CAIE IGCSE for Frank for personal use onya a ees 1, Algorithm Design & Problem-Sol 9 1.2. Program Development Life Cycle (PDLC) Analysis Design Coding Testing Maintenance Analysis + Before solving a problem, itis essential to define and document the problem clearly, known as the “requirements specification" for the program. ‘+ The analysis stage involves using tools lke abstraction ‘and decomposition to identi the specific requirements forthe program ‘Abstraction focuses on the essential elements needed forthe solution while eliminating unnecessary details and information, ‘+ Decomposition involves breaking down complex problems into smaller, more manageable parts that can be soled individually ‘+ Daly tasks can be decomposed into constituent parts for easier understanding and solving, Design ‘+ The program specification derived from the analysis, stage is used 2s a guide for program development, ‘+ During the design stage, the programmer should clearly Understand the tasks to be completed, the methods for performing each task, and how the tasks will work together. ‘+ Documentation methods such as structure charts, flowcharts, and pseudocode can be used to document the program's design formally, Coding and iterative testing ‘+The program or set of programs is developed based on the design, + Each module of the program is written using a suitable programming language. + Testing! conducted to ensure that each module functions correctly, + Iterative testing is performed, which involves conducting, ‘modular tests, making code amendments if necessary, and repeating tests untilthe module meets the required functionality. Testing ‘+ The completed program or set of programs is executed ‘multiple times using various test data sets. + This esting process ensures that all the tasks within the program work together as specified in the program design. ‘+ Running the program with different test data can identify and address potential issues and errors. ‘+ The testing phase aims to verify the overall functionality and performance of the program by evaluating its behaviour with various inputs 1.2, Structure Diagrams + Every computer system is made up of sub-systems, which are in turn made up of further sub-systems. ‘Structure Diagrams - The breaking down of a computer system into sub-systems, then breaking each sub-system Into smaller sub-systems until each one only performs a single action. A structure diagram diagrammatically represents a top-down design. Example below. em ea 1.3. Pseudocode & Flowcharts WWW.ZNOTES.ORGa a ees ‘+ Pseudocode - Verbal representation of an algorithm (2 process or set of steps) and flowcharts are 2 diagrammatic representation, ‘+ Flowcharts: A flowchart shows diagrammatically the steps required to complete a task and the order that they are to be performed ‘+ Algorithm: These steps, together with the order, are called an algorithm ‘An example of a flowchart is given below from a past paper question in which all ofthe functions of a fowchart are shown: ‘This flowchart’ task isto check ifa rider's height is more the requirernent (1.2)in this case. It then counts untilthe accepted riders are 8, After they are 8, it outputs the umber of rejected riders and tell the rest chat they are ready to go! 2. Pseudocode WWW.ZNOTES.ORG + Declaration & Usage of Variables & Constants ‘Variable - Store of data which changes during ‘execution ofthe program (due to user input) + Constant ~ Store of data that remains the same during the execution of the program + Basic Data Types ‘Integer - Whole Number e.g. 2:8; 100, + Real - Decimal Number e.g, 7.00; 5.64 + Char~ Single Character ea" ‘+ String - Multiple Characters (Text) eg. "2Notes': “cool” ‘+ Boolean - Only 2 Values eg, True/False; Yes/No; 0/1 ‘+ Input & Output (READ & PRINT) - Used to receive and display data to the user respectively, ts recommended 10 use input and output commands} {INPUT Nane OUTPUT “Hello Hr." , Nane 1] Riternatively // READ Nane PRINT “Hello Hr,” Kame + Declaration of variable - A variable/constant can be declared by the following manner DECLARE [Variable Nace] : [DATATYPE OF VARIABLE] + Array: Aray is similar to variable but it can store ‘multiple values of same datatype under single name DECLARE [ARRAYMAME] : ARRAY (Lower Limit : Upper Lin ‘+ Assignment Each variable is assigned using a left [VARIABLE NAME] <---- [Value