Chapter 1 Introduction Problem Set
Chapter 1 Introduction Problem Set
30 Chapter 1 ■ Introduction
1.11 If V is a velocity, / a length, and n a fluid property †1.19 Cite an example of a restricted homogeneous equation con-
(the kinematic viscosity) having dimensions of L2T #1, which of the tained in a technical article found in an engineering journal in your
following combinations are dimensionless: (a) V/n, (b) V/ !n, field of interest. Define all terms in the equation, explain why it is
(c) V 2n, (d) V!/n? a restricted equation, and provide a complete journal citation
1title, date, etc.2.
1.12 If V is a velocity, determine the dimensions of Z, a, and G,
which appear in the dimensionally homogeneous equation 1.20 Water flows from a large drainage pipe at a rate of
4500 L!min. What is this volume rate of flow in m3!s?
V " Z1a # 12 $ G
1.21 Dimensionless combinations of quantities (commonly
1.13 The volume rate of flow, Q, through a pipe containing a called dimensionless parameters) play an important role in
slowly moving liquid is given by the equation fluid mechanics. Make up five possible dimensionless para-
meters by using combinations of some of the quantities listed
pR4 ¢p in Table 1.1.
Q"
8m/ 1.22 GO An important dimensionless parameter in certain types
where R is the pipe radius, ¢p the pressure drop along the pipe, of fluid flow problems is the Froude number defined as V! 1g/,
m a fluid property called viscosity 1FL#2T2 , and / the length of where V is a velocity, g the acceleration of gravity, and ! a length.
pipe. What are the dimensions of the constant p !8? Would you Determine the value of the Froude number for V " 3 m!s,
classify this equation as a general homogeneous equation? g " 9.81 m!s2, and / " 0.6 m. Recalculate the Froude number
Explain. using SI units for V, g, and /. Explain the significance of the re-
sults of these calculations.
1.14 According to information found in an old hydraulics book,
the energy loss per unit weight of fluid flowing through a nozzle
connected to a hose can be estimated by the formula
Section 1.4 Measures of Fluid Mass and Weight
h " 10.04 to 0.092 1D!d2 4V 2!2g
1.23 Obtain a photograph/image of a situation in which the
where h is the energy loss per unit weight, D the hose diameter, d density or specific weight of a fluid is important. Print this
the nozzle tip diameter, V the fluid velocity in the hose, and g the photo and write a brief paragraph that describes the situation
acceleration of gravity. Do you think this equation is valid in any involved.
system of units? Explain.
1.24 A tank contains 500 kg of a liquid whose specific gravity is
1.15 The pressure difference, ¢p, across a partial blockage 2. Determine the volume of the liquid in the tank.
in an artery 1called a stenosis2 is approximated by the equation
1.25 Clouds can weigh thousands of pounds due to their
2
mV A0 liquid water content. Often this content is measured in grams per
¢p " Kv $ Ku a # 1b rV 2 cubic meter (g/m3). Assume that a cumulus cloud occupies a
D A1
volume of one cubic kilometer, and its liquid water content is
where V is the blood velocity, m the blood viscosity 1FL#2T 2, 0.2 g/m3. (a) What is the volume of this cloud in cubic
r the blood density 1ML#3 2, D the artery diameter, A0 the area of the kilometers? (b) How much does the water in the cloud weigh in
unobstructed artery, and A1 the area of the stenosis. Determine the newtons?
dimensions of the constants Kv and Ku. Would this equation be valid
in any system of units? 1.26 A tank of oil has a mass of 365 kg. (a) Determine its
weight in newtons at the Earth’s surface. (b) What would be its
1.16 Assume that the speed of sound, c, in a fluid depends on an mass 1in kg2 and its weight 1in newtons2 if located on the moon’s
elastic modulus, Ev, with dimensions FL#2, and the fluid density, surface where the gravitational attraction is approximately one-
r, in the form c " 1Ev 2 a 1r2 b. If this is to be a dimensionally sixth that at the Earth’s surface?
homogeneous equation, what are the values for a and b? Is your
result consistent with the standard formula for the speed of sound? 1.27 A certain object weighs 300 N at the Earth’s surface.
1See Eq. 1.19.2 Determine the mass of the object 1in kilograms2 and its weight 1in
newtons2 when located on a planet with an acceleration of gravity
1.17 A formula to estimate the volume rate of flow, Q, flow-
equal to 1.92 m!s2.
ing over a dam of length, B, is given by the equation
1.28 The density of a certain type of jet fuel is 775 kg/m3.
Q " 1.70 BH 3!2
Determine its specific gravity and specific weight.
where H is the depth of the water above the top of the dam 1called
1.29 A hydrometer is used to measure the specific grav-
the head2. This formula gives Q in m3/s when B and H are in meter.
ity of liquids. (See Video V2.8.) For a certain liquid, a hydrom-
Is the constant, 1.70, dimensionless? Would this equation be valid
eter reading indicates a specific gravity of 1.15. What is the
if units other than meter and seconds were used?
liquid’s density and specific weight? Express your answer in SI
1.18 The force, P, that is exerted on a spherical particle moving units.
slowly through a liquid is given by the equation 1.30 The specific weight of a certain liquid is 1366 kg/m3.
P " 3pmDV Determine its density and specific gravity.
where m is a fluid property (viscosity) having dimensions of FL#2T, 1.31 An open, rigid-walled, cylindrical tank contains 0.1 m3
D is the particle diameter, and V is the particle velocity. What are of water at 4 °C. Over a 24-hour period of time the water temper-
the dimensions of the constant, 3p? Would you classify this equa- ature varies from 4 to 32 °C. Make use of the data in Appendix B
tion as a general homogeneous equation? to determine how much the volume of water will change. For a
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Learning Objectives
1.1 Some Characteristics of Fluids
✓ determine the dimensions and units of physical quantities.
(유체의 특성)
✓ Identify the key fluid properties used in the analysis of fluid behavior.
특성 (특별할 특特 성품 성性) : 일정한 사물에만 있는 특수한 성질
✓ calculate common fluid properties given appropriate information.
유체의 특성: 유체에만 있는 특수한 성질 (고체와 달리 끊어지지 않고 지속적으로 변형(흐름)하는 물질)
1) What is Fluid? (유체란 무엇인가?, 유체의 정의는?)
✓ explain effects of fluid compressibility.
2) Classification of Fluids (유체의 분류)
✓ use the concepts of viscosity, vapor pressure, and surface tension. 3) Fluid Mechanics? (유체역학이란?)
4) Application Area of Fluid Mechanics (유체역학 응용 분야)
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Fluids are a subset of the phases of matter and include liquids, gases, plasmas • 물질이 외력에 저항하는 응력 관점에 따른 분류
and, to some extent, plastic solids.
- 고체 : 변형을 통해 전단응력에 저항 할 수 있는 물질 전단(자를剪끊을斷)
✓ Definition of Fluid
•물리적 정의 : 외부에서 열이나 압력을 가하지 않은 본래 상태의 액체와 기체를 총칭
•역학적 정의 : 크기와 무관하게 전단응력(shear stress)이 작용하면 Terminologies (용어)
(힘의 평형 관점) Stress (응력)
연속적으로 변형(흐름)되는 물질(matter). 즉 전단응력과 외력이 평형을 이룬다
Strain (변형량)
1
In physics, a fluid is defined as a substance that deforms (flows) rate(율) : Strain rate (변형률)
dt
continually when acted on by a shearing stress of any magnitude. Shear strain rate : Shear (전단)
dt Shear strain rate(전단변형률)
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이 저항력을 응력(stress)이라고 하고 단위면적당 작용하는 힘으로 표시(응력=F/A) Inviscid fluids Euler Equation
(ideal fluids) u v fluid velocity
(a) 인장응력(tensile stress) = =0 Ma = =
수직응력 =0 y a sound speed
(b) 압축응력(compressive stress) (normal stress) Viscosity DV
= f − p
Dt
(c) 전단응력(shearing stress)
FST = A
(d) 굽힘응력(bending stress) Viscous fluids Newtonian N-S Equation
du
(e) 비틀림응력(torsional stress) = A 0 u
=
=
dy y t
1
http://earthquake.usgs.gov/learn/glossary/images/stress_types.gif
= f − p + 2V + ( V )
DV
Fluids
•Normal stress(수직응력, σ) : 표면에 작용하는 단위면적당 힘의 수직 성분(Fn/A) Dt 3
•Shear stress (전단응력, τ) : 표면에 작용하는 단위면적당 힘의 수평 성분(Ft/A) Rheology
Non-Newtonian
• Strain (변형량, ε): 힘(외력, 응력, 하중)을 가하면 형상이 변화(변형)하며, 이 때 변형된 정도(량)
u
응력이 제거되면 원형으로 복원되는 변형을 탄성변형, Incompressible y
(Ma < 0.3)
fluids
복원되지 않는 변형을 소성변형이라 함
Compressibility = const.
