism may increase.
 Over expectation of parents also deteriorate the attendance of a student when s/he
is unable to cope with parent nature of making comparison among their own
children of with the friends of their child.
 Poor socio-economic background of the student and too much socialization causes
absenteeism. It mostly happens during teen age and college when the students form
a group to freak out.
 Use of drug and alcohol by the student and peer group influence.
 When more than desired facilities are provided by parents such as CAR, Mobiles,
High amount of money as Pocket Money the student start enjoying those facilities
and become absent.
 Social phobia (don’t have friends), Health (always sick) and inferiority complex within
student causes absenteeism.
 School culture shock (have a hard time coping up, might be that the school is too
advance or too slow.)
 Influences from outside the school gates (sees people who cuts classes, Internet and
Computer games.)
 Financial support (the family can’t afford education or education is not a primary
necessity).
 Differing Community Attitude towards Education (The people that surrounds your
home and within it education is not given importance)
 Transportation (The family might lived in a very rural community where in
transportation cannot easily
Effects of Classroom Absence
Students who skip school a lot miss out on the opportunity to gain a quality
education, while teachers who are often absence may hurt the students' chances by
weakening the school's ability to function. Students without adequate parental supervision
may skip school to escape the boredom or cope with depression. Others stay away from
class because of feelings of disconnectedness and inadequacy.

Some effects of classroom absence are as follows ;

Disconnected to School: Students who are frequently absent from school have more
difficulty forming relationships and participating in school activities. Students with excessive
absences may feel disconnected from academics and believe that the lessons are not
relevant to their lives. They may spend less time in extracurricular activities, which reduces
their chances to discover their passion, gain recognition for their talent and develop their
skills outside the classroom. Disconnected student lack accountability which can lead to
behavioural issues and poor academic achievement. Teachers who are frequently absent
may not be able to bond with students. As a result students are more likely to disregard
lessons and take school less seriously.
Compromised Learning: Excessive absences create gaps in the student's education. Lesson
plans are designed to prepare students for the next lesson. However if the student is not
present in the classroom for the teacher to help them, the student has a higher chance of
being left behind. Due to frequent absences, students may forget the previous lessons
which results academic insecurity. Students may be doubt their ability to excel academically
and stop putting in the effort to achieve high grades. If teachers have excessive absences,
the learning process of the students becomes disrupted. Instead of challenging lessons,
students are given busy work from less qualified substitute teachers.

Lack of Positive Social Support: Constructive support from teachers and peers can boost a
student's confidence in academics and encourage her to work towards academic success.
Many students with excessive absences are dealing with difficult financial, health or family
situations.
However, without the chance to gain support from teachers, the student may not receive
the extra attention she needs. Students who are exposed to negative attitudes about school
will not have to chance to befriend students that excel academically. Teachers who are
frequently absent are less able to join a strong network of teachers and gain the support of
administration. This can lead to further clashes, organizational issues, conflicts and divisions
within the school.

Strained School Budgets: Student and teacher absences put a heavy burden on the school
budget. Money that could be invested in field trips, technology and extracurricular activities
are instead wasted on the cost of absences. It has been found that Oakland, Unified School
District suffered a loss of $4 million from student absences. Raegan Miller, researcher for
American Progress, revealed that teacher absences cost the nation $4 billion.

Removal from School: Chronic absenteeism can often result in the student getting expelled,
especially if the student has behavioural issues and extremely low grades. Students who are
disconnected from school are less likely to be aware of the attendance policy. This increases
the chances of them being expelled from school. To reduce the budget strain and improve
the quality of education, teachers with excessive absenteeism are targeted for removal.
Many schools are feeling pressure from officials to reduce budget costs by enforcing
attendance. As aresult frequently absent teachers are vulnerable to layoffs and dismissals.

Possible Solutions to Reduce Students Absenteeism

It is recommended that:
 Schools should identify training needs and organize symposium, workshops,
conferencesand staff development programs for teachers to enhance their skills and
performancelevel.
 The school administration with the parents of the concerned students must conduct
andeffective conference dialogue.
 Solutions to the different areas of difficulty due to absenteeism can be taken action
by theresponsible organizations and individuals in their respective fields.
 Orientation and briefing on students who are absent might be conducted to at all
leastthey would commit to absenteeism.
 Schools seeking to alleviate their attendance problems should study the particular
circumstances present in the school before adopting any plan. The successful
programsshould be adopted which fit the needs of the schools
 The school enlists the help of parents and community agencies in the effort to
reduce Student absenteeism. It is clear that the schools cannot solve the problem
alone.
 Teachers and other members of the school staff become more involved in the
programs for reducing absenteeism. Although absenteeism can be viewed as an
administrative problem, many of the causes of absenteeism begin in the individual
classroom.
 Alternative programs should be developed for students who have trouble adjusting
to the traditional structure of most schools. Educators must begin to realize that
traditional schools do not meet the needs of all students.

Causes of absenteeism of the teachers in the school.

 Family/Personal reason
 Medical reason.
 Insufficient salary
 Lack of encouragement from Principal.
  Teaching as routine work.
 Work conditions of the school.
 Organizational climate.
 Lack of interest, after some years.
 Lack of Professional development.
 Unbearable stress.
 Administration blames teachers for everything.

Measures to over come the problem of absenteeism of the teacher.