to be assigned] ArrayNane [IndexValue] <---- [Value to be assigned] *+ Conditional statements: IF. THEN. .ELSE..ENDIF ‘sctuelargeata seer oy Pant anstasesl or aea a ees IF [CONDITION] THEN [CONSEQUENCE] ELSE [CONSEQUENCE] ENDIF IF GRADE > 100 THEN OUTPUT “INVALID” ELSE OUTPUT “VALID” ENDIF CCASE..OF..OTHERWISE,,.ENDCASE ~ Multiple conditions and corresponding consequences \n CASE OF [VARIABLE] OPTION: [CONSEQUENCE: OTHERWISE: [CONSEQUENCE] ENDCASE CASE OF GRADE GRADE>80: OUTPUT “A” GRADE>70: OUTPUT “B” GRADE>60: OUTPUT “C” OTHERWISE: OUTPUT “FAIL” ENDCASE + Loop Structures: FORWTO.NEXT : WiLL run for a determined/known FOR [VARIABLE] € [VALUE] TO [VALUE [cone] NEXT REPEAT... UNTIL Will run at least once till condition is satisfied; Verification is done after running code REPEAT [coDE] UNTIL [CONDITION] WHILE,.00.,.ENDWHILE - May not ever run; Verification is done before running code WHILE [CONDITION] DO [cong] ENDWHILE Note: When using conditions in these loop structures ‘and conditional statement, it has to be kept in mind that itcan be done in two ways. 1 use of a Boolean variable that can have the value TRUE or FALSE 2, comparisons made by using coparison operators, where comparisons are made from left to right TF [BOOLEAN VARIABLE] THEN ‘OUTCOME eLse ourcome e01F TF ((CONDITION 1) OR ( CONDITION 2)) AND (CONDITION THEN ‘ourcoue ELSE ‘uTcoMe ENOTF ‘schtuelargeata sc roy Pant anstasersl or aa a ees . | Greater than Less than qual Greater than or equal [Les tan or equa = Not equal ax ‘Both [on ‘Either (nor Not 2.2. Standard methods used in algorithm: + Totalling Totaling means keeping a total that values are added to Total « @ FOR Counter * 1 TO LoopLisit Total + Total + ValueToberotalied NExT Counter ‘+ Counting: Keeping 2 count of the number of times an. action is performed is another standard methed. Passcount + @ FoR Counter « 1 TO LoopLinit INPUT Value IF value > Range THe PassCount © PassCount + 2 ENDIF NEXT Counter “+ Maximum, minimum and average : Finding the largest {and smallest values in a lst are two standard methods that are frequently found in algorithms WWW.ZNOTES.ORG Naxiumunalue <--- Array[1] Minimunvalue <--- Arrayl FOR Counter « 2 TO LoopLimit IF Array[Counter] > Maximusvalue THEN Waximunvalue « Acray[Counter] eN0rF IF array[Counter] < minimunvalue en Minimunvalue « Array[Counter] eNoIF NeXT Counter 1 werage// Total + @ FOR Counter + 1 TO Nunberofvalues Total + Total + StudentMark{Counter] Next counter Average + Total / NusberofValues + Linear Search: Ina linear search, each item in the list is inspected sequentially untl a match is found or che entire lists traversed INPUT Value Found + FALSE counter « @ REPEAT IF Value = Array{Counter] wen Found © TRUE ese Counter © Counter + 1 e0rF UNTIL Found OR Counter > Nunberofvalues IF Found THEN OUTPUT Value , * found at position " , Counter, ease OUTPUT Value , " not found.’ ENDIF ‘sctuelargeata seer oy Pant anstasesl or aea a ees ‘+ Bubble Sort: iteratively compare and swap adjacent, elements in a ist to sort them, Start from the frst, clement and continue until the second-toast element, After each pass, the last element isin its correct place, However, other elements may stl be unsorted. Repeat the process, excluding the last element, until only one. element remains or no swaps are needed. First © Last «18 ‘Swap + FALSE FOR Index « First TO Last - 2 IF Arcay[Index] > Array[Index + 1) Temp + Arcayl Index] Array[Index} « Array(Index + 2) ArcaylIndex + 1] « Tesp Swap © TRUE NeXT Index Last © Last = 2 UNTIL (NOT Swap) OR Last = 2 2.3. Validation and Verification ‘To ensure the acceptance of reasonable and accurate data Inputs, computer systems must thoroughly examine each data item before accepting it, and this is where Validation and Verification come into play! Validation Validation in computer systems involves automated checks to ensure the reasonableness of data before accepting it. IF the data is invalid, the system should provide an explanatory ‘message for rejection and allow another chance to enter the data, ‘There are multiple types of validation. These include: Range check ‘Arange check verifies that 2 numerical value falls within specified upper and lower limits WWW.ZNOTES.ORG REPEAT INPUT Value IF Value < Mininunvalue OR Value > Maximunvalue OUTPUT “The student's mark should be in the range’ ENoTF UNTIL Value >= Mininunvalue