•Strain rate(변형률속도): 변형의 시간 변화율 (변형량/시간)
•Free surface(자유표면): 액체가 기체에 접하고 있는 표면 또는 밀도가 서로 다른 두 유체의 경계면 p = RT Compressible
Gas dynamic (Ma > 0.3)
fluids
(자유표면이 벽에 접해 있는 부근은 표면장력으로 곡면이 됨) const.
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• Non-Newtonian Fluid
dy du du
: 전단 응력과 변형 속도가 비례 관계에 있지 않은 유체
: 속도 기울기 (du/dy)에 따라 점성계수 ( )가 변하는 유체 dy
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V = 100 miles / h
= 160.9km / h = 34.4m / s
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1) Dimension and Units (차원과 단위) 1) Dimension and Units (차원과 단위)
물리적(物理的): 물질의 원리에 기초한 것
✓ Physical phenomena(물리적 현상) ✓ Units(단위) : 차원(dimension)의 크기를 정량적으로 표현하기 위한 수단
공간(space: x, y, z) 내에 존재하는 물질(matter, M)이 시간(time, T)에 따라
• 기본단위 : 기본차원의 단위. 다른 단위로부터 유도되지 않는 불변의 단위 (7개)
변위(displacement, L)하는 현상(phenomena) Quantity Units Symbol
변위(變位): 물체가 위치를 바꿈
length (길이) meter m
✓ Dimension(차원) : 물리적 현상(physical phenomena)을 다루기 위한 기본량 mass (질량) kilogram kg
• 기본차원 : SI 단위계(국제표준단위계)에서 7개의 물리량에 대한 기본차원을 설정 Image result for unit system
time (시간) seconds s
- 온도의 특징을 규정하는 차원 : 온도(temperature, θ) • 유도단위 : 유도차원의 단위. 기본 단위로부터 유도되는 단위 (매우 많음)
- 기타 : 전류 (암페어, A), 광도 (칸델라, cd), 물질량 (몰, mol) ✓ Unit System(단위계) : 단위(unit)를 나타내는 체계(system)
• 유도차원 : 기본차원의 조합으로 유도된 차원 SI Unit System(국제 공용)을 기준으로 각 나라마다 고유의 단위계가 혼용되어 사용
(힘(force), 밀도(density), 압력(pressure), 점성계수 등의 차원) - 주요단위계 : SI unit system, 공학(Engineering unit), BG(British gravity unit)
- 참조단위계 : EE(English engineering), 영국절대, USCS(US customary system) 등
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단위 영국중력단위계 ft
slug lbf
slug/ft‧s
1 inch = 2.54cm = 0.0254m
(유도단위) s R(℉) (기본단위) lbf‧ft lbf‧ft/s slug/ft 3 lbf/ft 3 lbf/ft 2 ft 2/s lbf/ft
lbm
영국공학단위계
(EE)
ft (기본단위)
(Pound mass)
s R(℉)
lbf
(기본단위)
lbf‧ft lbf‧ft/s lbm/ft 3 lbf/ft 3
lbf/ft 2
(psf)
lbf‧s/ft 2 ft 2/s lbf/ft 1 yard = 3 feet = 36inches = 0.9144m
영국절대단위계 ft
lbm
s R(℉)
Pdl
(유도단위) Pdl‧ft Pdl‧ft/s lbm/ft 3 Pdl/ft 3 Pdl/ft 2 Pdl‧s/ft 2 ft 2/s Pdl/ft
1 mile = 5280 feet = 1760 yard = 1609.344m = 1.609344km
(기본단위)
(Poundal)
lbf/in2
USCS 단위계 ft slug or lbm s R(℉) lbf lbf‧ft lbf‧ft/s lbm/ft 3 lbf/ft 3 lbf‧s/ft 2 ft 2/s lbf/ft
(psi)
MLT system
L M T θ MLT-2 ML 2T -2 ML 2T -3 ML -3 ML -2T -2 ML -1T -2 ML -1T -1 L 2T -1 MT -2
(SI, 절대단위)
차원 FLT system
L FL -1T2 T θ F FL FLT -1 FL -4 T 2 FL -3 FL -2 FLT -2 L 2T -1 FL -1
(공학단위)
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g = 9.80665m / s 2 • BG Unit : mass = W/g = lbf·s2/ft = slug (유도단위) = 32.174lbm = 14.5939 kg*
= 9.80665 (1 / 0.3048 ft) / s 2 • EE Unit : mass = lbm (기본단위, pound mass) = 0.03108 slug
g = 9.80665m / s 2
= 0.03108 x 14.5939 kg* = 0.45359 kg* = 32.174 ft / s 2
= 32.174 ft / s 2
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(
mass = kg f / m / s 2 ) (
mass = lb f / ft / s 2 ) ※1N은 1kg*(mass)의 물체를 1 m/s2으로 가속시킬 때 발생하는 힘
= kg f s 2 / m(유도단위) = lb f s 2 / ft = 1slug(유도단위) • 공학 Unit: F = kgf(기본단위) = kgf·s2/m x 1m/s2 = 1kg* x 9.80665 m/s2 ·s2/m x 1m/s2
(
= 1kg* 9.80665m / s 2 s 2 / m ) ( )
= 1lbm 32.174 ft / s 2 s 2 / ft = 1kg* x 9.80665 m/s2 = 9.80665 kg*·m/s2
= 9.80665kg *
= 32.174lb m = 9.80665 N
= 14.5939kg* ※1kgf는 1kg*(mass)의 물체를 9.8 m/s2로 가속시키는 힘
1slug = 32.174lbm 1kg f = 9.80665N
1lb m = 0.45359kg*
1lbm = 0.45359kg * 따라서, 중량 1kgf인 물체의 질량은 1kg*이다. 1lb f = 4.4482N
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※ 1 Joule = 1 N·m = 105 dyne x 102 cm = 107 dyne·cm = 107 erg (CGS 단위계)
m = 1kg *
m = 1lbm = 1 kg*·m/s2 x m = 1/9.80665 kgf·m = 0.102 kgf·m
g = 9.807m / s 2
g = 32.174 ft / s 2
※ 열의 일당량 : A = 1 / 427 (Kcal / kgf·m)
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1 kW = 1/0.46 Ps = 1.34 HP 1 ft
550lb f = 0.1383kg*m / s 2 = 0.1383N (FPS→MS)
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단위 차원 차원
질량(mass), 길이(length), 시간(time)의 차원을 각각 물리량 물리량 관계식
기호 MLT FLT MLT FLT
질량
[M], [L], [T] (MLT system: SI 단위계) (Mass)
kg* M 없음 질량 m=F/a m M kgf·s2/m FL-1T 2
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✓ 유체거동의 역학적 해석
Fluid Mechanics
Fluid Dynamics
Fluid Statics Fluid Kinematics
(Effect of forces
(Fluid at rest) (Fluid in Motion)
on Fluid Motion)
F = F B + FSN = 0 DV V
a=
Dt
=
t
+ V V( ) F = F B + FSN + FST = ma
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Mass M
2) 밀도(density, ρ) = =
Volume V 2) 밀도(density): Density(ρw) of Water
✓Density of Fluids: 유체의 밀도는 온도와 압력의 함수(Pressure and Temp.) ✓ 표준대기압 (760 mmHg), 4oC (39.2oF)에서 물의 밀도 (ρw), 기준 값으로 중요
The density of a fluid changes with temperature and pressure. The density of water
versus temperature and pressure is indicated in the chart below: 1
w = 1000kg* / m3 = 1000 (kg f s 2 / m) / m3 = 102kg f s 2 / m 4
9.80665
1 1 3
= 1000 slug / 3
ft = 1.94slug / ft 3
14.5939 0.3048
1 1 3
= 1000 lbm / 3
ft = 62.4lbm / ft 3
0.4536 0.3048
(물의 밀도) (물의 밀도)
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따라서 이상기체의 상태방정식 (Boyle-Charles' Law) Volume V [m3/kg*], [M-1L3] (SI Units)
v= =
p = RT or p = RT Mass M [m4/kgf‧s2], [F-1L4T-2] (공학 Unit)
p = 760mmHg = 1.033228kg f / cm2 = 1.033228 104 kg f / m2
• SI Unit : ν = m3/kg*
R = 29.27kg f m / kg * K
• 공학 Unit : ν = m3/(kgf‧s2/m)= m4/kgf‧s2
T = 273.15 + 20 = 293.15K
Note : 밀도(density)와 비체적(specific volume)
p 1.033228 104 (kg f / m2 ) - 밀도 (Density)는 액체의 경우 주로 사용되고,
air = = = 1.2041kg * / m3
RT 29.27(kg f m / kg * K ) 293.15( K ) - 비체적 (Specific Volume)은 기체의 경우 주로 사용된다.