 By professional Ethics, teacher should keep all your personal problems in
house, not school.
 Take counseling for themselves if they want come out from the personal
problems.
 Take good medical measures, with the help of the higher authority of the
school.
 To increase the interest in the teaching profession, school can arrange
seminar, workshops even for teachers also.
 In-service training must be compulsory to the teachers for updating
themselves.
 School environment should base on democratic values.
 Organizational climate should enjoyable and stress free.
 Functioning of the school should base on equal distribution work.
 Every educational institution should provide justifiable salary to the teachers.

SECONDARY SCHOOL CODE

INTRODUCTION/HISTORY

 The Grant-in-aid system was initially introduced by British in 1859 with the aim of
encouraging voluntary, private efforts in education and reliance on local resources in
addition to the finance from government.
 One of the cardinal principles of this system was that part of expenditure of an aided
institution should be borne by the management.
 In 1956, there was an reorganisation in Maharashtra state and a committee was
appointed in 1958 by Bombay government which submitted its report in 1959.
 In 1960, another committee was set up to discuss the suggestions made by the 1st
committee.
 On the basis of 2nd committee’s recommendations, a school code was prepared and
implemented from the year 1963-64 and called “Maharashtra Secondary School
Code”.
  Later in 1975, when many private and unaided schools came i8nto existence an
additional rules and regulation came into force and practice, called “The
Maharashtra Employees of Private Schools Regulations Act, 1977 and Rules 1981.”

ADMINISTRATION OF THE SECONDARY SCHOOL AND EDUCATIONAL CODE

Generally speaking, schools are administered in accordance with the Educational
Code which includes Acts and Rules on different dimensions of the administration of the
school. It lay down the role of the department of schemes of management of the schools,
recognized rules of recruitment, terms and conditions of service of employees of the private
schools, admission policy, fees and other charges, responsibilities of the head and the
teachers, managers and managing committees of the school and inspection and supervision
of schools. The code also includes the role of the Panchayati Raj Institution in Education.

IMPORTANCE OF SECONDARY SCHOOL CODE

 A controlling authority of education to implement and check that all the aided,
unaided, recognized, private, etc., follow a common and legal binding set by the
state government and derived from Central Government. This leads to equality to
all in education.
 A common system of administration of supervision for initiating and accelerating
educational reform through GRs. (Government Resolution)
 To have a common school system (textbooks, teaching patterm, assessment and
evaluation) of public education to all.
 To maintain a common standard that an average parent will not feel the need to
send their children to a unrecognized and independent school.
 To maintain a common standard by the management/trust in functioning the
school. Thus, dissolving the discrimination between the teachers working under
different managements.
 To maintain a common standard (in terms of appointment, for the workload, salary,
leave, promotion, etc.,) for the teaching faculty and even the non-teaching staff.
 To check that all schools impart secular education.
 To dissolving the discrimination between the schools under different management
so that school can provide minimum essential conditions necessary for giid
education.
 To have common standard for disbursement of grants to schools.
 To protect both the teaching and non-teaching staff by empowering them with their
rights and duties. Also to guide them with legal issues through school tribunal.
 To have a common/universal Progessional Ethics for both teachers and
managements as a privilege.
 To keep check on the professional ethics, i.e., code of conduct
 To give the information of the Rules and Regulations Act 1977 and 1981 about
 Code of conduct
 Conditions of services
  Schedules A to I
CHARACTERISTICS OF SECONDARY SCHOOL CODE
 SS Code for private schools is known as “The Maharashtra Employees of Private
Schools Regulation Acts and Rules”.
 SS Code is easily available in market prepared either by the government or private
bodies (advocates).
 It is helpful to the Bench, the Bar and the managements of private educational
institutions as it is a legal educational Bible.
 It deals with the laws relating to the private schools and jr. colleges in the state of
Maharashtra.
 The Act and Rules are not applicable to primary schools and pre-primary schools
 It deals with the importance of legislation which is not to be underestimated.
 It legally helps to solve the problems of administration of justice in the educational
field.
 To provide access to tribunal to redress grievances on the issue of termination,
reduction in rank and super-session (to put in place of)
 It also deals with the trace of history of education along with various stages of NEP,
the Act along with judicial decisions, reservation of posts with circulars and a brief
note on internal inquired held by the management.
 It deals with the reservation policies and social policies.
 The employees too can very well get acquainted with the provision of the Act, and
Rules which are important to their service conditions.
 It is helpful to the management, staff and all dealing with schools, i.e., both
employers and employees.

MAHARASHTRA SECONDARY SCHOOL CODE INCLUDES THE FOLLOWING:-

I. It includes the definitions of their term school, girls’ schools, secondary and higher
secondary schools, higher secondary multi-purpose schools, vocational secondary schools,
night schools, secretariat, department, director, deputy director, educational officer, girls’
school inspectress, inspecting officer, management, headmaster, trained teachers and so on
...........
II. Recognition, organization and management of schools
Section – I Recognition
Section – II Aspects of School Management
Section – III Admissions and Withdrawals
Section – IV Examinations, Curriculum and Textbooks
Section – V Health of School Children
Section – VI fees and Free Studentships
Section – VII School Terms, Holidays, School Hours
Section – VIII Principals of Discipline
III. Staff-service conditions records and inspection
 Section – I Maintenance of Adequate Staff, etc.,
Section – II Conditions of Service
Section – III Rules of Discipline and Leave
Section – IV Records, Registers and Inspection.
IV. Grant-in-aid
Section – I Salary and Non-salary grant.
Section – II Building grant.
Section – III other grants
Section – A List of items of technical and vocational schools.
Section – B List of items of inadmissible of grant
Section – C List of items for technical and vocational schools.
Appendices (1 to 25) Dealing with new orders
Annexure (1 to 70) Modifications after the publication of grant-in-aid code.