AND Value <= Maxinunvals, Length check This can elther ensure that data consists ofa precise ‘number of characters OUTPUT "Please enter your value of ", Limit," che REPEAT INPUT Value TF LENGTH(Value) <> Limit THEN OUTPUT "Your value must be exactly" , Linit ," che eNoIF UNTIL LENGTH(Value) = Lint Tecan also checkifthe data entered is a reasonable number of characters or not OUTPUT “Please enter your value REPEAT INPUT Value IF LENGTH(Value) > UpperLinit OR LENGTH(Value) < Le THEN OUTPUT “Too short or too long, UNTIL LENGTH(Value) ease re-enter UpperLinit AND LENGTH(ValUe) Type check ‘Atype check verifies thatthe entered data corresponds to a specific data type. ourPur “Enter the value * REPEAT INPUT Value IF Value © orv(value, 1) THEN OUTPUT “This must be a whole uber, please re-er UNTIL Value = pIVv(value, 2) Presence check [A presence check checks to ensure that some data has been fentered and the value has not been left blanka a ees OUTPUT “Please enter the value REPEAT INPUT Value IF value = THEN OUTPUT “*-Required ENDIF UNTIL Value «> Format Check ‘Aformat check checks that the characters entered conform to a pre-defined pattern, Check Digit ‘+ Acheck digi is the final digit Included in a code; tis calculated from all the other digits. + Check digits are used for barcodes, product codes, International Standard Book Numbers (ISBN), and Vehicle Identification Numbers (VIN) Verification Verification is checking that data has been accurately copied from one source to another ‘There are 2 methods to verify data during entry (there are other methods during data transfer, but they are in paper 1) 2. Double Entry ‘+ Datais inputted twice, potentially by different operators. ‘+ The computer system compares both entries and if they differ, an error message is displayed, prompting the data to be reentered, 2. Screen/Visual check ‘+ Ascreen/visual check involves the user manually reviewing the entered data ‘+ After data entry, the system displays the data on the screen and prompts the user to confirm is accuracy before proceeding ‘+The user can compare the displayed data against a paper document used as an input form or rely on thelr own, knowledge to verity correctness, 3. Test Data WWW.ZNOTES.ORG + Test data refers to input values used to evaluate and assess the functionality and performance of a computer program or system. + Ithelps identify errors and assess how the program handles afferent scenarios 3.1. Normal Data ‘+ Normal data s the test data which accepts values in acceptible range of values of the program + Normal data should be used to work through the solution to find the actual result(s) and see if they are the same as the expected result(s) + eg; in a program where only whole number values ranging from 0 to 100 inclusive) are accepted, normal test data willbe: 23, 54,64 ,2 and 100 3.2. Abnormal Data + Test data that would be rejected by the solution as not suitable, ifthe solution is working properly is called abnormal test data / erroneous test data, + eg, ina program where only whole number values ranging from 0 to 100 (inclusive) are accepted, abnormal data will be: -1, 151, 200, 67.2, “Sixty-Two" and -520 3.3, Extreme Data ‘Extreme data are the largest and smallest values that normal data can take + eg, in @ program where only whale number values ranging from 0 t0 100 (inclusive) are accepted, extreme data will be: @ and 100 3.4. Boundary Data + Thisis used to establish where the largest and smallest values occur + At each boundary two values are required: one value is accepted and the other value is rejectes, ‘+ eg. ina program where only whole number values ranging from 0 to 100 (inclusive) are accepted, one example of boundary data will be: 100 and 101, 100 wil be accepted and 101 will nt be accepted 4. Trace Tablea a ees “+ Atrace table is utilized to document the outcomes of, every step in an algorithm. tis employed to record the variable's value each time it undergoes a change. + Adry run refers to the manual process of systematically ‘executing an algorithm by following each step in sequence, ‘+ Atrace table is set up with a column for each variable and a column for ary output eg. a Bc |x | output 0 | 0 | 100 ps to Test data is employed to execute a dry run of the flowchart and document the outcomes ina trace table, Ouring the dry ‘+ Whenever avariable's value