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g
5) 비중(Specific Gravity, S) 5) 비중(Specific Gravity, S) S= = =
w w g w
휘발유 15 0.66-0.75
g
S= = = 단위 [1] : 무차원 수 원유 15 0.70-1.00
w w g w
에 대한pet
water 이미지 검색
에 대한 이미지
oil
결과
검색결과
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Summary Examples
✓Density (ρ) : 밀도 Ex 2) 어떤 유체 4ℓ 의 무게가 40N 이다. =
Weight W
=
Volume V
Mass M 이 유체의 밀도(ρ), 비중량 (), 비중(S)은?
[kg*/m3], [ML-3] (SI Units)
= = Sol) 무게와 부피가 주어져 있으므로 먼저 비중량을 구하는 것이 쉽다.
Volume V [kgf‧s2/m4], [FL-4T2] (공학 Unit)
① 비중량
✓Specific volume(ν) : 비체적 단위는 SI, MKS로 통일한다.
Volume V [m3/kg*], [M-1L3] (SI Units) (그렇다면 비중량의 단위는 N/m3이 될 것이다)
v= =
Mass M [m4/kgf‧s2], [F-1L4T-2] (공학 Unit) 문제에서 부피의 단위가 SI, MKS 단위가 아니므로 이를 고쳐야 한다.
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Examples Examples
= g
② 밀도 Ex 4) 디젤유(diesel fuel)의 체적(V) = 14m3, 무게(W) = 12,000 kgf 일 때,
Weight W
밀도(ρ), 비체적(ν), 비중량 (), 비중(S)은 ? = =
밀도(ρ) = / g = (10,000 N/m3) / 9.8 m/s2 = 1,020 kg*/m3 Volume V
Sol) SI Unit 및 공학 Unit로 구할 경우
(위에서 단위계산을 할 필요는 없고, SI, MKS 단위로 통일하여 계산하면 된다)
1) SI Unit
③ 비중은 밀도 또는 비중량 어느 것 하나만 알고 있으면 가능 Mass M
① 밀도 (ρ) = =
g Volume V
S = (1,020 kg*/m3) / (1,000 kg*/m3) = 1.02 또는 S= = =
w w g w 방법 1) 무게가 공학단위로 되어 있으므로 SI Unit인 N으로 고친다.
S = (10,000 N/m3) / (9,800 N/m3) = 1.02 로 결과는 동일하다. W = 12,000 kgf = 12,000 × 9.8 N = 117,600 N,
W = mg 이므로
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1 ℓ beer mugs 1ℓ 2ℓ m = W/g = 117,600 N / 9.8 m/s2 = 12,000 N / (m/s2 ) = 12,000 kg*
1cc = 1m = 0.001
밀도 (ρ) = m / V = 12,000 kg* / 14 m3 = 857.1 kg*/m3
1 = 1000cc
방법 2) 공학단위의 무게를 SI Unit 질량으로 직접 바꾸는 방법
무게가 12,000 kgf 이면 질량이 12,000 kg*이 된다. (1 kgf의 정의를 참고)
따라서 밀도 (ρ) = m / V = 12,000 kg* / 14 m3 = 857.1 kg*/m3
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Examples Examples
Volume V 2) 공학 Unit
② 비체적 (ν) v= =
Mass M Mass M
① 밀도 (ρ) = =
비체적은 밀도의 역수 이므로 쉽게 계산할 수 있음 Volume V
ν=1/ρ = 1 / 857.1 kg*/m3 = 0.001166 m3/kg* 방법 1) 국제단위로 구한 결과를 이용하는 방법
Weight W 밀도 (ρ) = 857.1 kg*/m3 = 857.1×((1/9.8) kgf‧s2/m) / m3) = 87.46 kgf‧s2/m4
③ 비중량 () = =
Volume V
단위는 SI, MKS로 통일한다. (그렇다면 비중량의 단위는 N/m3이 될 것이다) 방법 2) 공학단위로서 계산하는 방법 (∵무게가 공학단위로 주어져 있으므로)
문제에서 부피의 단위가 SI, MKS 단위가 아니므로 이를 고쳐야 한다. m = W / g = 12,000 kgf / 9.8 m/s2 = 1,224.5 kgf‧s2/m
W = 12,000 kgf = 12,000 × 9.8 N = 117,600 N 밀도 (ρ) = m / V = 1,224.5 (kgf‧s2/m) / 14 m3 = 87.46 kgf‧s2/m4
Volume V
② 비체적 (ν) : 비체적은 밀도의 역수 이므로 쉽게 계산할 수 있음 v= =
= W / V = 117,600 N / 14 m3 = 8,400 N/m3 Mass M
g ν = 1/ρ = 1 / 87.46 kgf‧s2/m4 = 0.01143 m4/kgf‧s2
④ 비중(S) S= = =
w w g w
Weight W
비중은 밀도 또는 비중량 어느 것 하나만 알고 있으면 가능하다. ③ 비중량 () = =
Volume V
S = (857.1 kg*/m3) / (1,000 kg*/m3) = 0.857 또는 = W / V = 12,000 kgf / 14 m3 = 857.14 kgf/m3
g
S = (8,400 N/m3) / (9,800 N/m3) = 0.857 로 결과는 동일하다. ④ 비중(S) S= = =
w w g w
S= ρ / ρw =(87.46 kgf‧s2/m4) / (102 kgf‧s2/m4) = 0.857 또는
S= / w = (857.14 kgf/m3) / (1,000 kgf/m3) = 0.857 로 결과는 동일하다.
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1) What is a mole?
✓ 몰[ mole]: a name for a number (원자와 분자의 수량, 즉 물질의 양을 나타내는 단위)
1.5 Ideal Gas Law (단순한 개수의 개념. 개수를 셀 때 간단히 몰을 사용)
: 물질입자 6.02x1023개의 모임을 1몰이라고 한다
• 1mol은 원자량 기준에 따라 탄소의 질량수 12인 동위원소 12C(탄소 12)의 12g 중에 포함되는
(절대압력) (절대온도) 원자의 수를 1mole로 정의한다.
• 수소원자(H) 1몰에 포함된 수소원자의 개수는 6.02×1023 이며 질량은 근사적으로 1.008g이다.
• 수소분자(H2) 1몰에 포함된 수소분자의 개수는 6.02×1023 이며 질량은 2.016g이다.