ASPECTS OF SECONDARY SCHOOL CODE

Secondary School Code deals with the following aspects :-
 Duties of the entire staff especially of teaching staff.
 Private tuition rules.
 Rules for full-time and part-time teachers.
 Submission of representations.
 Obtaining higher or additional qualifications.
 Termination of services on account of abolition of posts.
 Retrenchment on account of abolition of posts.
 Principles of termination or dismissal of service.
 Penalties.
 Imposition of penalty of withholding an increment.
 Classification of penalties-minor and major.
 Procedure for inflicting major and major.
 Procedure for inflicting major penalties.
 Payment of subsistence allowance.
 Conditions of suspension.
 Inquiry committee. Procedure of inquiry.
 Power to terminate services, etc.
 Procedure of filing appeals.
 Resignation.
 Transfers, transfer norms and rules.
 Contesting election.
 Appearance of legal practioner before the tribunal.
UNIT – 6 – EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION IN INDIA

Educational administration set up in India.

Education is one of the important tasks undertaken by the present modem Governments. In
1921, the department of education came under the control of Indian Minister. Between
1921-1940, there was rapid expansion of educational institutions and enrolment of
students. Primary education was made compulsory.

The goals, procedures and machinery together constitute educational administration.

Hence, in the words of Kandel, “Fundamentally the purpose of educational administration is
to bring pupils and teachers together under such conditions as well as successfully promote
the end of education.

Today the term educational administration is comprehensively used. Educational

administration is also linked with planning, organizing, directing, co-ordinating and
controlling the objectives concerned with education. In the words of Mochiman Arthur,
“Administration is essentially, a service activity and agency through which the fundamental
objectives of the educational process may be fully and efficiently realized.

Educational administration means the organisation structure for the administration of

educational institutions. It is also connected with synonymous words like supervision,
direction, guidance, coordination and control. The educational administration is also
connected with personnel administration, institutional administration and financial
administration.

In India there are basically four types of institutions to look after the development of
primary and secondary education. They are:

(1) Central Government,

(2) State Government,

(3) Local Bodies/Institutions, and

(4) Private Institutions

Historical Retrospect

During the British regime the alien Government was not interested in educating the Indian
masses, save some upper 91 classes for the limited purpose of providing junior officials for
its own administration and to keep its hold on India. Rippon, was the first man, who paid
much attention on Indian education. He placed primary education under the local bodies in
1883. Educational administration was highly centralised, the provinces were merely carrying
out the policies of the Centre. The whole initiative, policymaking, organisation and
administration, were dictated by the Centre as it suited its purse and purpose. In 1901 the
post of Director General of Education was created and in 1910, the department of Education
was established under the auspices of a Member of the Viceroy's Executive Council. In the
same year a Secretary was appointed to look after the Department of Education, Health and
Lands.

The Government of India Act 1919 introduced a new concept of responsibility - advisory
and oo-ordination. According to the provisions of this Act, education, with a few exceptions,
became a provincial and transferred subject in charge of Minister. So, in 1921, because of
the dual administration set-up in the country, State Legislative Assemblies and the Ministry
of Education came into existence. In the same year, the Central Advisory Board of Education
was set-up as an instrument for the discharge of the Centre's advisory functions. In 1929,
the Hartog Committee recommended the reviving of the Central Advisory Board of
Education and setting of an Education Advisory Council and this was done in 1935. In 1944,
the Sargent Commission defined national development as the goat of education and also
recommended that the administrative issues should be further liberalised. It was suggested
that the activities of the University and higher technical education should be co-ordinated
on an all India basis; cooperation between the Central and Provincial Governments was
emphasised. The desirability of an Education Advisory Board for the whole province was
stressed. In 1945 a separate Department of Education was created and the Educational
Advisor to the Government of India was appointed as the Secretary of the new Department
of Education.

With the advent of Independence in 1947, a full-fledged Ministry of Education and Scientific
Research was established. The Centre's interest in education continued to grow. However,
we find considerable overlapping in the efforts of the Centre and the States of the Union,
specially in the matter of reorganisation of education. The Centre issued directions without
sharing responsibility. The States looked at this with suspicion. They wanted to retain the
power that they had been enjoying for long. The result was that even after the constitution
of India came into force the Centre adopted as isolationist policy and gave no help to the
States in the matter of education.

With the launching of the Five Year Plans the policy changed. The Centre allotted funds to
the States, especially for expansion and development of universal primary education and
social education of the adults. With the control of these grants the Centre started
supervising education in the States. The Centre's educational activities expanded and the
Central Ministry of Education was reorganised from time to time. It discharged its
responsibilities through the appointment of advisory councils for several purposes and
continued to help the States with funds, technical advice, co-ordination and co-operation.
At present the Central Ministry of Education is a part and parcel of the Ministry of Human
Resource Development. which was created by the Congress (I) Government under the Prime
Ministership of Rajiv Gandhi in 1965. The newly created Ministry of Human Resource
Development is the outcome ‘of the firm belief of the then Prime Minister that the greatest
wealth of a nation is its people and therefore, the basic task of development is up gradation
of human resources.