changes, the new value is recorded in the respective column of the trace table. ‘+ Each time a value is outputted, its displayed in the ‘output column, ‘An example of trace table is given below using a past paper question: The flowchart below inputs the height of children who ‘ant to ride on a rollercoaster. Children under 1.2 metres are rejected, The ride starts when eight children have been accepted. Complete the trace table for the input data: 141.3, 1.11.3, 10,15, 1.2, 13, 14,13, 09, 1.5, 1.6, 10 WWW.ZNOTES.ORG a oorur 4.1. Identifying errors: + Trace tables can be used to trace errors in a program, For example, ifthe requirement for the previous question would be to accept riders that are of height 1.2 too, rather than rejecting them, then the error would hhave been caught in the trace table as when 1.2 is ‘entered, it would increment rejected which it shouldn't in our example 5. How to write an algorithm? ‘The ability to write an algorithm is very important for this syllabus and paper. Some key steps/points to be known in-order to write the perfect algorithm are as follows: ‘sctuelargeata seer oy Pant anstasesl or aea a ees Make sure that the problems clearly understood Which includes knowing the purpose of tne algorithm and the tasks to be completed by the algorithm, 2. Break the problem nto smaller problems (eg. ina program which outputs average values, divide the problem into muttiple ones Le. how to count the umber of iterations and how to count the total ofall values) 23. Identify the data that is needed to be saved into variables/constants/arrays and what datatype it's ‘and declare all the variables/constants/arrays accordingly, with meaningfull names 4, Decide on how you are going to construct your algorithm, either using a flowchart or pseudocode. If you are told how to construct your algorithm, then follow the guidance 5, Construct your algorithm, making sure that itcan be ‘easily read and understood by someone else, Take particular care with syntax e.g. when conditions are used for loops and selection. 6, Use several sets of test data (Normal, Abnormal and Boundary) to dry run your algorithm and check ifthe ‘expected results are achieved (a trace table can be used for this purpose) . If errors found, find the point of error inthe trace table and fix tin the code. Note: The algorithms that you have looked at so farin these notes were not designed with readability in mind because you needed to work out what the problem being solved was 6, Programming 6.1, Programming Languages ‘There are many high-level programming languages to choose from. We will only be treating Python, Visual Basic, or Java, WWW.ZNOTES.ORG + Python is an open-source, versatile programming language that encourages quick program development and emphasises code readability. The integrated development environment (IDF) showeased in this chapter i referred to as 1D + Visual Basic is a popular programming language that is extensively used for Windows development. The integrated development environment (IDF) featured in this chapter is known as Visual Studio, which is utilsed for capturing screenshot + Java is a widely adopted programming language vtlised by numerous developers, The integrated development environment (IDE) employed for capturing screenshots in this chapter Is known as Blue) 6.2, Programming Concepts Constructs of a Program + Data use - variables, constants and arrays + Sequence - order of steps ina task + Selection - choosing a path through a program ‘+ Iteration - repetition of a sequence of steps in a program + Operators use arithmetic for calculations and logic and Boolean for decisions Variables and Constants ‘+ Avariable within @ computer program refers toa named storage unit with a value that can be modified ‘throughout the program's execution. To enhance comprehension for others, itis advisable to assign significant names to variables. ‘+ Aconstant within a computer program represents a ramed storage unit that holds a value whieh remains Unchanged throughout the program's execution. Similar to variables, it is recommended to assign meaningful names to constants to enhance comprehensibilty for others Data Typesa a ees “Different datatypes are assigned to computer systems for effective processing and storage ‘+ Data types allow data, such as numbers or characters, to be stored appropriately ‘+ Data