Table of Contents

03 Pilot
Qualifications 05 Airworthiness
Requirements

03 Requirements 05 Equipment Required

04 Medical Certificates 05 Inspections and
Documents

06 Weather
Information 13 Cross-Country
Flight Planning

06 Weather Products 13 Regulations

11 The Atmosphere 14 Navigation
12 Weather Hazards 15 Communication
16 Airport Operations

19 24
National
Performance
Airspace
and Limitations
System

19 Regulations
20 Airspace Classes
21 Special Use Airspace
22 Other Airspace Areas
23 Sectional Chart

26 Operation
of Systems 28 Human
Factors

26 Flight Controls 28 Aeronautical Decision-

Making (ADM)
26 Engine
28 Aeromedical Factors
27 Instruments
and Equipment 31 Illusions
 Pilot Qualifications

Requirements
FAR 61.103 Special Endorsement Required
• Minimum Age- 17 years old. FAR 61.31
• Read, speak, write, and understand
English.
• Receive flight training and logbook • Tailwheel.
endorsement from authorized • Complex: Has flaps, retractable gear, and variable pitch
instructor. propeller.
• Pass Private Pilot Knowledge Test. • High performance: One engine has more than 200 horsepower.
• Meet aeronautical experience. • High altitude: Service ceiling above 25,000’.
requirements (FAR 61.109).
• Hold U.S. student, sport, or
recreational pilot certificate.
Responsibilities of PIC
• Hold at least a third-class
medical certificate or comply • Carry pilot’s license, government-issued photo ID, and medical certificate
with BasicMed requirements (FAR (FAR 61.3).
61.23). • Responsible for and the final authority over the operation of the aircraft
(FAR 91.3(a)).
Privileges • Ensure the aircraft is airworthy before flight (FAR 91.7).
FAR 61.113 • In an in-flight emergency, the PIC may deviate from any FAR as necessary
• Act as PIC of an aircraft. to meet the emergency (FAR 91.3(b)).
• Act as PIC of an aircraft for
compensation or hire in connection
with business if the flight is incidental Currency
to the business and doesn’t carry Definition: Minimum legal requirements to act as PIC under
passengers or cargo for hire. specified conditions. Must be completed in the same category, class,
• Reimbursed for search and location and type (if type rating is required) of aircraft.
operating expenses.
• PIC for charity. To act To carry
• Demonstrate aircraft to potential as PIC passengers
buyer (with at least 200 hours flight FAR 61.56 FAR 61.57
time).
• Test fly aircraft after major alteration.
Every 24 calendar months: • Day: 3 takeoffs and landings
Limitations • Flight Review, OR within the preceding 90 days.
FAR 61.113
• Obtain another certificate or • Night (or tailwheel): 3 takeoffs
• Cannot act as PIC or SIC for an rating, OR and landings to a full stop
aircraft that carries passengers or • Complete at least one FAA within the preceding 90 days.
cargo for hire. WINGS phase.
• Cannot pay less than the pro-rata
share.

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 BACK TO CONTENTS PILOT QUALIFICATIONS

MEDICAL CERTIFICATES
FAR 61.23

Expiration Under 40 Years Old Over 40 Years Old

1ST CLASS
Airline Transport
Pilot Privileges

2ND CLASS
Commercial Pilot
Privileges

3D CLASS
Private Pilot.
Privileges

BASIC MED
Limited Private
Pilot Privileges

6 12 24 48 60

For operations requiring Types of medical How long your medical certificate is valid for
the following classes of certificate that can be
medical (Privileges) used Under 40 years old 40 years old and over

1st Class (ATP) 1st class only 12 calendar months 6 calendar months

2nd Class (Commercial) 1st or 2nd class 12 calendar months 12 calendar months

3rd Class (Private or CFI) 1st, 2nd or 3rd classes 60 calendar months 24 calendar months

BasicMed
FAR Part 68
If unable to obtain a medical
• Available to pilots who held a valid
medical certificate after July 14,
2006. • Special Issuance (FAR 67.401): A limited medical certificate
• Requires a physical exam every 48 issued for pilots with disqualifying conditions such as mental,
months and an online course every neurological, or cardiovascular disorders. Requires case-by-case
24 months. evaluation.
• Not valid for operations requiring • SODA (Statement of Demonstrated Ability): Allows a pilot with
compensation or hire. non-progressive medical conditions (e.g.,color vision deficiency,
missing limb) to obtain a medical certificate after demonstrating
the ability to safely operate an aircraft.

4
 Airworthiness Requirements

Equipment Required Flying With Inoperative Instruments And Equipment

FAR 91.205 FAR 91.213

VFR day (ATOMATOFLAMES)

Without MEL
A Airspeed indicator. With MEL
T Tachometer. Things to check Things to do

O Oil pressure gauge. Minimum • VFR-day type certification • Deactivate/ remove.

M Magnetic compass. Equipment (Part 23).
• Placard inop in
A Altimeter. List: What
• KOEL (Kinds of Operations accordance with
can be
T Temp gauge (for each liquid- Equipment List). 91.213.
inoperative
cooled engine).
and still legal • 14 CFR Part 91.205. • Log maintenance
O Oil temp gauge (for each air-
to fly. in accordance with
cooled engine). • ADs (Airworthiness
91.213.
Directives).
F Fuel quantity gauge.
L Landing gear position indicator-
if landing gear can retract.
A Anti-collision lights. INSPECTIONS AND DOCUMENTS
M Manifold pressure gauge- only
if aircraft has turbocharger or a Inspections (AAV1ATE)
variable pitch prop. Annual Inspection (FAR 91.409). Altimeter (FAR 91.411). Every 24
E ELT. • Every 12 calendar months. calendar months; IFR-only.
S Seat belts. • Can count for 100-hour.
Transponder (FAR 91.413). Every
Airworthiness Directives (FAR 24 calendar months.
VFR night (FLAPS) 91.403).
ELT (FAR 91.207).
F Fuses (spare set or 3 of each) if VOR Equipment Check (FAR • Every 12 calendar months.
accessible during flight. 91.171). Every 30 days; IFR-only. • Battery replaced/recharged
L Landing light (if operating for after 1 hour cumulative use or
100-hour Inspection (FAR 91.409).
hire). ½ useful life.
• If flying for hire or instruction.
A Anti-collision light system. • Cannot count for annual.
P Position (navigation) lights.
S Source of electricity. Preventive Maintenance Documents (ARROW)
Appendix A part 43. FAR 91.203, 91.9, 23.2620.