500ml=0.5L
=0.0005m3
ρw=1000kg*/m3
(일반기체상수)
M=0.5kg*=500g
계란 12개를 1 더즌(dozen) 이라고 하듯이
물질(원자, 분자 등) 6.02x1023 개를 500/18=27.7%
1몰이라고 함 (편하게 부르기 위해)
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•비중량 = 1.429kg f / m3
•분자량 M = 32 ( Weight of 1 Kmol →W = 32kg f )
32kg f
•체적 V= = 22.4m3
1.429kg f / m3
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FSN : Normal term of surfaceforce (수직력/A(압력) 수직응력(normal stress), σ) (정지유체에서는 압력(pressure)을 수직력이라고 함)
FST : Tangeltial term of surfaceforce (전단력/A 전단응력(shear stress), τ) • Shear stress(전단응력): 표면에 작용하는 단위면적당 힘의 수평 성분
ac : convectiveacceleration (대류가속도)
at : temporalacceleration (순간 가속도)
DV 1
Dt
= f − p + 2V + V
3
( ) Tensile stress compressive stress shearing stress bending stress torsional stress
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전단력(FST)
(FST/A) • SI Unit : P = N/m2 = kg*/m‧s2 = Pascal
수직응력 수직력(FSN)
전단응력
(σ=FSN/A) (p=FSN/A) • 공학 Unit : P = kgf/cm2 = 9.8 N / 10-4m2 = 9.8×10-4 N/m2 (Pascal)
(τ=FST/A)
• BG Unit : P = lbf/ft2 = 4.448 N / (0.3048)2m2 = 47.88 N/m2 = 47.88 Pa
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물은 수은의 밀도보다 약 13.6배가 작으므로 물기둥의 높이는 76㎝의 13.6배이므로 약 10m 정도가
진공(참眞빌空): 물질이 전혀 존재하지 않는 공간 된다. 따라서 진공 펌프를 이용하여 물을 끌어 올릴 때 10m 이상은 끌어 올릴 수가 없게 된다.
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해수면
표준대기압: 해수면 기준
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기준면에 작용하는
압력은 모두 1 atm
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Atmospheric
Pressure (1 atm)
Atmospheric
1 atm pressure
=760 mmHg Pgage= Pvac
=1.013 bar
=1013 mmbar Pabs Patm Patm Point (2)
=0.1013 Mpa
측정 전 =1.0332 kgf/cm2 Pabs
=10.33 mH2O
P: 국소대기압 (계기압) (계기압) (계기압) =14.7 psi Absolute
Pabs=0
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vacuum
Pabs = absolute pressure 실제로 측정 대상 표면에 작용하는 압력(측정점 위로 쌓여진 유체)은 무엇인가?
Patm = atmospheric pressure
Pgage= gage pressure 즉, 계산에 사용되는 압력은?
Pvac = vacuum pressure
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1) 점성(Viscosity) 이란?
✓ 점성(붙을粘 성품性)이란 ?
1.6 Viscosity • 유체의 끈적 끈적한 성질로서 액체나 기체의 흐름에 대한 내부저항으로 간주되고
흐름에 대한 저항의 척도임
(점성계수) • 유체 유동 시 유체 입자와 입자, 유체층 사이에 상대운동이 발생할 때 흐름을
방해하려는 저항력의 원인이 되는 성질. 운동과 반대방향의 마찰력으로 작용
(점성으로 인한 저항력은 접선력으로 작용 = 전단력)
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du : 속도차이
온도가 상승하면 분자운동이 활발해지므로 운동량 수송이 증가로 인한 0.4U
dt
결국, 전단응력이 발생하기 위해서는
0.2U
유체입자 6면 사이에 속도차이가 있어야 한다. du/dy: 속도구배
마찰력이 증가하여 점성이 증가한다. Fixed plate
→ 즉, 속도구배가 있어야 함
dθ : 각변형량
dθ/dt : 각변형속도
(예) 비행기표면 가열 : 점성계수 증가 → 저항력 증가) 결국, Newton의 점성법칙은 Newton유체에 적용한 Hook법칙에 지나지 않으며,
탄성체에서 응력은 변형률(strain)에 비례하나, 유체에서 응력은 변형률 속도(strain rate)에 비례한다.
Hook법칙: 외력과 변형 사이에 비례 관계가 성립하는 법칙. 이 때의 외력과 변형의 비를 탄성계수라 함
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= ( kg m / s / m ) s = kg / (m s) = [ML T ]
* 2 2 * −1 −1
1 Pa s = 1 ( N / m 2 ) s = 1 (kg * m / s 2 / m 2 ) s = 1 ( kg * / m s)
kg f / m2 kg f / m 2 = 1000 g * /100 cm s = 10 g * / cm s = 10 poise = 1, 000 cP
② 공학 unit : = = = ( kg f / m2 ) s = [ FL−2T ]
(m / s) / (m) 1/ s
= 9.8 ( N / m2 ) s = 9.8Pa s Pa s = kg * / (m s ) = 10 poise = 1, 000cP
poise = g * / (cm s) = 100cP
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du
Newton’s viscous law: =
2
T T oxygen 127 292.25 20.18 1.693411300
dy = D0e−b /T or ln = a + b 0 + c 0 sulfur
o T T dioxide
416 293.65 12.54 1.768466086
(마찰력을 계산하는 유일한 공식인 (층류유동에만 적용)
이 식을 만족하는 유체를 Newtonian fluid라 함)
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밀도는 998.2 kg*/m3이다. 동점성계수(ν)는 몇 cSt 인가? 밀도는 840 kg*/m3 이다. 점성계수(dynamic viscosity)는 몇 cP 인가?
해) 점성계수는 공학단위, 밀도는 SI단위이므로 점성계수를 SI, MKS 단위로 고친다. 해) 동점성계수는 SI 및 공학단위가 서로 같다. (단, BG 단위계는 다름) .
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V = 0 at y = 0
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Examples Examples
예제 2.8) 아래 그림과 같이 수평으로 평판이 거리 h 간격을 두고 평행하게 ✓w (wall shear stress, 벽면 전단응력)의 정의 및 방향
놓여 있으며 (2-D 문제), 그 사이에는 점성계수 가 일정한 유체로 채워져 있다. y • w (wall shear stress) 정의
Moving plate
또 압력은 어느 곳에서나 일정하고 위 평판이 Uo의 속도(x 방향)로 움직이고 Uo : 하부 벽면 (fixed plate)이 미소유체요소(V=0)
아래 면에 작용하는 응력을 벽면 전단응력
있을 때, 두 평판 사이의 속도와 전단응력 분포를 구하시오.
(w: wall shear stress)이 라고 함
풀이 2.8) Assumptions:
in z − dir. ① = constant yx
Y
Uo = U0 • 각 벽면에서 방향
Uo h p p
Moving plate ② p = constant = = 0 벽면에 부착된
: 상부 벽면 (moving plate)의 응력방향은 (-)
x z
유체 요소
dy V=0
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s r
Y
= U0 V= = = r =r
Moving plate
Uo Uo h 전단응력 분포 (Shear stress profile) t t t 각변위 : θ
Uo
( y) = = const. ✓rpm - Angular velocity relation (회전수-각속도 관계) 각속도 : ω=θ/t
h
2
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(y)
dz
속도분포 (Velocity Profile) rpm = revolution per minute =
h =constant 60s
dy
Uo
w
dx
X u( y) = y 2
h 300rpm = 300 = 10 ( s −1 ) =
Fixed plate 60s
✓rpm - Angular – Linear velocity relation (회전수-각속도-선속도 관계)
2
• 속도분포의 기울기(Uo/h)가 상수값이므로 선형 속도분포를 나타냄. n = 600rpm = 600 = 20 ( s −1 )
즉, 선형 속도 유동은 유체 층 사이의 상대속도가 일정하므로 전단응력은 일정한 분포를 보임. 60s
r = 10cm
• 이와 같이 전단응력분포가 일정한 유동을 쿠에트 유동(Couette flow) 이라고 함. V = r = 0.1m 20 ( s −1 ) = 2 (m / s)
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Find: 점성 저항을 이기기 위한 동력 (Wall shear stress) P = 324 (kg * / ms 2 ) 0.045 (m2 ) 4.5 (m / s) = 2034(kg *m2 / s 3 )
Work J N m m L = 2034(kg * m / s 2 ) m / s = 2034( N m / s ) = 2034W
power = = = = N = F = F V = A V
time s s s s
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2.3 점성(Viscosity)
예제 2.13) 20oC에서 유동하고 있는 글리세린의 압력기울기가 dp/dx=1.6kN/m3이다.
벽과 벽사이의 간격이 B=50mm라면 벽으로부터 12mm 떨어진 곳에서의 1.7 Compressibility of Fluids
속도와 전단응력을 구하시오. 또 벽면에서의 전단응력과 속도는 얼마인가?
