Mathematics Lecture Notes
Topic: Quadratic Equations and Their Applications
Quadratic equations are polynomial equations of the form ax² + bx + c = 0, where a,
b, and c are constants with a ≠ 0. They are among the most fundamental concepts in
algebra and appear widely in both pure mathematics and applied sciences. Quadratics
describe parabolas, which can represent trajectories, optimization problems, and
various real-world phenomena.
1. Standard and General Forms
The standard form is ax² + bx + c = 0. Depending on the coefficients, quadratics
can be factored, solved using completing the square, or solved using the quadratic
formula. The general parabola equation is y = ax² + bx + c. When graphed, it is
symmetric about a vertical axis through its vertex.
2. Solutions and the Quadratic Formula
The quadratic formula, x = (-b ± √(b² - 4ac)) / (2a), provides the roots of any
quadratic. The discriminant (Δ = b² - 4ac) indicates the nature of the solutions:
- Δ > 0: Two distinct real roots.
- Δ = 0: One real repeated root.
- Δ < 0: Two complex conjugate roots.
3. Completing the Square
This method involves rewriting ax² + bx + c in the form a(x - h)² + k, which shows
the vertex (h, k) of the parabola. This representation is useful in graphing and
optimization problems. For example, y = x² + 6x + 5 can be written as y = (x + 3)²
- 4.
4. Graphical Representation
Quadratics graph as parabolas. The coefficient a determines concavity:
- If a > 0, parabola opens upwards (minimum point at the vertex).
- If a < 0, parabola opens downwards (maximum point at the vertex).
The vertex, axis of symmetry, y-intercept, and x-intercepts (roots) are critical
features. For example, y = 2x² - 4x + 1 opens upwards, has vertex (1, -1), and
intersects the x-axis at values determined by solving 2x² - 4x + 1 = 0.
5. Applications in Real Life
Quadratic equations model various real-world contexts:
- Projectile motion: The path of an object thrown in the air is parabolic.
- Economics: Profit, revenue, and cost functions are often quadratic.
- Geometry: Maximum area problems under constraints can be solved with quadratics.
- Physics: Quadratics appear in kinematic equations.
Example: A ball thrown upward follows h(t) = -16t² + 32t + 48. Solving for h(t) = 0
gives the time when the ball hits the ground.
6. Factoring Techniques
Factoring is effective when roots are rational. Example: x² - 5x + 6 = 0 can be
factored as (x - 2)(x - 3) = 0, giving roots 2 and 3.
7. Word Problems
Quadratics are essential in solving optimization problems. For example, maximizing
the area of a rectangle given a fixed perimeter, or minimizing travel time under
certain constraints.
8. Historical Significance
Quadratic equations were studied by ancient Babylonians, Greeks, and Indians, who
solved them using geometric and algebraic methods. The quadratic formula as we know
it was developed in the Islamic Golden Age.
Conclusion:
Quadratics provide a rich ground for mathematical reasoning, combining algebra,
geometry, and real-world problem-solving. Mastery of solving quadratics is
essential for higher-level studies in mathematics, science, and engineering.