Must be performed by owner • Airworthiness Certificate.

Unairworthy and Still of the aircraft who holds a • Registration.
Needs to Fly? certificate of competency (e.g., • Radio Operators License (if
FAR 21.197 private pilot certificate) for that international).
aircraft. • Operating Limitations (AFM/
Get a special Flight Permit: POH, supplements, placards,
For when aircraft is NOT markings).
airworthy but safe for flight. • Weight and Balance.

5
 Weather Information

WEATHER PRODUCTS
METAR
CODE MEANING
Aviation routine weather report;
issued hourly. KJFK Airport code

Date/Time Issued: 12th day of the month at 1651

METAR KJFK 121651Z 121651Z
Zulu
22015G25KT -RA 10SM FEW020
OVC050 25/17 A2985 RMK AO2
22015G25KT Wind from 220° at 15 knots, gusting to 25 knots

10SM Visibility: 10 statute miles

-RA Wx: Light rain

FEW020
Sky: Few clouds at 2,000’; overcast at 5,000’ (AGL)
OVC050

25/17 Temp 25°C, Dew point 17°C

A2985 Altimeter setting 29.85 inHg

RMK AO2 Remarks: Automated station with precip sensor

TAF
CODE MEANING
Terminal Aerodrome Forecast; valid for 24
or 30 hours; issued 4 times daily. KJFK Airport code

TAF KJFK 121720Z 1218/1324 Date/Time Issued: 12th day of the month at 1720
22015G25KT P6SM FEW020
121720Z
Zulu
FM122200 22012KT P6SM
SCT050
1218/1324 Valid from 12th at 1800Z to 13th at 2400Z
TEMPO 1300/1304 5SM SHRA

22015G25KT
P6SM Initial forecast (P6SM: Visibility > 6 SM)
FEW020
Common TAF Codes

FM122200 From 12th at 2200Z

FM From a specific time
[DDHHmm] (rapid change). 22012KT
FM forecast
BECMG Becoming (gradual change). P6SM SCT050

TEMPO Temporary conditions TEMPO

Temporary, from 13th 0000Z to 0400Z
[DDHH/DDHH]. 1300/1304
PROB30 30% probability.
5SM SHRA TEMPO forecast

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 BACK TO CONTENTS WEATHER INFORMATION

PIREP
Pilot weather report; provides actual inflight conditions. Either Routine (UA) or Urgent (UUA).

UA /OV KXYZ 090025 /TM 1520 /FL060 /TP C172 /SK BKN050-TOP070 /WX RA /TA 05
/WV 280030 /TB LGT /IC NEG /RM LLWS ±10KT SFC-030

Notes
UA or UUA /OV /TM /FL /TP /SK
Altitudes: Reported in hundreds of
Time Aircraft Sky feet MSL.
Type Location* Altitude
(Z) Type Condition Wind Direction: In degrees true.
Temperature: Celsius. Prefix M for
/WX /TA /WV /TB /IC /RM negative temps.
Visibility: Statute miles (SM).
Weather Temp Wind Turbulence Icing Remarks
Wind Speed: Knots.
* Radial/Distance

Winds and Temperatures Aloft Forecast (FB)

Winds not forecasted within 1,500 ft of station elevation.
Temps not forecasted for 3,000’ level or within 2,500’ of station elevation.
Temps above 24,000 ft are always negative (no minus sign).

FD1US1
DATA BASED ON 071200Z
VALID 071800Z FOR USE 1400-2100Z. TEMPS NEG ABV 24000

FT 3000 6000 24000 39000

...
KJFK 6000 2512+02 2945-45 771152

Fb Encoding Format Decoded Examples

DD Wind direction (10s of degrees, true) Code Meaning

SS Wind speed (knots) 9900 Light and variable winds (<5 knots).

TT Temperature (°C) Wind from 250° at 12 knots. Temp plus

2512+02
2°C.

Winds < 5 kts: 9900±TT. Wind from 290° at 45 knots. Temp minus
2945-45
Winds < 100 kts (but > 5 kts): DDSS±TT. 45°C.
Winds > 100 kts (but < 200 kts): [DD+50][SS-100]±TT
Wind from 270° (77-50) at 111 knots
771152
(11+100). Temp minus 52°C.

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 BACK TO CONTENTS WEATHER INFORMATION

Essential Weather Abbreviations

Weather Phenomena Sky Condition

Code Meaning Code Meaning Code Meaning

RA Rain SKC/ Broken Clouds (5/8

Sky Clear BKN
CLR to 7/8 coverage)

SN Snow
Few Clouds (1/8 to Overcast (8/8
FEW OVC
FG Fog 2/8 coverage) coverage)

Scattered Clouds
BR Mist
SCT (3/8 to 4/8 VV Vertical Visibility**
coverage)

HZ Haze
Intensity or Proximity

TS Thunderstorm Code Meaning Code Meaning

SH Showers - Light intensity + Heavy intensity

DZ Drizzle (No sign) Moderate intensity VC

In the vicinity
(5-10 SM)

FZ Freezing
Other Abbreviations

GR Hail Code Meaning Code Meaning

Runway Visual
UP
Unknown
Precipitation*
RVR Range CIG Ceiling

DU Dust WS Wind Shear VIS Visibility

Low-Level Wind
SA Sand LLWS Shear WX Weather

FU Smoke
VRB
Variable wind
direction SLP Sea Level Pressure

* Automated stations.
** Indefinite ceiling.

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 BACK TO CONTENTS WEATHER INFORMATION

Standard Brief Elements

Adverse Conditions: Significant weather that may En Route Forecast: Expected weather along route.
affect flight. Destination Forecast: TAF for arrival area.
VFR Flight Not Recommended: When conditions Winds Aloft: Forecast winds at various altitudes.
are below VFR minimums. NOTAMs: Notices to Airmen about changes or
Synopsis: Big-picture weather patterns. hazards.
Current Conditions: METARs along route.

Low-Level Significant Weather Prognostic (SIGWX)

Significant weather forecast at the surface and low altitudes (up to 24,000 feet MSL).
Shows areas of VFR, MVFR, and IFR conditions, as well as turbulence, icing, and freezing levels.

Flight planning only. See TAFs

for specific terminal forecast:

Ceiling less than 1000ft and/or

visibility less than 3 miles

Ceiling 1000-3000ft inclusive and/

or visibility 3-5 miles inclusive

Moderate or greater turbulence

Freezing level above mean

sea level

Freezing level at surface

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Surface Prognostic
Depicts forecasted weather
patterns at the surface for a
specified future time period.
Includes information on pressure
systems, fronts, precipitation, and
general weather conditions.
Closely spaced isobars indicate a
steeper pressure gradient (more
wind).