Characteristics of State system of education. ( SSC)

SSC Board

Secondary School Certificate

As the name suggests, each state has its own board of education that conducts certificate
examination for class 10 and class 12. Some state boards, such as Rajasthan board also
conduct exams in class 8. The benefits are

 Reasonably prevalent within the state

 Topics and content of local relevance
 Usually cheaper schools

State Board

The State Board has the maximum number of schools affiliated to it across the state. The
West Bengal Board of Secondary Education (WBSE) and the West Bengal Board of Higher
Secondary Education (WBHSE) are both state government administered autonomous
authorities based out of Kolkata.

The medium of instruction for the Board is Bengali, Hindi and English. The State Board offers
compared to the CBSE and CISCE boards a lesser array of subject options. The syllabus
makes it easier for the students to get admissions into the various government colleges
across the state. The State Medical and Engineering examination syllabus are also in
accordance with the WBHSE syllabus. The syllabus is very extensive and is considered widely
to be not very application based. Attempts are though now being made to make the
syllabus more systematic and relevant for the students.

Until 2010, students appearing for Class 10 examinations were tested on the combined
syllabi of Class 9 and Class 10 and students appearing for Class 12 examinations were tested
on the combined syllabi of Class 11 and Class 12. Now, the examinations for Class 10 tests
only the syllabus for Class 10 and examinations for Class 12 tests only the syllabus for Class
12.

Secondary School Certificate, commonly known as SSC, is a public examination taken by

students in Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh and Goa in India,
Bangladesh, and Pakistan , after successfully completing at least ten years of schooling. It is
followed by Higher Secondary (School) Certificate (HSC). SSC is an equivalent to GCSE in the
England.
State Boards are comparatively limited in the content and subjects as compared to other
boards. The syllabus is easier and hence less stressful to the students. These schools being
state centric are excellent for parents planning to stay in the same state for life. The State
language is compulsory. As the concepts are generally lagging the kids have to be given
external coaching, if planning for IIT, CAT and other competitive exams. These schools are
great for kids who are focused on extracurricular activities like sports etc.

Every State Government imparts Primary, Secondary and Higher Secondary Education in its
respective state. State boards are associated with their local state governments, for e.g. in
Maharashtra, we have SSC (10th board exams), HSC (12th board exams).

Some of the key features are listed below:

1. Widely accepted by all local students.

2. The curriculum is not very vast or exhaustive and so preferred by many students.
3. Study material and tutors are easily available.
4. Fees are the lowest amongst all the boards.
5. Seats are reserved in the state recognized colleges and universities.

Examination Pattern
• SSC: Secondary School Certificate, 10 Board Exams
• HSC: Higher School Certificate, 12 Board Exams

Facts
• Areas of Operations: Every State and Union Territory of India

Pros
1. Favorable for parents without Transferable Jobs.
2. Easily available Textbook, Teachers.
3. Moderately loaded curriculum giving options for Students to explore more extracurricular
activities like Dancing and Sports.
4. Lower Fees.
5. More reserved seats within the state recognized colleges

Cons
1. Depends wholly on the State government’s competence to maintain quality of education.
2. Quality of Teaching varies according to school.
3. Might Lack in basic facilities.
4. Quality of Content (No Errors/ No Printing Mistakes) may be questionable.
5. The curriculum and quality of teaching entirely depend on the state government.
6. The curriculum may not be up to date or relevant to the current times.
7. Lack of basic educational infrastructure in schools.
Characteristics of National system of education. ( ICSE)

ICSE board:

Indian certificate secondary education

At the start let me tell you that ICSE board commonly used misnomer. There is nothing like
an ICSE board. Rather, the CBSE equivalent here is the Council of Indian School Certificate
Examination (CISCE). It is a private body that was founded in year 1956 to set and adapt
University of Cambridge’s examination system to India. This body now conducts 3
examinations, namely

 ICSE (Indian certificate secondary education) exam for class 10

 ISC (Indian school certificate) exam for class 12
 CVE (Certificate for vocational education) exam for class 12

The CISCE board has equal focus on languages, science and art and encourages students to
choose across diverse topics / subjects for their Class-12 exam. Main benefits of CISCE are

 Wide recognition of board results across colleges in India and even abroad
 Equal focus – language, art and science
 More choice and freedom to students in deciding final subjects
 Reasonably prevalent across India

Some of the key features of the ICSE board are:

1. It gives focus on all subjects such as languages, science, maths, arts etc.
2. More options for students to select different subjects.
3. It also has a wide coverage (approximately more than 1000 schools) in India and other
countries like Singapore, UAE etc.
4. More than 20 Indian languages and 12 foreign languages are offered as language subjects.
5. It focuses on the all-round development and the practical knowledge enhancement of
students.
6. Most of the foreign university admission process includes the TOEFL (Test of English
Language) exam as Mandatory. These students find it easier because of the equal language
focus.

The CISCE is the Council for the Indian School Certificate Examinations which is a private
board of education based in Delhi. It is commonly referred to as the ICSE (Indian Certificate
of Secondary Education) Board which is actually the pan India Class 10 examinations
conducted by the board. It conducts the ISC (Indian School Certificate) examinations for
Class 12.
There are a reasonable number of schools affiliated to the Board in India. In West Bengal
specifically there are more schools affiliated to the CISCE in comparison to the CBSE board.
This board also has an International recognition as it is regulated by the University of
Cambridge.