(유체의 압축성)
정지한 평판 사이의 유동 분포식은 아래와 같다.
dp
B = 0.05m, = 1600N / m 2 ,
( )
풀이 2.13) 1 dp
u( y) = By − y 2 dx 체적 탄성 계수(bulk modulus, K): 체적변화 탄성도
2 dx
y = 0.012m, = 6.2 10−1 N s / m 2 Bulk stress
K=
Bulk strain
u( y) =
1
2 0.62
( )(
1600N / m 2 0.05 0.012 − 0.0122 = 0.588m / s) F / A(normal stress)
=− n
V / V (strain)
du 1 dp
= = (B − 2 y ) = 1 dp (B − 2 y ) =−
p
dy 2 dx 2 dx V / V
1
( )
0 = 1600N / m 2 (0.05 − 2 0) = 40 N / m 2
2
1
( )
12 = 1600N / m 2 (0.05 − 2 0.012) = 20.8 N / m 2
2
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(strain) x / h A x
• 체적 탄성 계수(bulk modulus, K): 체적변화 탄성도 • 스프링 탄성계수와 유사한 개념
the tendency of an object to deform in all directions when uniformly
loaded in all directions. The bulk modulus is an extension of - 스프링 탄성계수는 길이변화에 대한 것인데 비해
Young's modulus to three dimensions. - 체적 탄성계수는 체적변화에 대한 계수인 점이 다르다.
p(normal stress) F /A - 스프링 탄성계수가 클수록 길이 변화가 작은 것과 같이
K =− =− n
V / V (strain) V / V - 체적탄성계수가 클 수록 체적변화가 작다.
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포화상태
Vaporization (기화): 액체가 열에너지를 흡수하여 기체로 변하는 현상을 총칭 포화증기압
evaporation p=?
증발(evaporation)과 비등(boiling) 두 가지 기화 방법이 있음 증기분압
1) Evaporation(증발): 비등점(boiling point) 아래의 액체 표면에서 일어나는 기화현상
비등점(끓을沸오를騰점點): 액체 물질의 증기압이 외부 압력과 같아져 끓기 시작하는 온도
2) Boiling(비등):
• 압력이 일정할 때 액체를 가열하여 비등점에 도달할 때 액체표면에서 증발과 더불어 액체 자유표면
(a) evaporation (b) Evaporation > (c) Evaporation =
전체에 걸쳐 증기 기포가 형성되는 기화현상. 비등이 일어나는 온도를 끓는점(비등점)이라 함 Condensation Condensation
• 온도가 일정할 때 액체 압력이 포화 증기압 이하로 낮질 때 발생하는 기화 현상으로 액체 내에 •포화상태(saturated condition): 밀폐된 용기 내에서 자유표면을 탈출하는 분자수와 액체
기포가 발생 (감압비등(decompression boiling), 공동(cavitation) 현상 :공학적으로 중요) 표면에 달라붙는 분자수가 같을 때 (탈출=복귀) (열적 안정상태) 온도가 증가하면 분자의 운동 에너지가
증가함에 따라서 수증기로 변하는 분자의 수
•포화 증기압(Saturated vapor pressure) :포화상태의 증기압력 또한 증가한다. 따라서 증기 압력이 증가한다.
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(Low pressure)
Evaporation
(Heating)
배기가스 중 수증기 냉각 응결
(Low pressure)
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증발 = 응축
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Ca 1: Cavitation
(cavitation이 발생하기 쉽다) Ca 1: No cavitation
http://i201.photobucket.com/albums/aa105/kenuwf/cavitation.jpg
공동현상 방지 방법
• 유체 흐름 중 저압 발생 방지
• 유체 온도를 낮춤
• 입구 직경 증가와 같이 부차적 손실(minor loss) 방지
• 공동현상 방지 도료 사용 또는 코팅
• NPSH (Net Positive Suction Head)를 높일 것 등.
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1) 표면장력(Surface tension)
✓ 표면장력(surface tension)이란 ?
1.9 Surface Tension (Force) 액체의 표면이 스스로 수축하여 가능한 한 작은 면적(최대 안정)을 취하려는 힘(단위길이당 작용하는 힘)
▼ 공기 자유표면
(Free surface)
물
H2O
에너지
Energy = F l
H2O
H2O
표면장력 = 표면적을 최소한 작게(안정) 하려는 장력
자유표면에너지 표면장력
Propelled by chemical changes in surface tension, microrobots surfing across (Free Surface Energy) (Surface Tension)
fluid interfaces lead researchers to new ideas.
Marangoni effect: 계면 교란의 하나. 유체 이상간의 계면을 통해서 열 또는 물질 이동이 밀도의 불연속면이 존재하면 그 경계면에서 분자간 인력 차이에 의해
생길 때, 이러한 이동에 수반하여 국소적으로 계면에 계면 장력 기울기가 생겨, 그로 인해
계면에 유기되는 유동을 지칭 표면장력 (Surface tension)이라는 힘이 발생
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Free surfaceenergy F l F
SurfaceTension( ) = = 2 = 내부 압력(pi)A : 압력: 수직응력 sin
Area l l
α
F
=
kg f
N Force (단위길이 당 힘)
l
= = = F = l
m m length Soap
bubble
✓성질
• 표면장력은 분자 응집력에 기인하므로 온도의 함수
: 액체의 온도가 높아질수록 표면장력은 작아진다.
• 표면장력은 같은 종류의 분자끼리 끌어당기는 분자 응집력(cohesive force)과
외부 압력(po)A :
다른 종류의 분자끼리 끌어당기는 부착력(adhesive force) 사이의 차이에 의해 발생
※ 자유표면에서 액체분자의 응집력이 공기분자와의 부착력보다 크게 된다.
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L
2R
p = p = p =
File:Capillary Attraction Repulsion (PSF) (bjl).svg
R R R
pbubble = 2pdroplet
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응집력<부착력 응집력>부착력
143 144
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cos F
y = cos (2r ) − pi r 2 − h r 2 = 0 From surface tension analysis on the soap bubble in which it’s thickness
can be negligible, (as shown before slide)
W
cos 2r = h r 2
For same liquid, r → h
cos 2r 2 cos r
h= = , as = cos
r 2 r R
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2) 모세관 현상(Capillarity)
4) 경사평판
h l sin 1.10 A Brief Look Back in History
p = h = l sin
cos (유체역학 역사의 요약)
b w
2 cos w = (b w l ) sin
l
= (b w) h
h
Surface tension Weight
force
F sin
2 cos
Note: 수직 모세관
2 cos
h= h=
F = W = V b r
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제출기한: Chapter 1. 시험 보기 직전
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c01Introduction.qxd 11/21/12 3:47 PM Page 31
Problems 31
tank diameter of 0.6 m, would the corresponding change in water 1.42 A closed tank having a volume of 0.06 m3 is filled with
depth be very noticeable? Explain. 1.3 N of a gas. A pressure gage attached to the tank reads 83 kPa
when the gas temperature is 27 °C. There is some question as to
†1.32 Estimate the number of kilogram of mercury it would take whether the gas in the tank is oxygen or helium. Which do you
to fill your bathtub. List all assumptions and show all calculations. think it is? Explain how you arrived at your answer.
1.33 A mountain climber’s oxygen tank contains 4.45 N of oxy- 1.43 A tire having a volume of 0.081 m3 contains air at a gage
gen when he begins his trip at sea level where the acceleration pressure of 180 kPa and a temperature of 21 &C. Determine the
of gravity is 9.81 m/s2. What is the weight of the oxygen in the density of the air and the weight of the air contained in the tire.
tank when he reaches the top of Mt. Everest where the acceler-
ation of gravity is 9.78 m/s2? Assume that no oxygen has been 1.44 A compressed air tank contains 5 kg of air at a tem-
removed from the tank; it will be used on the descent portion of perature of 80 °C. A gage on the tank reads 300 kPa. Determine
the climb. the volume of the tank.
1.34 GO The information on a can of pop indicates that the can 1.45 A rigid tank contains air at a pressure of 620 kPa and
contains 355 mL. The mass of a full can of pop is 0.369 kg, while a temperature of 15 &C. By how much will the pressure increase
an empty can weighs 0.153 N. Determine the specific weight, den- as the temperature is increased to 43 &C?
sity, and specific gravity of the pop and compare your results with
1.46 The density of oxygen contained in a tank is 2.0 kg/m3 when
the corresponding values for water at 20 °C. Express your results
the temperature is 25 &C. Determine the gage pressure of the gas
in SI units.
if the atmospheric pressure is 97 kPa.