Weather Briefing Types

Standard: Complete weather picture.
Abbreviated: Update or supplement.
Outlook: For departures ≥6 hours
away.

AIRMET SIGMET Convective SIGMET

Issued for moderate weather that Advises of severe weather Issued for convective weather
may affect small aircraft. conditions (not associated with hazards like thunderstorms.
thunderstorms) hazardous to all
aircraft.

Types: Conditions: Conditions:

• AIRMET Sierra: IFR conditions • Severe icing. • Embedded thunderstorms.
and mountain obscuration. • Severe or extreme turbulence. • A line of thunderstorms.
• AIRMET Tango: Moderate • Dust storms, sandstorms, • Thunderstorms with heavy
turbulence, sustained surface volcanic ash reducing visibility precipitation affecting 40%+ of
winds ≥30 knots, low-level wind to < 3 miles. an area at least 3,000 square
shear. miles.
• AIRMET Zulu: Moderate icing • Surface winds ≥ 50 knots due to
and provides freezing level severe thunderstorms.
information. • Hail ≥ ¾ inch in diameter.
• Tornadoes.

Issued: Every 6 hours (or as Duration: Valid for up to 4 hours. Issued: Hourly, valid for up to 2
needed). hours.

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 BACK TO CONTENTS WEATHER INFORMATION

THE ATMOSPHERE
Pressure Systems Stability
High Pressure: Clockwise rotation, sinking air. Typically Cool, dry air resists vertical movement (stable).
brings clear skies and stable conditions. Warm, moist air is unstable and can form thunderstorms.
Low Pressure: Counterclockwise rotation, rising air.
Associated with clouds, precipitation, and unstable
Temperature Inversion
weather. Temperature increases with altitude (opposite of normal
lapse rate).
Dew Point Stable air, poor visibility, risk of wind shear at inversion
The temperature at which air must be cooled to become layer.
saturated and form clouds. A small temperature/dew
point spread increases the likelihood of fog, low clouds,
Standard Lapse Rate
or carburetor icing. Temperature decreases 2°C per 1,000’.
Pressure decreases 1” Hg per 1,000’.
Fronts

Warm Cold Stationary Occluded

Stratiform clouds, Towering cumulus, Hardly moves, a combination of Severe weather

poor visibility thunderstorms, good visibility cold and warm front weather

Clouds
Cloud names combine a height prefix (like
cirro- or alto-) with a form type (like cumulus
or stratus).

Cloud Base Height Ranges:

Low: Bases below 6,500’ AGL (no prefix).
Middle: Bases 6500-20,000’ AGL (prefix “alto-”).
High: Bases above 20,000’ AGL (prefix “cirro-”).

Extensive Vertical Development: Towering

clouds indicate instability.

Form Classification
Cumulus: Heaped or piled (puffy).
Stratus: Layered.
Cirrus: Wispy, thin, high.
Nimbus: Rain-bearing.
Lenticular: Lens-shaped, forms over mountains.

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 BACK TO CONTENTS WEATHER INFORMATION

WEATHER HAZARDS
Icing
Dangers Intensity Types
Increased weight: More lift is needed Trace: Perceptible, not hazardous. Clear Icing: Smooth, transparent ice
to maintain altitude. Light: Occasional use of deicing/anti- from large droplets, spreading over
Reduced lift: Disrupted airflow icing systems needed. surfaces. Forms between 0°C and
decreases wing efficiency. Moderate: Hazardous accumulation; -10°C.
Increased drag: More resistance frequent deicing required. Mixed Icing: A blend of rime and
slows the aircraft. clear, creating uneven, rough buildup.
Severe: Rapid buildup overwhelms
Decreased thrust: Ice on the Forms between -10°C and -15°C.
deicing systems; immediate diversion
propeller reduces engine efficiency. Rime Icing: Opaque, rough ice from
required.
small droplets, usually on leading
edges. Forms between -15°C and
Thunderstorms -20°C.
Frost: Thin ice layer forming when a
Requirements to form: sufficient moisture, an unstable lapse rate,
surface is below freezing and dew
and a lifting action.
condenses.

Cumulus Stage
(3-5 mile height)
Mature Stage
(5-10 mile height)
Dissipating Stage
(5-7 mile height) Fog
Radiation (Ground Fog): Ground
cools rapidly, air reaches dew
point. Risk of ice fog in very cold
temperatures.
Advection Fog: Warm, moist air
moves over cold surface (e.g., coastal
fog like in San Francisco).
Steam Fog: Cold, dry air moves
over warm water. Associated with
turbulence and icing.
Stages Hazards
Upslope Fog: Moist air mass forced
Cumulus: Warm, moist Turbulence: Severe, especially in the up sloping land, like mountains.
air rises, forming strong mature stage.
updrafts and vertical cloud Microbursts: Powerful downdrafts Wind Shear
growth (instability). causing dangerous wind shear. Sudden change in wind speed and/
Hail: Can cause structural damage or direction over a short distance.
Mature: The most intense
to the aircraft. Low-level: Near frontal boundaries,
stage, with strong updrafts
Lightning: A strike can affect thunderstorms, temperature
and downdrafts, heavy rain,
instruments or cause structural damage. inversions.
turbulence, and lightning.
Icing: Can form within clouds and High-level: Associated with jet
Dissipating: Downdrafts severely impact performance. streams, clear air turbulence.
dominate, rain weakens, Wind Shear: Rapid wind shifts that can
but microburst potential cause sudden airspeed and altitude
remains. changes.