The medium of instruction for the CISCE board is English. The syllabus is quite detailed and
focuses on strengthening the basics of the students. Thus in the examinations conducted
based on this board, the pattern of questions are such so as to test the basic and in-depth
understanding of students. The syllabus allows the student to choose from a wide array of
subjects ranging from the usual English, Mathematics, sciences and Arts to subjects such as
Fashion Designing, Technical drawing, Economic Applications and others. This offers
students a wide range of options to consider for further studies. The CISCE board gives
weight age to Internal Assessments, Projects work, and other year around activities done
by the students done over the year for the final examinations. This ensures students
remain focused throughout the year.

The ICSE is short form of Indian Certificate for Secondary Education. It was established by
the University of Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicate. The council conducts an all India
exam for Class 10 called ICSE (Indian Certificate for Secondary Education) and for class 12
called the Indian School Certificate (ISC).

The ICSE board follows the basics strengthening syllabus. all the introduction is repeated
and then quadratic equations are handled. Even questions are based on the basics. This
makes the basics of the topic very strong. This helps the student a lot of confidence when
higher studies are involved. As his basics are very strong, half the job is done. There is lot of
focus on language and literature. So good for kids wanting to make a career which involves
writing, reading, talking, debating, arguing, surveying, historians, geologist etc. This
curriculum is very good when it comes to general knowledge and general subjects. However
it is unnecessarily vast.

This board is also good for competitive exams like IIT, IIM, CAT, All India entrance exams,
but needs extra time and coaching. Even Armed forces exams can be appeared after this
board. ICSE syllabus is particularly important for students who
prefer higher education abroad. Exams like GRE, TOEFLand GMAT have a lot of verbal ability
testing. Its also excellent for those who are migrating from abroad as the curriculum is close
to international board. One important distinguishing feature in ICSE syllabus is the
importance given to projects. Projects are very important and they form the basis of
marking scheme in the performance of the student. This makes the student extremely active
and it improves his thinking ability

Examination Pattern: This body conducts 3 examinations, namely

• ICSE (Indian certificate secondary education) exam for class 10
• ISC (Indian school certificate) exam for class 12
• CVE (Certificate for vocational education) exam for class 12

Facts
• Total Number of Schools Affiliated with ICSE: Approx. 1000
• Areas of Operation: India, UAE, Singapore, Indonesia
• Subjects Offered ICSE in 2013-64 with 23 Indian languages and 12 are foreign languages.
• Subjects Offered ISC in 2013- 50 with 23 Indian languages and 12 are foreign languages.

Pros
1. Course curriculum is wide, covering a range of topics to explore overall growth of
students.
2. ICSE prefers to give more practical Knowledge and focus more on analytical skills.
3. Subject selection options available to students to follow their liking for a particular
subject.
4. The ICSE board has equal focus on languages, science and art and encourages students
to choose across diverse topics / subjects for their Class-12 exam.

Cons
1. Students may find syllabus a bit cumbersome.
2. Students would find it hard to shift to other boards or Pre-Science Colleges (11-12
Standards)
3. Higher Fees
4. The curriculum is very vast and comprehensive.
5. Students wanting to go in for science and maths specialization would like to be more focused on
those subjects only, which is more prevalent in CBSE.
6. Colleges under the state board have more reserved seats for state board students than other
boards.
7. Although Major Entrance Exams syllabus is based on ICSE, the fact that the seats for
those courses are open for all students in India. And colleges which are coming under
state universities have more reserved seats for students from state boards. So students
from ICSE board who wouldn’t crack entrance exams face problems in getting admission
in state university colleges as they have very less number of seats for ICSE Board.

Characteristics of National system of education. ( CBSE)

CBSE - Central Board of Secondary Education

Central board of secondary education (CBSE) is the most popular school board in India with
over 9000 CBSE affiliated schools in the country and presence in 21 nations across the
globe. The stress in this board is on application of Science and Maths related
subjects. Main benefits of going for a CBSE affiliated school are
  Easy to find new schools in any area, even abroad, due to wide prevalence of the
board
 Wide recognition of board results across all colleges in India, as compared to other
boards
 Recent overhaul of teaching approach and curriculum has made the content
relevant
 Easy to find tutors, books and activities for all classes
 Focus on Science and Maths as well as application based subjects

The CBSE board is the Board of Education under the Union Government of India having both
public and private schools. The CBSE board is the most popular board in India and has a
wider recognition in colleges across India. It conducts the All India Secondary School
Examination for Class 10 and the All India Senior School Certificate Examination for Class 12.
Owing to a large number of schools being affiliated to it, CBSE board students find it easier
catching up if they move across cities in the country.

The board syllabus is quite extensive and covers a wide array of topics. There is a choice of
language of instruction between Hindi and English. Equal exposure is given to students in
the languages, arts and sciences. The syllabus though does not dwell on in-depth
understanding of concepts. It requires focus on specific subjects only after the 10 th
examinations. The schools affiliated to the board generally do lay importance on extra-
curricular activities thereby contributing to an overall development of the child.

Central Board of Secondary Education: Know as the CBSE board. It prepares the syllabus for
students up to Class 12. The curriculum is set by National Council of Educational Research
and Training (NCERT). The board conducts India's two nation-wide board examinations: the
All India Secondary School Examination for Class 10 and the All India Senior School
Certificate Examination for Class 12.