*1.35 The variation in the density of water, r, with 1.47 The helium-filled blimp shown in Fig. P1.47 is used at var-
temperature, T, in the range 20 °C % T % 50 °C, is given in the ious athletic events. Determine the number of newtons of helium
following table. within it if its volume is 1926 m3 and the temperature and pres-
sure are 27 °C and 98 kPa, respectively.
Density 1kg$ m32 998.2 997.1 995.7 994.1 992.2 990.2 988.1
Temperature 1°C2 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
1.37 A liquid when poured into a graduated cylinder is found to *1.48 Develop a computer program for calculating the density
weigh 8 N when occupying a volume of 500 ml (milliliters). of an ideal gas when the gas pressure in pascals 1abs2, the tem-
Determine its specific weight, density, and specific gravity. perature in degrees Celsius, and the gas constant in J$kg # K are
specified. Plot the density of helium as a function of tempera-
†1.38 The presence of raindrops in the air during a heavy ture from 0 °C to 200 °C and pressures of 50, 100, 150, and
rainstorm increases the average density of the air–water mixture. 200 kPa (abs).
Estimate by what percent the average air–water density is greater
than that of just still air. State all assumptions and show
calculations. Section 1.6 Viscosity (also see Lab Problems 1.1LP
and 1.2LP)
Section 1.5 Ideal Gas Law 1.49 Obtain a photograph/image of a situation in which the vis-
cosity of a fluid is important. Print this photo and write a brief
1.39 Determine the mass of air in a 2 m3 tank if the air is at room paragraph that describes the situation involved.
temperature, 20 °C, and the absolute pressure within the tank is
200 kPa (abs). 1.50 For flowing water, what is the magnitude of the velocity
gradient needed to produce a shear stress of 1.0 N/m2?
1.40 Nitrogen is compressed to a density of 4 kg/m3 under
an absolute pressure of 400 kPa. Determine the temperature in de- 1.51 Make use of the data in Appendix B to determine the dynamic
grees Celsius. viscosity of glycerin at 29 °C.
1.52 Make use of the data in Appendix B to determine the dynamic
1.41 The temperature and pressure at the surface of Mars viscosity of mercury at 24 &C.
during a Martian spring day were determined to be !50 °C and
900 Pa, respectively. (a) Determine the density of the Martian at- 1.53 One type of capillary-tube viscometer is shown in
mosphere for these conditions if the gas constant for the Martian Video V1.5 and in Fig. P1.53. For this device the liquid to be tested
atmosphere is assumed to be equivalent to that of carbon dioxide. is drawn into the tube to a level above the top etched line. The time
(b) Compare the answer from part (a) with the density of the Earth’s is then obtained for the liquid to drain to the bottom etched line.
atmosphere during a spring day when the temperature is 18 °C and The kinematic viscosity, ', in m2/s is then obtained from the equa-
the pressure 101.6 kPa (abs). tion n " KR 4t where K is a constant, R is the radius of the capillary
c01Introduction.qxd 11/21/12 12:14 PM Page 32
32 Chapter 1 ■ Introduction
tube in mm, and t is the drain time in seconds. When glycerin at Plot these data and fit a second-order polynomial to the data using
20 !C is used as a calibration fluid in a particular viscometer, the a suitable graphing program. What is the apparent viscosity of this
drain time is 1430 s. When a liquid having a density of 970 kg/m3 fluid when the rate of shearing strain is 70 s &1? Is this apparent
is tested in the same viscometer the drain time is 900 s. What is viscosity larger or smaller than that for water at the same
the dynamic viscosity of this liquid? temperature?
1.60 Water flows near a flat surface and some mea-
surements of the water velocity, u, parallel to the surface, at dif-
ferent heights, y, above the surface are obtained. At the surface
y " 0. After an analysis of the data, the lab technician reports that
the velocity distribution in the range 0 6 y 6 0.1 m is given by
Glass the equation
strengthening
bridge
u " 0.81 # 9.2y # 4.1 % 103y3
with u in m/s when y is in m. (a) Do you think that this equa-
Etched lines
tion would be valid in any system of units? Explain. (b) Do you
think this equation is correct? Explain. You may want to look at
Video 1.4 to help you arrive at your answer.
Capillary
tube 1.61 Calculate the Reynolds numbers for the flow of wa-
ter and for air through a 4 mm diameter tube, if the mean velocity
is 3 m $ s and the temperature is 30 °C in both cases (see Exam-
ple 1.4). Assume the air is at standard atmospheric pressure.
1.62 SAE 30 oil at 15 !C flows through a 5 cm diameter pipe with
■ Figure P1.53 a mean velocity of 1.5 m/s. Determine the value of the Reynolds
number (see Example 1.4).
1.54 The viscosity of a soft drink was determined by 1.63 For air at standard atmospheric pressure the values of the
using a capillary tube viscometer similar to that shown in constants that appear in the Sutherland equation 1Eq. 1.102 are
Fig. P1.53 and Video V1.5. For this device the kinematic viscosity, C " 1.458 % 10&6 kg$ 1m # s # K1$2 2 and S " 110.4 K. Use these
', is directly proportional to the time, t, that it takes for a given values to predict the viscosity of air at 10 °C and 90 °C and com-
amount of liquid to flow through a small capillary tube. That is, pare with values given in Table B.4 in Appendix B.
n " Kt. The following data were obtained from regular pop and
diet pop. The corresponding measured specific gravities are also *1.64 Use the values of viscosity of air given in Table B.4 at tem-
given. Based on these data, by what percent is the absolute vis- peratures of 0, 20, 40, 60, 80, and 100 °C to determine the con-
cosity, !, of regular pop greater than that of diet pop? stants C and S which appear in the Sutherland equation 1Eq. 1.102.
Compare your results with the values given in Problem 1.68. 1Hint:
Regular pop Diet pop Rewrite the equation in the form
t(s) 377.8 300.3
T 3$ 2 1 S
"a bT#
SG 1.044 1.003 m C C
1.55 Determine the ratio of the dynamic viscosity of water to air and plot T 3$2$m versus T. From the slope and intercept of this curve,
at a temperature of 60 °C. Compare this value with the corre- C and S can be obtained.2
sponding ratio of kinematic viscosities. Assume the air is at stan-
dard atmospheric pressure. 1.65 The viscosity of a fluid plays a very important role in
1.56 The kinematic viscosity and specific gravity of a liquid are determining how a fluid flows. (See Video V1.3.) The value of the
3.5 % 10&4 m2/s and 0.79, respectively. What is the dynamic vis- viscosity depends not only on the specific fluid but also on the fluid
cosity of the liquid in SI units? temperature. Some experiments show that when a liquid, under the
action of a constant driving pressure, is forced with a low veloc-
1.57 A liquid has a specific weight of 945 kg/m3 and a ity, V, through a small horizontal tube, the velocity is given by the
dynamic viscosity of 131.67 N.s/m2. Determine its kinematic equation V " K$m. In this equation K is a constant for a given tube
viscosity. and pressure, and ! is the dynamic viscosity. For a particular liq-
uid of interest, the viscosity is given by Andrade’s equation (Eq.
1.58 The kinematic viscosity of oxygen at 20 °C and a pressure 1.11) with D " 0.000023 N.s$m2 and B " 2222 K. By what per-
of 150 kPa 1abs2 is 0.104 stokes. Determine the dynamic viscosity centage will the velocity increase as the liquid temperature is in-
of oxygen at this temperature and pressure. creased from 4 !C to 37 !C? Assume all other factors remain
constant.