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 Cross-Country Flight Planning

REGULATIONS
NTSB Accident/Incident Reporting
Preflight Action NTSB 830
FAR 91.103 Accident: Death, serious injury, or substantial aircraft
damage.
Items to become familiar with before flight: Serious Injury: Hospital >48 hrs within 7 days; bone
fractures (except fingers, toes, nose); severe bleeding;
N NOTAMs. nerve/muscle/tendon damage; internal organ injury;
W Weather conditions. burns over 5% body.
Substantial Damage: Affects structural strength,
K Known traffic delays.
performance, flight characteristics; excludes minor
R Runway lengths of intended landing. damage (e.g., engine failure, bent fairings, small dents).
A Alternates in case of diversion. Immediate Notification Required for:
F Fuel requirements (FAR 91.151). • Accident.
• Day: Fly to the first point of intended • Serious Incident: Flight control malfunction; crew
landing, then cruise 30 minutes. incapacitation; in-flight fire; collision in flight; property
• Night: Fly to the first point of intended damage >$25,000; overdue aircraft believed in accident.
landing, then cruise 45 minutes. Reporting: Operator to submit written report within 10 days
for accidents, 7 days for overdue aircraft.
T Takeoff and landing distances.
Preserve Wreckage: Don't move wreckage unless
necessary to protect from further damage, rescue persons,
Right-of-Way Rules or protect the public.
FAR 91.113

Aircraft in Distress: Has right-of-way over all other aircraft. Seatbelt Regulations
Converging (Same Category): Aircraft on the right has FAR 91.105 & 91.107
ROW.
Different Categories (Priority Order): Pilot: Seatbelt worn when at station; harness during
takeoff & landing (unless not equipped or duties
Balloon > Glider > Airship > Airplane/Rotorcraft
prevent).
Approaching Head-On: Both aircraft alter course to the Passengers: Seatbelts & harness worn during surface
right. movement, takeoff, landing.
Overtaking: Aircraft being overtaken has ROW; overtaking PIC Duties: Before takeoff, brief passengers on belts/
aircraft passes on the right. harnesses; notify them to fasten before movement.
Landing: Aircraft on final or landing has ROW; lower
aircraft has ROW.
Minimum Safe Altitudes
Night Definitions FAR 91.119

Logging Night Time (FAR 1.1): Between the end of Anywhere: Altitude allowing emergency landing without
evening civil twilight and the beginning of morning civil undue hazard if power fails.
twilight. Congested Areas: 1,000’ above the highest obstacle
Night Pax Currency (FAR 61.57): Period beginning 1 hour within 2,000’ radius.
after sunset and ending 1 hour before sunrise. Other Than Congested Areas: 500’ above the surface.
Aircraft Lights (FAR 91.209): From sunset to sunrise, nav Sparsely Populated Areas: 500' away from any person,
and anticollision lights on. vessel, vehicle, structure.

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 BACK TO CONTENTS CROSS-COUNTRY FLIGHT PLANNING

NAVIGATION
Elements of a VFR Flight Plan
Navigation Techniques
Pilotage: Navigation using visual landmarks (map + eyes).
Dead Reckoning: Navigation by calculating heading, time, 1. Aircraft Information: Aircraft type, registration
speed, wind, and distance. number, and equipment codes.

Navigation Definitions 2. Pilot Information: Pilot’s name and contact

details.
True Course (TC): Ground track relative to true north.
3. Departure and Destination: Airport identifiers
Magnetic Course (MC): TC corrected for variation. East is
and estimated departure time.
Least (Subtract). West is Best (Add).
4. Route of Flight: Planned route, including
Wind Correction Angle (WCA): The angle added/
waypoints, headings, and altitudes.
subtracted to account for wind drift.
5. Estimated Time En Route (ETE): Expected flight
Magnetic Heading (MH): MC corrected for wind.
duration.
Compass Heading (CH): MH adjusted for compass
6. Fuel on Board: Amount of fuel in hours and
deviation.
minutes.
7. Alternate Airports: Optional; other airports
TC ± Var. = MC ± WCA = MH ± Dev. = CH nearby in case of diversion.
8. Number of Souls on Board: Total people
onboard for emergency purposes.
Magnetic Compass Errors 9. Remarks: Any additional relevant details, such
Deviation: Magnetic interference from aircraft (use as equipment issues or special requests.
compass correction card).
Magnetic Dip: Compass tilts toward magnetic poles;
stronger near poles.
Acceleration Error (ANDS): Accelerate North, Decelerate Lost Procedures (5 C's)
South (E/W headings). Confess: Admit you’re lost; no shame in safety.
Turning Error (UNOS): Undershoot North, Overshoot Climb: Increase altitude for better communication and
South. visibility.
Oscillation Error: Erratic readings due to turbulence. Conserve: Throttle back and circle to save fuel.
Variation: Diffverence between true and magnetic north; Communicate: Call ATC or FSS for assistance.
found using isogonic lines on charts. Comply: Follow instructions from ATC.

GPS
GPS: 24 satellites orbiting Earth; need signals from 4+
satellites for 3D fix.
RAIM: Receiver monitors GPS signal integrity; alerts pilot
to errors.
WAAS: Enhances GPS accuracy using ground stations;
provides correction data.

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NOTAMs (Notices to Airmen) COMMUNICATION

Time-critical information not found on charts that may
affect your flight. Radio Communications
Where to Find: FAA NOTAM system, flight service ATIS: Weather/airport info.
briefings, or online weather services. AWOS / ASOS: Automated weather info.
Types Ground: Controls movement areas (taxiways).
NOTAM (D): (Distant) Info on airports, runways, taxiways, Tower: Controls takeoff/landing on runways.
lighting, and other facilities. Center: Radar coverage and traffic advisories for IFR and
FDC NOTAM: (Flight Data Center) Regulatory info like VFR.
TFRs, changes to instrument procedures, or airspace. FSS: Flight Service Station for opening/closing flight
SAA NOTAM: Alerts when special activity airspace (like plans and enroute weather.
restricted areas) is active outside normal hours. Unicom: Airport services and general info (not always
Pointer NOTAM: Highlights another NOTAM to make sure attended).
it’s not missed. CTAF: Common traffic frequency for non-towered airports
Military NOTAM: Relates to military airports, airspace, or or when tower is closed.
operations.
Lost Comms (Radio Failure)
1. Aviate, navigate, communicate: Fly the airplane first.

VFR Cruising Altitudes 2. Stay clear of towered airspace unless required to enter

Above 3,000’ AGL. (e.g., emergencies).

FAR 91.159 3. Troubleshoot and try to fix the failure.

4. Squawk 7600 for lost comms and monitor 121.5 if you
359 0
can still receive.
5. Look for light gun signals if landing at a towered field.
even odd
Magnetic
thousand feet thousand feet
courses
MSL+500’ MSL+500’ Transponder Codes

180 179
1200: VFR. 7600: Lost comms.
7500: Hijack. 7700: Emergency.

Light Gun Signals

Signal Ground In-Flight

Steady Green Cleared for Takeoff Cleared to Land

Flashing Green Cleared for Taxi Return for Landing

Steady Red Stop Continue Circling

Flashing Red Taxi Clear of Runway Airport unsafe, don’t land

Flashing White Return to starting point on airport N/A

Alternating green/red Caution Caution

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AIRPORT OPERATIONS
Airport Signs

Sign Type Description Example

Indicates areas like runway entrances or prohibited zones.