types enable effective manipulation using ‘mathematical operators for numbers and character concatenation + Some data types provide automatic validation, ‘+ The types of datatypes are told in Chapter 1 already! Input and Output ‘+ Programs require input and output statements to handle data ‘+ INIGCSE Computer Science, algorithms and programs are designed to take Input from a keyboard and output toa screen ‘+ Prompting the user with clear instructions for input is necessary forthe user to understand what is expected, ‘Input data in programming languages must match the required data type of the variable where it willbe stored ‘+ By default, inputs are treated as strings, but commands can convert input to integer or real number data types, “+ Users should be provided with information about the ‘outputiresults for a program to be useful + Each output should be accompanied by 2 message explaining the resul’s meaning or significance, ‘+ fan output statement has multiple parts, they can be separated by a separator character. 6.3. Basic Concepts When writing the steps required to solve @ problem, the following concepts need to be used and understood: + Sequence Selection + eration + Counting and totaling + String handling + Use of operators Sequence he ordering of the steps in an algorithm Is very important. {An incorrect order can lead to incorrect resuks andlor extra steps that are not required by the task Selection Selection isa very useful technique, allowing different routes through the steps of a program. The code ofthis s explained inthe notes of previous chapters. Iteration ‘As explained in the previous chapter, we already Totalling and Counting {As explained in the previous chapter, we already String Handling ‘Strings are used to store text and can contain various characters. ‘+ An empty string has no characters, while the programming language specifies the maximum number of characters allowed, + Characters in a string can be identified by the'r position umber, starting from either zero or one, depending on the programming language. + String handling is an important aspect of programming, *# InIGCSE Computer Science, you wil need to write algorithms and programs forthe following string methods: ‘+ Length: Determines the number of characters in a string, including spaces. ‘+ Substring: Extracts 2 portion of a string, “+ Upper: Converts all letters in a string to uppercase. ‘= Lower: Converts all letters in a string to lowercase, ‘+ These string manipulation methods are commonly provided in programming languages through library Finding the length ofa string: LENGTH(*Text Here") Lenemi(variabie) Extracting a substring froma string: SUBSTAING("Conputer Science”, 18, 7) // returns the next 7 values’ starting fron the 10th SUBSTRING(Vardable, Position, Length) Converting string to upper case UcASE(“Text here") case (variable) Converting a string to lowercase WWW.ZNOTES.ORGa a ees LCASE("Text Here") Lease(Variable) Arithm« Logical and Boolean Operators ‘As explained in the previous chapter, we already Use of Nested Statements ‘+ Selection and iteration statements can be nested, ‘meaning one statement can be placed inside another. ‘+ Nested statements help reduce code duplication and, simplity testing of programs. ‘+ Different types of constructs can be nested within each other, such as selection statements within condition- controlled loops or loops within other loops. Procedures and Functions Procedures and functions are defined at the start of the code + Aprocedure refers toa collection of programming statements organized under a single name, invoked at any glven point Ina program to execute a specific task ‘+ Afunction is a compilation of programming statements consolidated under a singular name, invoked at any ‘moment within a program to accomplish a particular task. Unlke a procedure, a function also has the capability to return a value back tothe main program. ‘+ Parameters refer to variables that store the values of, arguments passed to a procedure or function. While not all procedures and functions require parameters, some Ltiize them to facilitate their operations, Procedures without parameters: PROCEDURE ProcedureName () ‘Conmands] ENDPROCEDURE 1/CalLing/cunning the procedure CALL ProcedureName() ‘The procedure with parameters: PROCEDURE ProcedureNane (ParaneterNane : Parameter: ‘Conmands] ENOPROCEOURE. 