*1.59 Fluids for which the shearing stress, ", is not linearly
related to the rate of shearing strain, #!, are designated as non- *1.66 Use the value of the viscosity of water given in Table B.2
Newtonian fluids. Such fluids are commonplace and can exhibit at temperatures of 0, 20, 40, 60, 80, and 100 °C to determine the
unusual behavior, as shown in Video V1.6. Some experimental data constants D and B which appear in Andrade’s equation 1Eq. 1.112.
obtained for a particular non-Newtonian fluid at 27 !C are shown Calculate the value of the viscosity at 50 °C and compare with the
below. value given in Table B.2. 1Hint: Rewrite the equation in the form
Problems 33
and plot ln m versus 1 #T. From the slope and intercept of this curve, 1.72 A 25 mm diameter shaft is pulled through a cylindri-
B and D can be obtained. If a nonlinear curve-fitting program is cal bearing as shown in Fig. P1.72. The lubricant that fills the
available, the constants can be obtained directly from Eq. 1.11 with- 0.3 mm gap between the shaft and bearing is an oil having a kine-
out rewriting the equation.2 matic viscosity of 8.0 ! 10"4 m2#s and a specific gravity of 0.91.
Determine the force P required to pull the shaft at a velocity of
1.67 For a certain liquid m $ 0.0034 N.s/m2 at 4 %C and m $ 0.009 3 m/s. Assume the velocity distribution in the gap is linear.
N.s/m2 at 66 %C. Make use of these data to determine the constants
D and B which appear in Andrade’s equation (Eq. 1.11). What
would be the viscosity at 27 %C? Bearing Lubricant
■ Figure P1.75
34 Chapter 1 ■ Introduction
and the stationary base. Determine the frictional torque on the shaft
when it rotates at 5000 rpm.
U
u y α 5000 rpm
y
u = __ y2
__ 2 – __2
U h h
h 0.5 cm
■ Figure P1.76
The coordinate y is measured normal to the surface and u is the ■ Figure P1.80
velocity parallel to the surface. (a) Assume the velocity distribu-
tion is of the form 1.81 The viscosity of liquids can be measured through the use of a
rotating cylinder viscometer of the type illustrated in Fig. P1.81. In
u ! C1y $ C2 y3 this device the outer cylinder is fixed and the inner cylinder is rotated
with an angular velocity, v. The torque t required to develop ! is
measured and the viscosity is calculated from these two measure-
and use a standard curve-fitting technique to determine the con- ments. (a) Develop an equation relating m, v, t, /, Ro, and Ri. Neglect
stants C1 and C2. (b) Make use of the results of part 1a2 to deter- end effects and assume the velocity distribution in the gap is linear.
mine the magnitude of the shearing stress at the wall 1y ! 02 and (b) The following torque-angular velocity data were obtained with a
at y ! 0.05 ft. rotating cylinder viscometer of the type discussed in part (a).
1.78 A new computer drive is proposed to have a disc, as
shown in Fig. P1.78. The disc is to rotate at 10,000 rpm, and the Torque 1N.m2 17.8 35.3 53.6 71.5 87.9 106.5
reader head is to be positioned 0.012 mm above the surface of the
disc. Estimate the shearing force on the reader head as a result of Angular 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0
the air between the disc and the head. velocity 1rad"s2
For this viscometer Ro ! 6.35 cm, Ri ! 6.22 cm, and / ! 12.7 cm.
Make use of these data and a standard curve-fitting program to de-
termine the viscosity of the liquid contained in the viscometer.
Stationary reader head
5 mm dia. Fixed
outer
10,000 rpm
cylinder
0.012 mm Liquid !
ω
50 mm
Rotating disc Ri
Ro
Rotating
inner "
cylinder
■ Figure P1.78
Problems 35
viscometer. The value of K is usually determined by using a cali- 1.88 A rigid-walled cubical container is completely filled with wa-
bration liquid (a liquid of known viscosity). ter at 4 !C and sealed. The water is then heated to 38 !C. Deter-
(a) Some data for a particular Stormer viscometer, obtained using mine the pressure that develops in the container when the water
glycerin at 20 !C as a calibration liquid, are given below. Plot val- reaches this higher temperature. Assume that the volume of the
ues of the weight as ordinates and values of the angular velocity as container remains constant and the value of the bulk modulus of
abscissae. Draw the best curve through the plotted points and de- the water remains constant and equal to 2.1 GPa.
termine K for the viscometer.
1.89 In a test to determine the bulk modulus of a liquid it was
!(kg) 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.7 1 found that as the absolute pressure was changed from 103 to
21 MPa the volume decreased from 167.8 to 166.13 cm3. Deter-
v (rev/s) 0.53 1.59 2.79 3.83 5.49 mine the bulk modulus for this liquid.
1.90 Estimate the increase in pressure (in kPa) required to
(b) A liquid of unknown viscosity is placed in the same viscometer
decrease a unit volume of mercury by 0.1%.
used in part (a), and the data given below are obtained. Determine
the viscosity of this liquid. 1.91 A 1 m3 volume of water is contained in a rigid con-
tainer. Estimate the change in the volume of the water when a pis-
!(kg) 0.02 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 ton applies a pressure of 35 MPa.
v (rev/s) 0.72 1.89 3.73 5.44 7.42 1.92 Determine the speed of sound at 20 °C in (a) air, (b) helium,
and (c) natural gas (methane). Express your answer in m/s.
1.93 Calculate the speed of sound in m/s for (a) gasoline, (b) mer-
cury, and (c) seawater.
ω
1.94 Air is enclosed by a rigid cylinder containing a piston.
A pressure gage attached to the cylinder indicates an initial read-
! Weight Rotating ing of 172 kPa. Determine the reading on the gage when the pis-
inner
Fixed outer ton has compressed the air to one-third its original volume.
cylinder
cylinder
Liquid Assume the compression process to be isothermal and the local
atmospheric pressure to be 101.3 kPa.
1.95 Repeat Problem 1.94 if the compression process takes place
■ Figure P1.82 without friction and without heat transfer (isentropic process).
1.96 Carbon dioxide at 30 °C and 300 kPa absolute pres-
1.83 A 30 cm diameter circular plate is placed over a fixed sure expands isothermally to an absolute pressure of 165 kPa.
bottom plate with a 0.25 cm gap between the two plates filled with Determine the final density of the gas.
glycerin as shown in Fig. P1.83. Determine the torque required to
rotate the circular plate slowly at 2 rpm. Assume that the velocity 1.97 Oxygen at 30 !C and 300 kPa absolute pressure expands
distribution in the gap is linear and that the shear stress on the edge isothermally to an absolute pressure of 120 kPa. Determine the
of the rotating plate is negligible. final density of the gas.
Rotating plate 1.98 Natural gas at 21 °C and standard atmospheric
Torque pressure of 101.3 kPa (abs) is compressed isentropically to a new
absolute pressure of 483 kPa. Determine the final density and
0.25 cm gap
temperature of the gas.
1.99 Compare the isentropic bulk modulus of air at 101 kPa 1abs2
with that of water at the same pressure.
■ Figure P1.83
*1.100 Develop a computer program for calculating the final gage
pressure of gas when the initial gage pressure, initial and final vol-
†1.84 Vehicle shock absorbers damp out oscillations caused by umes, atmospheric pressure, and the type of process 1isothermal or
road roughness. Describe how a temperature change may affect the isentropic2 are specified. Check your program against the results
operation of a shock absorber. obtained for Problem 1.94.
1.85 Some measurements on a blood sample at 37 °C indi- 1.101 Often the assumption is made that the flow of a certain fluid
cate a shearing stress of 0.52 N #m2 for a corresponding rate of shear- can be considered as incompressible flow if the density of the fluid
ing strain of 200 s"1. Determine the apparent viscosity of the blood changes by less than 2%. If air is flowing through a tube such that
and compare it with the viscosity of water at the same temperature. the air pressure at one section is 62 kPa and at a downstream sec-
tion it is 59 kPa at the same temperature, do you think that this
Section 1.7 Compressibility of Fluids flow could be considered an incompressible flow? Support your
answer with the necessary calculations. Assume standard atmos-
1.86 Obtain a photograph/image of a situation in which the com- pheric pressure.
pressibility of a fluid is important. Print this photo and write a brief
paragraph that describes the situation involved. 1.102 An important dimensionless parameter concerned
with very high-speed flow is the Mach number, defined as V/c,
1.87 A sound wave is observed to travel through a liquid where V is the speed of the object such as an airplane or projec-
with a speed of 1500 m/s. The specific gravity of the liquid is 1.5. tile, and c is the speed of sound in the fluid surrounding the ob-
Determine the bulk modulus for this fluid. ject. For a projectile traveling at 1290 km/h through air at 10 !C
c01Introduction.qxd 11/21/12 12:15 PM Page 36
36 Chapter 1 ■ Introduction
and standard atmospheric pressure, what is the value of the Mach 1.116 Estimate the excess pressure inside a raindrop having a di-
number? ameter of 3 mm.