Mandatory Instruction
Red signs are always mandatory.

Location Shows your current location (e.g., taxiway or runway).

Direction Points to the direction of runways or taxiways.

Lead you to a specific location (e.g., runway or terminal),

Destination
works like direction signs.

Provide info such as radio frequencies or noise abatement

Information
procedures.

Runway Distance
Show remaining runway distance in thousands of feet.
Remaining

ILS Critical Area Indicates where aircraft must stop to protect ILS signal
Holding Position integrity (during low-vis conditions).

Runway Safety Area

Marks the boundary of the runway safety area.
Boundary

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Airport Markings

Marking Type Description Example

Displaced Threshold Marks a section usable for takeoff but not for landing.

Blast Pad/Stopway Indicates areas not suitable for landing, takeoff, or taxiing.

Runway Hold Short

Indicates runway entrance from taxiway.
Lines

Taxiway Edge
Indicates taxiway edges where crossing is not allowed.
(Continuous)

Taxiway Edge
Indicates taxiway edges where crossing is permitted.
(Dashed)

ILS Critical Area

Indicates protected areas for ILS operations.
Boundary

Non-Movement Area Marks the boundary between ATC-controlled movement

Boundary areas and non-controlled areas.

Marks location on taxiway or apron where aircraft hold short

Taxiway-Taxiway Hold
of another taxiway.

Enhanced Centerline Indicates the approach to a runway hold short line.

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Runway & Taxiway Lights Chart Supplement Hot Spots

A directory of all public-use airports, Areas on an airport with a history
Runway Lights
heliports, and seaplane bases in the of frequent runway incursions or
REIL: (Runway end identifier lights)
U.S. confusing taxiway/runway layouts.
Two white flashing lights at each
Contents:. Key Tip: Increase situational
runway end.
• Airport diagrams, runways, and awareness in these areas.
Edge: White. The last 2000’ or 1/2
taxiways. Where to Find: Marked on airport
the runway (whichever is shorter) for
• Communication frequencies (ATIS, diagrams (“HS”).
instrument runways are amber.
ground, tower, etc.).
Centerline: White, alternating red and
• Traffic pattern altitudes (TPA) and Wake Turbulence
white in the last 3,000’, red in the last
lighting information. Results from lift-generated counter-
1,000’.
• Special notices like noise rotating vortices trailing from
LAHSO: (Land and hold short
abatement procedures or hot wingtips. Can cause loss of control
operations) Flashing white lights at
spots. if encountered. Worse behind large
the hold-short line.
Traffic Pattern Altitude aircraft that are heavy, clean, and
Taxiway Lights
(TPA) slow.
Edge: Blue.
Centerline: Green. Standard TPA: Typically 1,000 feet
Lead-on/Lead-off: Alternating yellow/ AGL unless otherwise published in
green the Chart Supplement.

Runway Incursion Avoidance Wake Turbulence

Procedures to prevent unauthorized entry onto a runway Avoidance Tips

by an aircraft or vehicle.

Key Actions • Wait times: Allow time

for wake turbulence to
dissipate, typically 2-3
• Hold Lines: Always stop at hold short lines. At towered minutes after larger aircraft
airports, ATC clearance is required to cross. departures or landings.
• Sterile Cockpit: No distractions during taxi, takeoff, or • Takeoff: Rotate before
landing. No non-essential conversations or tasks. Keep their rotation point and
eyes outside. climb upwind of their
• Situational Awareness: Know your position on the airport. flight path.
Use airport diagrams and follow taxi clearances carefully. • Landing: Stay above the
Look out for hot spots. flight path of the landing
• Ask ATC for Help: Confirm instructions if unsure. Request aircraft and land beyond
turn-by-turn guidance from ATC if unclear about taxi their touchdown point.
routes. • Crosswinds: If winds are
• Lighting: Use strobes, landing, and taxi lights to increase present, stay upwind of the
visibility, especially in low visibility conditions. generating aircraft's path.

18
 National Airspace System

REGULATIONS
VFR Weather Minimums Mode C and ADS-B Required Airspace
FAR 91.155 FAR 91.215 & 91.225

Class B: 3 SM visibility; Clear of clouds. Within 30 NM of Class B airspace (Mode C veil):

Class C, D, E (<10,000’ MSL): 3 SM; Clouds: 500’ below, From the surface up to 10,000’ MSL.
1,000’ above, 2,000’ horizontal. Within Class B airspace:
Class E (>10,000’ MSL): 5 SM; Clouds: 1,000’ below, 1,000’ Generally, from the surface up to 10,000’ MSL, including
above, 1 SM horizontal. portions that extend beyond the Mode C veil.
Class G (<1,200’ AGL):. Within Class C airspace:
• Day: 1 SM; Clear of clouds. From the surface up to 4,000’ AGL, and above the
• Night: 3 SM; 500’ below, 1,000’ above, 2,000’ horizontal. horizontal boundaries of Class C up to 10,000’ MSL.
Class G (>1,200’ AGL & <10,000’ MSL):. At and above 10,000’ MSL:
• Day: 1 SM; 500’ below, 1,000’ above, 2,000’ horizontal. Anywhere in the contiguous U.S. and DC, excluding
• Night: 3 SM; 500’ below, 1,000’ above, 2,000’ horizontal. airspace below 2,500’ AGL.
Class G (>10,000’ MSL): 5 SM; 1,000’ below, 1,000’ above, Over the Gulf of Mexico: ADS-B required at and above
1 SM horizontal. 3,000’ MSL within 12 NM of the U.S. coastline.

Airspace VFR Entry Requirements per Class

A B C D E G
IFR only; ATC clearance 2-way radio 2-way radio No VFR Uncontrolled;
clearance to enter; comms to enter; comms to requirements. no VFR
required. Mode C Mode C enter. requirements.
transponder & transponder &
ADS-B Out. ADS-B Out.

Special VFR (SVFR)

Speed Limits FAR 91.157
FAR 91.117 ATC clearance allowing takeoff or landing under VFR in
controlled surface airspace when visibility is less than 3
SM and/or the ceiling is below 1,000’ AGL.
Below 10,000’ MSL: 250 KIAS unless:
Weather Minimums: 1 SM visibility, clear of clouds.
• Within 4 NM and below 2,500’ AGL of Class C/D
Pilot Qualifications:
(200 KIAS).
• Day: No special requirements.
• Below Class B shelf (200 KIAS).
• Night: Pilot must be instrument-rated and aircraft must
Above 10,000’ MSL: Mach 1.
be IFR-equipped.
Where Prohibited: Not allowed at certain airports (e.g.,
some Class B/C) where “NO SVFR” is noted on sectional
charts or in the Chart Supplement.”