1/CalLing/cunning the procedure CALL ProcedureNane (ParaneterValue) Function: FUNCTION FunctionNane (ParaneterNane : Paraneterbatz [commanés] RETURN ValueToBeReturned + When defining procedures and functions, the header is the first statement in the definition. + The header includes: ‘+ The name of the procedure or function, ‘+ Parameters passed to the procedure or function, along with their data types. + The datatype ofthe return value for a function. + Procedure calls are standalone statements, + Function calls are made as part of an exoression, typically on the rigntchand side. Local and Global Variable ‘Any part of a program can use a global variable - its scope covers the whole program + Alocal variable can only be used by the part of the program itis declared in its scope Is restricted to that part ofthe program. ‘Note: Any variables/arrays made in this procedure and functions will be local and cannot be used out of these. To be made available all over the program, they must be declared globally in the following way. DECLARE [VariableWame] : Datatype AS GLOBAL 6.4, Library Routines + Programming language development systems often provide ibrary routines that can be readily incorporated into programs. + Library routines are pre-tested and ready for use, making. programming tasks easier. * Integrated Development Environments (IDES) typically Include a standard library of funetions and procedures, + Standard library routines perform various tasks, including string hanling, ‘+ MOD - returns the remainder ofa division + DIV- returns the quotient (i.e, the whole number part) of a division ‘+ ROUND - returns a value rounded to a given number of decimal places + RANDOM - returns a random number, Examples: WWW.ZNOTES.ORGa a ees ‘+ Valuet <- MOD(10,3) returns the remainder of 10 divided oy 3 + Value2 <-~ DIV(10,3} returns the quotient of 10 divided by3 “+ Value3 <-- ROUND(6.97354, 2) returns the value rounded to 2 decimal places ‘+ Valued <- RANDOM( returns a random number between 0 and 1 inclusive 65. Creating a Maintainable Program ‘A maintainable program should! ‘+ always use meaningful identifier names for variables, constants, arrays, procedures and functions ‘+ be dvided into modules for each task using procedures and functions + be fully commented using your programming language's commenting feature Commenting in pseudocode: 11 Now the text written 1s coenented and thus ignore This method can also be used to comment multiple Lines but the singular Line method 4s none widely accepted and recconended too 6.6. Arrays ‘+ Anarrayis data structure containing several elements of the same data type; these elements can be accessed Using the same identifier name, ‘+The position of each element in an array i identified using the arrays index. ‘+ There are two types of arrays ‘One-Dimensional Array Explained in the previous chapter in detail ‘Two-Dimensional Array + Atwo-dimensional array can be referred to asa table with rows and columns. ‘+ When a two-dimensional array is declared in pseudocode, the first and last index values for rows and the frst and last index values for columns alongside the data type are included. Declaring a 20 Array: DECLARE Name : ARRAY[RowLower:Rowpper, ColumnLower:< Filling a 2-D array using a loop: FoR Colunncounter + 1 10 3 FOR RowCounter + 2 10 10 OUTPUT “Enter next value INPUT ArrayNane [RowCounter, ColunnCounter) NEXT RowCounter NEXT coluancounter 6,7. File Handling + Computer programs store data that will be needed again in a file. + Data stored in RAM is volatile and will be lost when the computer is powered off. + Data saved toa files stored permanently, allowing itto be accessed by the same program at a later date or by other programs. *+ Stored data ina file can be transferred and used on other computers. +The storage of data in files is a commonly used feature in programming. WWW.ZNOTES.ORGa a ees ‘Key point: When writing in a file, the program is ‘outputing the data to the file, and when reading a file, the program In inputing the data from the fle \n There are 3 ways a file can be opened in a program i.e. to write, to read and to append 6.8. Writing ina file OPENFILE "#ilename.txt™ FOR WRITE /ihinen opening a file to write, all the data already WRITEFILE “filenane.txt” , Value 11 The next comand of WRITEFTLE would be writen on CLOSEFILE “Filename. txt’ 