Many schools are affiliated to CBSE syllabus. All major cities have CBSE schools, hence easy
to move around in the country. The curriculum is very good when it comes to general
knowledge and general subjects. It allows the kids to experience subjects without going
deep into them thus helping them to choose the focus after Xth. This board prepares kids
for competitive exams like the IIT, CAT, IIM and all entrance exams which are held at
national level and it gives better chances for appearing for Armed Forces Exams, NDA, IAS,
IFS, and IPS.etc. The schools also focus a lot on extracurricular activities Most of which are
compulsory thus assuring an overall growth of the child. One disadvantage is the length of
the syllabus. It has vast syllabus

A Board which follows universal pattern is the first choice for parents with transferable jobs.
CBSE affiliates all Kendriya Vidyalayas, all Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalayas, private schools, and
most of the schools approved by central government of India

CBSE

CBSE (Central Board of Secondary Education) is the most popular and widely accepted board
in India and across many countries in the world. This board emphasizes mainly on Science
and Maths. Most of these schools are approved by the Central Government of India.

Some of the key features of the CBSE board are:

1. A total number of schools associated with CBSE are more than 14,000. Other than India,
there are more than 20 countries which have schools associated with CBSE.
2. Wide acceptance of the board results of CBSE examinations.
3. Major Entrance exams like IIT, AIPMT, NSEB etc., are based on the CBSE Syllabus, due to its
present day relevance.
4. A major focus is on Maths and Science and other application based subjects.
5. Books, teaching material, tutors and other things are easily available due to its wide
popularity.
6. They have CCE (Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation system) from 6thstd to 10thstd,
which grades students according to their academic and extracurricular activities throughout
the year.
7. They have a centralized system for transferring students across any of the CBSE Schools and
so it is widely accepted by parents having transferable jobs.

Examination Pattern: All India Senior School Certificate Examination (AISSCE) for Class 10
and 12

Facts

 Total Number of Schools Affiliated with CBSE: 14808

 Areas of Operation: 25 Countries including India, Malaysia, Dubai etc
 Major entrance exams syllabus based on CBSE viz. IIT, AIPMT etc

Pros
1) The diversity factor in schools with CBSE board is high as more students from
different backgrounds are likely to end up in the same class.
2) Quality of Content (No Errors/ No Printing Mistakes) in Textbooks’ is good.
3) Continuous And Comprehensive Evaluation (CCE), a new system of education
implemented by CBSE for students of sixth to tenth grades. It removes the marking
system and introduces grading system based on a series of curricular and
extracurricular activities.
4) Easy to find tutors, books and activities for all classes.
5) Focus on Science and Mathematics as well as application based subjects.
 6) Recognition by all colleges in India.
7) Centralized system for transferring across all CBSE schools.
8) Numerous talent search examinations and scholarship exams such as SSTSE, NSEB,
NSEC etc held at local and national level base their content on CBSE syllabus just
because it is more prevalent.

Cons
1) Although Major Entrance Exams syllabus is based on CBSE, the fact that the seats for
those courses are open for all students in India. And colleges which are coming
under state universities have more reserved seats for students from state boards. So
students from CBSE board who wouldn’t crack entrance exams face problems in
getting admission in state university colleges as they have very less number of seats
for CBSE Board quota.
2) Fees can be on the high side for some schools.
3) There aren’t enough options to explore in the field of Arts and Literature.
4) Subjects like Art and Literature do not have many options.
5) Colleges under the state board have more reserved seats for state board students than
other boards.
6) The fees may be higher than other boards, especially state boards

Characteristics of International system of education. ( IB)

IB Board.

International Baccalaureate

International Baccalaureate (IB) is a non profit educational foundation that was founded in
1968 and now works with over 3000 schools in 141 countries. The board is gaining
prevalence in high end new schools in India. Currently limited to the metro and large Tier-I
cites in India. As per them, their vision is on all round development of the student into an
inquiring, caring and knowledgeable young individual. International Baccalaureate (IB),
formerly the International Baccalaureate Organization (IBO), is an international educational
foundation headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland and founded in 1968. International
Baccalaureate is an educational foundation formed in 1968. It has over 3000 schools in
more than 140 countries. Around 130 schools in India have been associated with this board.
It is most prevalent in cities where high-end education is widely accepted. It has a very
innovative way of learning and teaching. IB offers innovative learning program and teaching
approaches to achieve its stated objective. The main benefits of this are

 Innovative curriculum
 Very different and stress free teaching methods
 Focus on all round development rather than pure academic performance
 Wide acceptance across the world
This board is excellent for kids whose parents are globe trotters as it enables kids to get
admission into any IB school across the world. There are very few students in each batch,
hence ensures quality focus on each child. The syllabus is taught in most interesting and
interactive way with the best of equipments. The overall atmosphere in the school is
international, with kids taking teachers as their equals. However these schools can be
extremely expensive!