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 BACK TO CONTENTS NATIONAL AIRSPACE SYSTEM

AIRSPACE CLASSES
Airspace Typical Dimensions & Altitudes Depiction

CONTROLLED AIRSPACE

18,000’ MSL to FL600 (60,000’ MSL).

Class A Not Depicted
Covers the entire U.S.

Core: SFC to 10,000’ MSL.

Class B Shelves: Various bases to 10,000’ MSL.
Design tailored to each airport.

Mode C & ADS-B Out Veil: 30 NM radius around

airport.

Core: 5 NM radius; SFC to 4,000’ AGL.

Class C
Shelf: 10 NM radius; various bases to 4,000’ AGL.

4-5 NM radius; SFC to 2,500’ AGL.

Class D
Minus sign: “ceiling up to but not including”.

Various base altitudes to 17,999’ MSL.

Class E
Continues above FL600.

Starting at 1,200’ AGL (Default for Class E). Not Depicted

Starting at the SFC.

Starting at 700’ AGL (transition area).

Starting at 14,500’ MSL (rare).

Starting at specified altitude.

UNCONTROLLED AIRSPACE

SFC to 1,200’ AGL in most areas.

Class G Not Depicted
Can be SFC to 700’ AGL or 14,500’ MSL.

20
 BACK TO CONTENTS NATIONAL AIRSPACE SYSTEM

SPECIAL USE AIRSPACE

Airspace Description Depiction

Separates high-speed military traffic from

Military Operations
IFR traffic.
Area (MOA)
VFR allowed; exercise caution.

Alert Area High volume of flight operations; be alert.

Controlled Firing Gunnery activities. Firing suspended when

Not Depicted
Area aircraft detected.

No entry for security or national welfare

Prohibited Area
reasons (e.g., White House).

Contains activities like guided missiles.

Restricted Area Entry requires permission.
Can be “hot” or “cold.”

Similar to restricted but over international

Warning Area
waters.

National Security Requested to avoid for security reasons.

Area (NSA) May be temporarily prohibited.

Need to check active times or contact info?

Look in the special use airspace table along the edge of the sectional chart—
or tap the area in your EFB.

21
 BACK TO CONTENTS NATIONAL AIRSPACE SYSTEM

OTHER AIRSPACE AREAS

Airspace Description Depiction

VFR Corridor VFR route through Class B. Comms or

clearance not required.

VFR Flyway Suggested VFR routes near Class B

airspace to avoid major traffic.

VFR Transition Specific route through Class B requiring

Route ATC clearance. Depicted on TAC charts.

Military Training IR (IFR) and VR (VFR) routes. Four digits =

Routes (MTRs) below 1,500’ AGL Three digits = above.

TRSA (Terminal Optional radar services around some

Radar Service Class D airspace.
Area)

ADIZ (Air Defense Required for international boundary

Identification crossing.
Zone) Flight plan and two-way comms required.

Special Flight Special procedures for entry and operation.

Rules Area (SFRA)

Temporary Flight Time-limited airspace restrictions.

Restriction (TFR) Found in NOTAMs.
Sometimes depicted on charts.

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 BACK TO CONTENTS NATIONAL AIRSPACE SYSTEM

SECTIONAL CHART
Airport Information
Maximum Elevation
Figure (MEF)
PRESCOTT RGNL
ERNEST A LOVE FLD (PRC)
CT - 125.3 ★ C ATIS 127.2
12⁵
• Indicates the highest

5045 *L 76 122.95
elevation MSL (plus 100’
buffer), including terrain and

RP 3L, 21L, 21R

obstacles, within a specific
quadrant.
• Shown with the last 2 zeros
omitted (125 = 12,500' MSL).

Text Meaning

CT - 125.3 Control tower frequency.

Part-time tower operation (see Chart

★ Supplement).

C CT frequency is also CTAF.

ATIS 127.2
Automated Terminal Information Service
frequency.

5045 Airport elevation in feet MSL.

• Lighting limitations exist (often pilot-

*L controlled lighting; see Chart Supplement).

• L with no star? Lighting sunset to sunrise.

76
Longest runway length in hundreds of feet
(usable length may be shorter).

122.95 Advisory frequency (UNICOM).

RP 3L, 21L, 21R Right-hand patterns for specified runways.

23
 Performance and Limitations

Aerodynamics Terms Left-Turning Tendencies

Angle of Attack (AoA): Angle Torque: The propeller The Four Forces
between wing chord line and relative spins clockwise, causing a
wind. counterclockwise roll.
Critical AoA: AoA where airflow P-Factor: At high AoA, the
Lift: Upward force from air
separates; causes stall. descending propeller blade produces
flowing over wings.
Load Factor: Ratio of lift to weight; more thrust, pulling the nose left.
increases in turns, raising stall speed. Spiraling Slipstream: Propeller wash Weight: Downward force due
Adverse Yaw: Tendency to yaw wraps around the fuselage, pushing to gravity.
opposite direction of turn due to the tail right and yawing the nose left.
Thrust: Forward force
differential drag. Gyroscopic Precession: When
produced by engine/propeller.
Wingtip Vortices: Spiraling air from the nose pitches up, the spinning
pressure differences at the wingtips propeller creates a force that causes Drag: Rearward force
Aspect Ratio: Wingspan divided by left yaw. opposing thrust (parasite and
average chord; higher values reduce induced).
induced drag.

Stability Lift Generation

Static Stability: Tendency to return to equilibrium after Bernoulli’s Principle: Faster airflow over the wing’s upper
disturbance. surface lowers pressure, creating lift.
• Positive: Returns to original position. Newton’s Third Law: The wing pushes air down, and air
• Neutral: Remains in new position. pushes the wing up, generating lift.
• Negative: Moves further away.
Load Factor Limits
Dynamic Stability: Behavior over time.
• Positive: Oscillations decrease. Normal Category: +3.8 to -1.52 Gs.

• Neutral: Oscillations constant. Utility Category: +4.4 to -1.76 Gs.

• Negative: Oscillations increase.