6.9. Reading a file: OPENFILE "#ilename.txt™ FOR READ READFILE “filename.txt” , Variable // The value in the Line (which is identified by the CLOSEFILE “filenane. txt 6.10. Reading a file till EOF: OPENFILE "#Llename.txt” FOR READ DECLARE OataVariable : STRING WHILE NOT EOF("Filenane.tet) 00 READFILE “filenane.txt", DataVariable // here the Line can be outputted or stored in an z //before the File ends has been read ENDAHILE 7. Databases A database is a well-organized compilation of data that enables individuals to retrieve information according to thelr specific requirements. The data contained within a database can encompass various forms such as text, numerical values, images, or any other type of digital content that can be stored on a computer system. 7.1. Why do we need a database? WWW.ZNOTES.ORG + To store data about people, things, and events. ‘+ Any mosifications or adsitions need to be made only once, ensuring data consistency. + allusers access and utilize the same set of data, promoting uniformity. + Relational databases store data in a non-repetitive manner, eliminating duplication, 7.2. What makes a database? + Data's stored in tables in databases, Each table consists of a specific type of data eg. cars, These tables HAVE to bbe named according to what they contain eg. a table containing patient information willbe PATIENT ‘+ These tables consist of records (rows). Each record consists of data about a single entity (a single iter, person or event) eg. a single car ‘+ These tables also have columns that are knows an fields. ‘These consist of specific information regarding the ‘entities that are writen later in recards e.g car name, car manufacturer etc ‘Note: In this chapter, skills of dealing with a database are also required so working with Microsoft Access is needed to understand this chapter better. You have to be able to define a single-table database from given data storage requirements, choose a suitable primary key for database table and alco be able to read, complete and understand SQL scripts. ‘Source: Cambridge IGCSE and 0 Level Computer Science by Hodder Education 7.3. Validation in databasesa a ees ‘+ Database management software automatically provides some validation checks, while others need to be set up by the developer during construction, F example; The software automaticaly validates fields like “DateOfAdmission” in the PATIENT able to ensure data input isa valid date. \n 7.4, Basic Data Types Each field will require a data type to be selected, A data type classifies how the data s stored, displayed and the ‘operations that can be performed on the stored value ‘The datatypes for database are quite similar to orginal datatypes, however, there are a few differences Note: Access datatype refers to the software Microsoft ‘Access which is a DBMS (DataBase Management System), Here, databases could be worked upon in practical form 75. Primary Key ‘+ Each record ina table represents a unique item, person, or event + To ensure reliable identification of these ters, afield called the primary key is necessary. ‘+The primary key is a unique field that distinguishes each item within che data, + Inorder to serve as a primary key, 8 field must have values that are never repeated within the table. ‘+ An existing field can serve as a primary key iit unique, such as the ISBN in the book table. ‘+ Incases where all existing fields may contain repeated data, an additional feld, such as "HospitalNumber," can bbe added to each record to serve as the primary key. 76. Structured Query Language - SQL WWW.ZNOTES.ORG + Structured Query Language (SQL) is the standara language for writing scripts to retrieve valuable information from databases. + By sing SQL we can learn how to retrieve and display specific information needed from a database. + For instance, someone visiting a patient may only require ‘the ward number and bed number to locate them in the hospital, while & consultant may need alist of the names ofall the patients under their care, This can be done using SQL SOL Scripts + An SQL scrist sa collection of SQL commands that are Used to perform a specific task, often stored in a fle for reusability. ‘+ Toccomprehend SQL and interpret the output of an SQL script, practical experience in writing SQL scripts is necessary. Select Statements: SELECT (Fieldsnane) FROM (tablesnane) WHERE (condition) (ORDER BY (sortingcondition) 5 Selecting Sum of values in a table: SELECT SUM ( fieldsrane ) FROM (tablesnane) WHERE (condition) (ORDER BY (sortingcondition) 5 Counting the number of records where the field matches a specified condition SELECT COUNT ( fielésnane ) FROM (tablesnane) WHERE (condition) (ORDER BY (sortingcondition) 5 ORDER BY ASCENDING - sorts in ascending order. ==ORDER BY DESENDING - sorts in descending order.