1.103 Jet airliners typically fly at altitudes between approximately 1.117 What is the difference between the pressure inside a soap
0 to 12200 m. Make use of the data in Appendix C to show on a bubble and atmospheric pressure for a 7.5 cm diameter bubble?
graph how the speed of sound varies over this range. Assume the surface tension of the soap film to be 70% of that of
water at 21 !C.
1.104 (See Fluids in the News article titled “This water
jet is a blast,” Section 1.7.1.) By what percent is the volume of 1.118 As shown in Video V1.9, surface tension forces
water decreased if its pressure is increased to an equivalent to can be strong enough to allow a double-edge steel razor blade to
304 MPa? “float” on water, but a single-edge blade will sink. Assume that the
surface tension forces act at an angle ! relative to the water sur-
face as shown in Fig. P1.118. (a) The mass of the double-edge
Section 1.8 Vapor Pressure blade is 0.64 " 10 #3 kg, and the total length of its sides is 206 mm.
1.105 During a mountain climbing trip it is observed that Determine the value of ! required to maintain equilibrium between
the water used to cook a meal boils at 90 °C rather than the stan- the blade weight and the resultant surface tension force.
dard 100 °C at sea level. At what altitude are the climbers prepar- (b) The mass of the single-edge blade is 2.61 " 10 #3 kg, and the
ing their meal? (See Tables B.2 and C.2 for data needed to solve total length of its sides is 154 mm. Explain why this blade sinks.
this problem.) Support your answer with the necessary calculations.
1.106 When a fluid flows through a sharp bend, low pres-
sures may develop in localized regions of the bend. Estimate the Surface tension
minimum absolute pressure 1in kPa2 that can develop without caus- force
ing cavitation if the fluid is water at 70 °C.
Blade θ
1.107 A partially filled closed tank contains ethyl alcohol at
20 !C. If the air above the alcohol is evacuated, what is the mini-
mum absolute pressure that develops in the evacuated space? ■ Figure P1.118
1.108 Estimate the minimum absolute pressure 1in pascals2
that can be developed at the inlet of a pump to avoid cavitation if 1.119 To measure the water depth in a large open tank with opaque
the fluid is carbon tetrachloride at 20 °C. walls, an open vertical glass tube is attached to the side of the tank.
1.109 When water at 70 °C flows through a converging The height of the water column in the tube is then used as a mea-
section of pipe, the pressure decreases in the direction of flow. sure of the depth of water in the tank. (a) For a true water depth
Estimate the minimum absolute pressure that can develop without in the tank of 1 m, make use of Eq. 1.21 (with u ! 0°) to deter-
causing cavitation. Express your answer in SI units. mine the percent error due to capillarity as the diameter of the glass
tube is changed. Assume a water temperature of 27 !C. Show your
1.110 At what atmospheric pressure will water boil at 35 °C? results on a graph of percent error versus tube diameter, D, in the
Express your answer in SI units. range 0.25 cm 6 D 6 2.5 cm. (b) If you want the error to be less
than 1%, what is the smallest tube diameter allowed?
Section 1.9 Surface Tension 1.120 GO Under the right conditions, it is possible, due
to surface tension, to have metal objects float on water. (See
1.111 Obtain a photograph/image of a situation in which the sur- Video V1.9.) Consider placing a short length of a small diame-
face tension of a fluid is important. Print this photo and write a ter steel (g $ 77 kN/m3) rod on a surface of water. What is the
brief paragraph that describes the situation involved. maximum diameter that the rod can have before it will sink? As-
1.112 When a 2 mm diameter tube is inserted into a liquid sume that the surface tension forces act vertically upward. Note:
in an open tank, the liquid is observed to rise 10 mm above the A standard paper clip has a diameter of 0.09 cm. Partially un-
free surface of the liquid (see Video V1.10). The contact angle be- fold a paper clip and see if you can get it to float on water. Do
tween the liquid and the tube is zero, and the specific weight of the results of this experiment support your analysis?
the liquid is 1.2 " 104 N/m3. Determine the value of the surface 1.121 An open, clean glass tube, having a diameter of
tension for this liquid. 3 mm, is inserted vertically into a dish of mercury at 20 °C (see
Video V1.10). How far will the column of mercury in the tube be
1.113 An open 2 mm diameter tube is inserted into a pan of ethyl
depressed?
alcohol, and a similar 4 mm diameter tube is inserted into a pan
of water. In which tube will the height of the rise of the fluid col- 1.122 An open, clean glass tube 1u $ 0°2 is inserted
umn due to capillary action be the greatest? Assume the angle of vertically into a pan of water (see Video V1.10). What tube
contact is the same for both tubes. diameter is needed if the water level in the tube is to rise one tube
diameter (due to surface tension)?
1.114 Small droplets of carbon tetrachloride at 20 °C are
formed with a spray nozzle. If the average diameter of the droplets 1.123 Determine the height that water at 15 °C will
is 200 mm, what is the difference in pressure between the inside rise due to capillary action in a clean, 0.6 cm diameter tube (see
and outside of the droplets? Video V1.10). What will be the height if the diameter is reduced
to 0.03 cm?
1.115 A 12 mm diameter jet of water discharges vertically into
the atmosphere. Due to surface tension the pressure inside the jet 1.124 Two vertical, parallel, clean glass plates are spaced a dis-
will be slightly higher than the surrounding atmospheric pressure. tance of 2 mm apart. If the plates are placed in water, how high
Determine this difference in pressure. will the water rise between the plates due to capillary action?
c01Introduction.qxd 11/21/12 12:15 PM Page 37
Problems 37
1.125 (See Fluids in the News article titled “Walking on which is located in WileyPLUS or on the book’s website, www.
water,” Section 1.9.) (a) The water strider bug shown in Fig. wiley.com/college/munson.
P1.125 is supported on the surface of a pond by surface tension
acting along the interface between the water and the bug’s legs. ■ Lifelong Learning Problems
Determine the minimum length of this interface needed to support 1.1 LL Although there are numerous non-Newtonian fluids that
the bug. Assume the bug weighs 10!4 N and the surface tension occur naturally (quicksand and blood among them), with the ad-
force acts vertically upwards. (b) Repeat part (a) if surface tension vent of modern chemistry and chemical processing, many new
were to support a person weighing 750 N. manufactured non-Newtonian fluids are now available for a vari-
ety of novel applications. Obtain information about the discovery
and use of newly developed non-Newtonian fluids. Summarize
your findings in a brief report.
1.2 LL For years, lubricating oils and greases obtained by refin-
ing crude oil have been used to lubricate moving parts in a wide
variety of machines, motors, and engines. With the increasing cost
of crude oil and the potential for the reduced availability of it, the
need for non-petroleum-based lubricants has increased consider-
ably. Obtain information about non-petroleum-based lubricants.
Summarize your findings in a brief report.
■ Figure P1.125 1.3 LL It is predicted that nanotechnology and the use of nano
sized objects will allow many processes, procedures, and products
that, as of now, are difficult for us to comprehend. Among new
■ Lab Problems nanotechnology areas is that of nano scale fluid mechanics. Fluid
behavior at the nano scale can be entirely different than that for
1.1LP This problem involves the use of a Stormer viscometer to the usual everyday flows with which we are familiar. Obtain in-
determine whether a fluid is a Newtonian or a non-Newtonian fluid. formation about various aspects of nano fluid mechanics. Sum-
To proceed with this problem, go to Appendix H, which is located marize your findings in a brief report.
in WileyPLUS or on the book’s website, www.wiley.com/col-
lege/munson. ■ FE Exam Problems
1.2LP This problem involves the use of a capillary tube vis- Sample FE (Fundamentals of Engineering) exam question for fluid
cometer to determine the kinematic viscosity of water as a function mechanics are provided in WileyPLUS or on the book’s website,
of temperature. To proceed with this problem, go to Appendix H, www.wiley.com/college/munson.