Slip vs Skid Types of Drag

Slip: Insufficient turn rate for bank; ball inside turn. Parasite Drag: Drag from the
Skid: Excessive turn rate for bank; ball outside turn. aircraft’s structure (form, skin friction,
interference) moving through the air,
Spins increasing with speed.
Stall with yaw from uncoordinated flight.
Recovery (PARE): Power idle, Ailerons neutral, Induced Drag: Byproduct of lift;

Rudder opposite spin, Elevator forward. increases at low speeds/high AoA.

24
 BACK TO CONTENTS PERFORMANCE AND LIMITATIONS

V-Speeds
Airspeed Types
Vs0 Stall speed in landing config.

Indicated (IAS): Read from airspeed indicator; Stall speed in specified config (usually
uncorrected. Vs1 clean).
Calibrated (CAS): IAS corrected for instrument
Best angle of climb speed (max altitude
and position errors.
Vx over shortest distance).
Equivalent (EAS): CAS corrected for
compressibility effects (high speed). Best rate of climb speed (max altitude over
True (TAS): EAS corrected for non-standard
Vy shortest time).
temperature and pressure.

Groundspeed (GS): TAS corrected for wind; Vfe Max flap extended speed.
actual speed over ground.

Vle Max landing gear extended speed.

Maneuvering speed (max speed for full

Altitude Types
Va control inputs; increases with weight).

Max structural cruising speed (do not

Vno exceed except in smooth air).
Indicated: Read directly from altimeter (when
set to local pressure).
Vne Never exceed speed (red line).
Pressure: Altitude above standard datum
plane; shown when altimeter set to 29.92.

Density: Pressure altitude corrected for non-

Vref Landing reference speed.

standard temperature; “performance altitude”.

True: Height above mean sea level (MSL). Vr Rotation speed.

Absolute: Height above ground

level (AGL).
Vg Best glide speed (L/D Max).

Density Altitude and Performance

The altitude the airplane “feels” it’s at, based on air density rather than actual elevation.

Impact on Performance: Higher density altitude (due to Rule of Thumb: As density altitude increases, aircraft
high temperature, altitude, or humidity) reduces engine performance decreases.
power, propeller efficiency, and wing lift, leading to longer
takeoff distances, reduced climb rates, and decreased
overall performance.

25
 Operation of Systems

FLIGHT CONTROLS
Primary Controls PITCHING YAWING
Lateral axis Vertical axis
Ailerons: Control roll (bank) around
longitudinal axis.
Elevator/Stabilator: Controls pitch
around lateral axis.
Rudder: Controls yaw around
vertical axis.

Secondary Controls
Flaps: Increase lift/drag; allow slower
speeds for takeoff/landing and
steeper approach. ROLLING
Trim Tabs: Reduce control pressures; Longitudinal
axis
maintain steady flight without
constant input.
Leading-Edge Devices: Slots or slats
to delay airflow separation at high
AoA.
Spoilers: Reduce lift; used for
descent or roll control (less common
in light aircraft).

ENGINE

Carburetor Icing Preignition Detonation

Occurs in high humidity, temps Fuel/air mixture ignites before Uncontrolled, explosive
-5°C to 20°C (23°F to 70°F). spark plug fires. combustion in cylinder.
Signs: Drop in RPM (fixed-pitch Causes: Hot spots in cylinder, Causes: Using lower octane
prop) or manifold pressure glowing carbon deposits. fuel, high power with lean
(constant-speed prop), engine Signs: Engine roughness, mixture, extended ground ops.
roughness. loss of power, high operating Signs: Engine overheating,
Action: Apply carb heat to melt temperatures. roughness, loss of power.
ice; expect initial drop in power, Action: Reduce power, enrich Action: Reduce power, enrich
then increase. mixture, lower nose to increase mixture, open cowl flaps if
cooling, land ASAP. available, avoid high power
settings.

26
 BACK TO CONTENTS OPERATION OF SYSTEMS

INSTRUMENTS AND EQUIPMENT

Pitot-Static System
Pitot Tube: Measures ram air pressure Airspeed White Arc:
for Airspeed Indicator (ASI). Indicator (Vso to Vfe)
AIRSPEED Flap
Static Port: Provides ambient air Markings
pressure for ASI, Altimeter, and operating
200 40
Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI). range.
Red Line: (Vne)
Pitot Tube Blocked:. 18 0 60
Never exceed.
• Ram air blocked, drain hole open:
KN O TS 80 Green Arc:
ASI reads zero. 160
100 (Vs1 to Vno)
• Both blocked: ASI freezes, acts like 14 0
Yellow Arc: 12 0 Normal
altimeter.
(Vno to Vne) operating
Static Port Blocked:.
Caution range. range.
• ASI inaccurate (reads lower at
higher altitudes).
• Altimeter freezes.
• VSI reads zero.
Alternate Static Source Glass Cockpit Systems
• Provides backup static pressure. AHRS (Attitude and Heading PFD (Primary Flight Display)
• Readings may be slightly higher Reference System) Displays flight instruments digitally
due to lower cabin pressure. Provides attitude (pitch, bank), (airspeed, attitude, altitude, VSI,
heading, rate of turn, slip/skid info. heading).
Uses solid-state gyros, MFD (Multi-Function Display)
Vacuum System accelerometers, magnetometers. Shows navigation maps, engine data,
Powers gyroscopic instruments: ADC (Air Data Computer) weather, traffic, terrain.
Attitude Indicator (AI), Heading Calculates airspeed, altitude, vertical
Indicator (HI). speed.
Turn Coordinator often electrically Uses inputs from pitot tube, static
powered; provides redundancy. port, temperature probe.

Deicing Equipment Anti-Icing Equipment

Removes ice after formation Prevents ice formation

Example: Pneumatic boots inflate to break ice Examples: Pitot heat, carb heat, heated propeller
on wing leading edges. blades, heated windshields.

27
 Human Factors

AERONAUTICAL DECISION-MAKING (ADM)

DECIDE Model IMSAFE Checklist

D Detect: Identify changes or potential I Illness: Am I suffering from any illness

issues in the environment or flight. or symptoms?

E Estimate: Assess the significance and M Medication: Am I taking any

impact of the detected change. medications that could affect my
performance?
C Choose: Select the best course of action
from available options. S Stress: Am I under psychological
pressure or anxiety?
I Identify: Determine the specific actions
needed to implement the chosen solution.
A Alcohol: Have I consumed alcohol
within the last 8 hours, is my BAC over
D Do: Execute the identified actions 0.04%, or am I hungover?
promptly and efficiently.
F Fatigue: Am I well-rested and alert?
Evaluate: Review the outcome of the Emotion/Eating: Am I emotionally
E E
actions to ensure the problem is resolved. stable and properly nourished?