== Note: ORDER BY...is not necessary fo add. It has to be only added ifrequirea!a a ees Condos often nat le am ele hse aes reset by tte i ‘Sim tht wate th te ype or the le 77. Operators Just tke pseudocode, the operators used there can also be Used here for conditions, however, a few more are also used In databases 8, Boolean Logic 8.1. Logic Gates and their functions: Six types of logic gates NOT Gate AND Gate OR Gate NAND Gate: NOR Gate XOR Gate NOT gate: an inverter, A Y AND gate: A.B v ORgate: A+ B " NAND gate: A.B NOR gate: A+B XOR gate: A@ B ‘schtuetargeata cer oy Pant anstasesl or aea a ees 9. Writing Logic Statements Logic Statements is a way of showing all the logis that are In place fora logic circuit. 9.1. Writing from a logic circuit 1. Look at the cult and go around the logic gates used in the circuit 2. Go from the one output thats being given towards the input 3. Write the last gate the frst gate you walk through } in the middle and then, for each ofthe value coming into the gate, leave space at the side 4, f the value coring nto the gate is coming from another gate, use a bracket for the gates logic 5. Repeat process 3-4 tllyou are able to reach the input values fully 9.2, Writing from a truth table 1. Create logic circuit fom the truth table (shown later) 2. Write the logic statement using the cirut 9.3. Writing from a Problem statement 1. See what logics goin place in the statement to take place 2. Go from the logic of any 2 inputs atthe start, and then keep on going until you are able to reach the final gate which gives the output 3. When writing the statement, make sure you show the logic statement where the output is 1 9.4. Example of a LOGIC STATEMENT (BAND ©) OR (A NOR (ANAND C)) isthe loge statement for the following Logic Circuit 10. Creating Truth Tables 10.1. From Logic Circuits 1, Create a truth table with each input possible, creating, every possible combination of inputs. Tip: For the first input, write it in the combination of 10,1,0 and so on. For the second, go 1,1,0,0 and so on, and for the third one, go 1.1.1.1 ‘the powers of 2 for each input. guarantee each possible combination 2, Run through the circut withthe inputs and get the outpur that will be reached and write it accordingly For logic statements, and problem statements, convert them to logic circults first and then do the rest 10.2. Example Tiss the example of truth abe ofa ogc eeu values Valuns a eager : : 11. Logic Statements from Truth Tablesa a ees Input values output A 8 c x a 0 ° 1 a o 1 | + a 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 a 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1. Given the truth table above, take the rows where the ‘Output (x) is 1 (ROWS 1, 2, 4,5, 6,7) 2. Create a logic expression fram these rows (example, row 1 willbe (NOT A AND NOT B AND NOT C) = 3. Create logic expressions forall the rows with output ‘and connect them with OR gate 12. Exam-Style Question 1. The Conditions are given so make logic statements sing the conditions and the table, (NOT S AND T) OR (SAND W) OR (NOTTAND W) 2, Make the logic circuit from the given equation 3. Make the truth table inte 9225 ne dct 8 oun Ags ese. T arent ‘sctunlargeatal seer oy Pant anstasesl or aCAIE IGCSE Computer Science Cranes Neo See) cee ere ener een eee eee eee een ae eee one metres ee rhe document contains images and excerpts of text from educational resources avalable on the internet and printed books. you are the owner of such media, test or visual, utilized in this document and do not accept its usage then we urge you to contact us. and we would immediately replace sald media. No part of this document may be copied or re-uploaded to another website, Under no conditions may this document be distributed under the name of false author(s) or sold for financial gain, "2Notes" and the ZNotes logo are trademarks of ZNotes Education Limited (reg'stration UK00003478331),