Some of the key features of IB are:

1. Innovative Curriculum with a very different teaching method.

2. The focus is on the all-round development of students and not only on academic
performance.
3. The curriculum is based on application and experimentation.
4. It is widely accepted in most countries all over the world. Many foreign universities
recognize this board.
5. Infrastructure in these schools is much better, as they have to maintain the same
according to international standards.
6. Many parents who are NRI’s or move to different countries for jobs will find this
option the best for them.
7. They have three educational programs namely :

PYP (Primary Year program) from KG to class 5

MYP (Middle Year Program) from class 6 to class 10

DP or Diploma Program for class 11th and 12th

Examination Pattern: It offers 3 educational programs, namely

• PYP or Primary year program for KG to Class-5
• MYP or Middle year program for Class-6 to Class-10
• DP or Diploma program for Class-11 and Class-12

Facts
• Number of Schools: Approx 3500 worldwide & 130 in India.
• Areas of Operations: 144 Countries including India, USA, UK, Australia etc.

Pros
1. International Board recognized by most of the Universities of the world.
2. Students can apply to Foreign Universities wherein CBSE and ICSE board is not
recognized.
3. Recognized by UNESCO, Council of Europe, Organisation International de la
Francophone (OIF)
4. Curriculum based on application and experimentation.
 5. Better Infrastructure of Schools.
6. Best option if parents are NRI, or are planning to move abroad.

Cons
1. Fee is on the higher side.
2. Found only in metropolitan cities and Tier-1 cities of India
3. Difficult for students to shift boards if need arises.
4. Tuitions, Books not easily available.

Characteristics of International system of education. ( IGCSE)

IGCSE Board

International General Certificate of Secondary Education

International General Certificate of Secondary Education (IGCSE) is an academically rigorous,

internationally used, specialized, English language curriculum which is offered to students to
prepare them for International Baccalaureate and CIE A-level.

IGCSE Key Features of the Programme

 Provides an ideal foundation for higher-level courses such as the International

Baccalaureate Diploma Programme, 'A' Levels and the North American APT
(Advanced Placement Test);
 Has worldwide recognition and is equivalent to the Certificate of Secondary
Education from Indian education boards, General Certificate of Secondary
Education, and 'O' Level;
 Offers syllabi which reflect local economies and cultures within a global context,
hence ensuring that students gain a wide perspective while recognizing and valuing
their own environment;
 Develops key learning, problem-solving and investigative skills by encouraging an
active, critical and questioning approach to study;
 Ensures a broad-based education, while encouraging a degree of choice.

IGCSE develops learner knowledge, understanding and skills in:

 Subject content
 Applying knowledge and understanding to new as well as unfamiliar situations
 Intellectual enquiry
 Flexibility and responsiveness to change
 Influencing outcomes
 Cultural awareness.
Examination Pattern

• Cambridge Primary, typically for learners aged 5 to 11 years

• Cambridge Secondary 1
• Cambridge Secondary 2 is typically for learners aged 14 to 16 years. It offers learners
two routes: Cambridge IGCSE and Cambridge O Level.
• Cambridge Advanced is typically for learners aged 16 to 19 years who need advanced
study to prepare for university and higher education. It offers learners two routes:
Cambridge International AS and A Level, and Cambridge Pre-U.

Facts

• Number of Schools: Approx 200 in India

• Areas of Operations: 120 Countries including India, USA, UK.

Pros

1. International Board recognized by most of the Universities of the world.

2. Students can apply to Foreign Universities wherein CBSE and ICSE board is not
recognized.
3. More advanced curriculum and variety of subjects to choose from.
4. More emphasis on English and Technical Subjects
5. Best option if parents are NRI, or are planning to move abroad.
6. They encourage a practical approach.
7. You don't have to conform to rote learning.
8. Depending on the subject you take, it might actually be fun.
9. The results show grades and UMS marks.

Cons

1. Fee is on the higher side.

2. Found only in metropolitan cities and Tier-1 cities of India

3. Difficult for students to shift boards if need arises.

4. Tuitions, Books not easily available.

5. In some UK and Australian universities, they accept the IGCSE "English as a First
Language" subject as a sign of proficiency, allowing you to bypass the IELTS/TOEFL
requirement.
Different governing bodies in Education –

NCERT
The NCERT came into existence in 1961. The composition of the Council is as follows:

Chairman : The Minister for Human Resource Development

Other Members:

1. Four Vice-Chancellors of different Universities (one from each zone) nominated by the
Government of India (One Representative of each State and Union Territory)

2. All States and Union Territory Education Ministers (or his representatives) in case of Delhi
the Chief Executive Councillor.

3. Two Ex-officio Members - Chairman, UGC; Secretary, Ministry of Human Resource

Development, and 4. Twelve Members nominated by the Government of India. Among
them not less than four members must be school teachers.

Organisation:

There is a Director and Joint Director of the Council. These are assisted by some other
personnel to look after the day-to-day administration of the council.

Functions of the Council

The most important functions performed by the Council are:

1. Formulation and implementation of Policies and Programmes relating to the School

Administration.

2. Conducting the Research work, Pilot projects, Training programmes and Extension
activities.

3. Maintaining the relationship between Ministry of Human Resource Development

Department and the State Education Departments, and

4. Publishing Text books, Periodicals and some other Educational Literature for the
benefit of the students.

National Council of Educational Research and Training

The National Council of Educational Research and Training was established in 1961. The
Council consists of the following members.

a. President - The Minister of Human Resource Development

b. Chairman of the University Grants Commission (exofficio).

 c. Secretary to the Minister of Human Resource Development (ex-officio).

d. Four Vice-Chancellors of Universities, one from each zone, nominated by the

Government of India.

e. One representative of each State Government and union territory with a legislature,
who shall be the Education Minister (or his representative), and in the case of Delhi,
the Chief Executive Councillor.

f. All members of the Executive Committee are not included In the above.

g. Such other persons, not exceeding twelve, as the Government of India from time to
time nominate. Not less than four of these shall be school teachers.

There are one whole-time Director and a Joint-Director of the council who look after day-to-
day administration.

There are two important committees of the council, viz., the Executive Committee and the
Programme Advisory Committee.

Functions of the Council

The main functions of the NCERT are

1. To assist the Ministry of Human Resource Development in the formulation and

implementation of its policies and programmes in the field of school administration!

2. To develop necessary research, experiments, pilot projects, advanced training and

extension services;

3. To maintain close relationship between the central ministry and the State Education
Departments and Universities.

To discharge these functions the NCERT organises and undertakes educational studies,
investigations and surveys; conducts pre-service and in-service training of an advanced
level; organises extension services for institutions, disseminates Improved educational
techniques and practices, assists State Education Departments, Universities and institutions,
publishes books, periodicals and other educational literature and acts as a clearing house for
ideas and information on all matters related to school education.

MSCERT
The Maharashtra State Council of Educational Research and Training

Functions of MSCERT

Functions of the Department of MSCERT

Awareness Generation on Gender Sensitivity: Sensitization and orientation of key

educational personnel including teacher educators, educational planners and
administrators on education for girls and women’s equality.

Re–designing Curriculum and Educational Programme : Evaluation of textbooks for

eliminating gender bias from textbooks, development of guidelines, handbooks and
exemplar material for teachers, curriculum makers, and educational planners for
promotion of gender equality and making the curriculum gender inclusive.

Orientation of Curriculum Makers, Textbook Writers and Educational Planners

: Sensitization and orientation programmes for incorporation of identified values that
commensurate with equality between sexes, peace and harmony in textbooks and
school curriculum.

Inculcation of Positive Self Image in the Girl Child : School based programmes with
media support using interactive processes and working in close liaison with the
experts in related areas.

Promotion of Research and Innovative Action Projects : Preparation of innovative

projects and research development abstracts. Dissemination of innovations and
action researches in the area of girls’ education and women’s development.

Inputs into Teacher Education: Formulation of intervention strategies for inputs into
teacher education curriculum, training of teacher educators, pre- service and in-
service education of teachers..

Data Bank : To collect, collate, compile and analyze gender statistics on education
and allied indicators, at district, state, national and international levels.

Networking : Work in close collaboration with the constituent units of NCERT, MHRD,
Planning Commission, Department of Women and Child Development, NUEPA,
Women’s Studies Centres, Women’s Universities, Faculties of Education, National,
International and Voluntary organizations working in the area of girls’ education.

Mobilization of Women and Community: Mobilizing women and the community at

the village level for greater participation in educational planning for improving
enrolment, retention and educational achievement of girls.

Interacting with Media : Development of messages and themes relevant for

promotion of girls’ education and positive self-image particularly amongst those from
deprived groups.

Development of Textual & Promotional Materials : Development and preparation of

textual and promotional material in curricular areas for different stages of school
education for undoing gender stereotypes.
Administrative functions of MSCERT:
The Maharashtra State Council of Educational Research and Training discharges the
following functions also:
 To organize and implement the special educational projects sponsored by UNICEF,
NCERT and other agencies for qualitative improvement of school education and
teacher educators.

 2. To prescribed curricula and textbooks for the school and teacher training
institutions.

 3. To produce instructional materials for the use of teacher- educators.

 4. To arrange in-service training for different categories of teachers, inspecting

officers and teacher-educators and coordinate the work of other agencies operating
at the state level.

 5. To organize programmes including Correspondence-cum- Contact Courses for

professional development of teachers, teacher-educators and inspecting officers.

 6. To supervise the working of the Teacher-Training Colleges, Secondary Training

Schools and Elementary Training Schools.

 7. To provide extension service to Teacher-Training Institutions at all levels in the

state.

 8. To conduct studies and investigations on the various problems of education.

 9. To evaluate the adult and non-formal education programmes entrusted by the

Government.

 10. To conduct the public examinations specially at terminal stages like the end of
Class HI and Class IV etc. with a view to selecting candidates for scholarships through
such examinations.

 The Maharashtra State Council of Educational Research and Training has a

Programme Advisory Committee under the chairmanship of the Education Minister.
There are also Special Advisory Committees for programmes like Population
Education, Educational Technology and Non-formal Education.

Council's objectives as enshrined in its Memorandum of Association are:

 To assist and advise the administration of Delhi in the implementation of its policies
and major programmes for human resource development especially in the field of
education.
 To promote educational researches and training of teachers and other personnel.

 To develop the curriculum aiming at an all-round development of the child, and at all
levels of education.

 To develop educational technology for use in the teaching-learning activities and in

the training programmes, and to provide distance education.

 To devise the systems and approaches for qualitative improvement of education.

 To develop a scientific process of evaluation of the pupil and of the educational

programmes and institutions.

 To establish linkages with NCERT, various departments of the University of Delhi,

Department of Education, Delhi Administration and other educational institutions of
the Central Government and Delhi Administration.

 To develop, adopt/adapt and produce curricular materials, text books and other
related instructional materials.

 To guide, develop and provide educational materials for non-formal education and
functional literacy.

 To provide pre-service and in-service training to teachers at all levels of school

education.