5P Model Hazardous Attitudes

Plan: Assess weather, route, fuel, and
Type Attitude Antidote
regulations for changing risks.

Plane: Monitor aircraft condition, Follow the rules—

Anti-authority “Don’t tell me what to do!”
performance, and system status. they’re usually right.

Pilot: Evaluate fitness, workload, and Impulsivity “Do something quickly!” Not so fast—think first.
situational awareness.
Invulnerability “It won’t happen to me.” It can happen to me.
Passengers: Consider distractions,
experience level, and expectations. Taking unnecessary
Macho “I can do it!”
risks is foolish.
Programming: Manage avionics,
automation, and potential tech I’m not helpless—I can
failures. Resignation What’s the use?”
make a difference.

PAVE P
Pilot
A
Aircraft
V
enVironment
E
External Pressures
Checklist Am I physically Is the aircraft Consider Am I being
and mentally fit airworthy, fueled, weather, terrain, pressured by time,
to fly? (IMSAFE and equipped for airports, and passengers, or
checklist) the flight? airspace. personal goals?

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 BACK TO CONTENTS HUMAN FACTORS

AEROMEDICAL FACTORS
Hypoxia
Cause: Insufficient oxygen reaching the body’s tissues. Types
Symptoms: Headache, dizziness, euphoria, impaired Hypoxic: Insufficient oxygen available to the body (e.g.,
judgment, cyanosis (blue fingernails/lips). high altitude).
Action: Descend to lower altitude; use supplemental Hypemic: Blood can’t carry enough oxygen (e.g., due to
oxygen. CO poisoning).
Stagnant: Poor circulation of oxygen in the body (e.g.,
G-forces).
Histotoxic: Cells unable to use oxygen (e.g., alcohol,
drugs).

Supplemental Oxygen Requirements

(Non-Pressurized Aircraft – FAR 91.211)

Altitude (MSL) Oxygen Required

12,500’ - 14,000’ (MSL) Crew must use oxy after 30+ minutes (cumulative).

Above 14,000’ (MSL) Crew must use oxy for the entire duration.

Oxy must be available for all occupants

Above 15,000’ (MSL)
(pax not required to use it).

Hyperventilation Spatial Disorientation

Cause: Low CO2 levels from Cause: Inability to correctly interpret flight attitude due to conflicting sensory
excessive breathing due to stress or inputs.
anxiety. Symptoms: Feeling of turning, climbing, or descending when straight and
Symptoms: Dizziness, light- level.
headedness, tingling in extremities, Action: Trust instruments, avoid abrupt head movements, maintain proper
shortness of breath. scanning.
Action: Slow breathing, talk/sing
Systems for Determining Orientation
aloud, or breathe into a bag to
Vestibular: Inner ear (balance).
restore CO2 balance.
Somatosensory: Sensations from muscles and skin (feeling of motion).
Visual: Eyes (what you see).
Hypothermia
Cause: Exposure to cold
temperatures.
Symptoms: Shivering, numbness, CO Poisoning
confusion, slurred speech. Cause: Inhalation of carbon monoxide from exhaust leak.
Action: Dress for the environment Symptoms: Headache, nausea, drowsiness, impaired judgment.
(layers), limit exposure, and use Action: Turn off cabin heat, open windows, use supplemental oxygen, and
cabin heat. land ASAP.

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 BACK TO CONTENTS HUMAN FACTORS

Motion Sickness Fatigue

Cause: Conflicting sensory inputs (inner ear vs. visual). Cause: Lack of sleep, long flights, stress.
Symptoms: Nausea, dizziness, sweating, vomiting. Symptoms: Drowsiness, slow reaction times, poor
Action: Focus on the horizon, open vents, avoid concentration.
unnecessary head movement. Action: Rest, exercise, stay hydrated/fed; medical help for
chronic fatigue.
Stress
Cause: Physical or emotional strain. Alcohol/Drugs
Symptoms: Irritability, poor decision-making, decreased FAR 91.17

performance. Cause: Alcohol or drug consumption (including

Action: Use relaxation techniques, get adequate rest; prescription meds).
medical help for chronic stress. Symptoms: Impaired judgment, slow reactions, dizziness,
nausea.
Types
Action: 8 hours from “bottle to throttle,” BAC below 0.04%,
Acute Stress: Short-term, immediate reactions (e.g.,
no flying under the influence (hangover), no meds unless
emergencies).
AME-approved, no intoxicated pax (unless medically
Chronic Stress: Long-term strain that can degrade
supervised).
performance over time.

Decompression Sickness
Scuba Diving Wait Times ≤ 8,000’ MSL > 8,000’ MSL
Cause: Rapid ascent after diving.
Symptoms: Joint pain, dizziness, Without decompression stop
12 hours 24 hours
paralysis (severe cases). (uncontrolled ascent)
Action: Wait at least 12 hours after a
With decompression stop
dive before flying below 8,000’ MSL; 24 hours 24 hours
(controlled ascent)
24 hours for higher altitudes.

30
 BACK TO CONTENTS HUMAN FACTORS

ILLUSIONS

Vestibular Illusions

Leans Somatogravic Illusion

After a prolonged, unnoticed turn, Acceleration feels like a nose-up
Night Visual
returning to level flight feels like attitude, and deceleration feels like a
Illusions
banking in the opposite direction. nose-down attitude.
Result: Pilot may roll back into the Result: Pilot may incorrectly pitch the
original turn, risking disorientation. aircraft, leading to altitude changes.
Auto-Kinesis
Graveyard Spiral Inversion
A stationary light appears to
In a prolonged turn, the sensation After climbing and leveling off, the
move after prolonged staring.
of turning is lost, and altitude pilot feels like they are tumbling
Result: Pilot may align the
decreases. The pilot believes they are backward.
aircraft with the perceived
in level flight and pulls back on the Result: Pilot may push the nose
moving light, leading to
controls. down, causing a dive.
disorientation.
Result: Tightens the spiral, increasing
the rate of descent and risking Vertigo (Flicker Vertigo)
Flickering lights (e.g., beacons
structural failure. Visual Illusions
or strobes) cause dizziness or
Graveyard Spin
disorientation.
After spin recovery, the absence of
Runway Width Illusion Result: Pilot experiences
turning sensation makes the pilot
A narrow runway makes you imbalance, nausea, or
feel like they are in a new spin in the
feel too high; a wide runway confusion.
opposite direction.
makes you feel too low. Black-Hole Approach
Result: Overcorrection may cause re-
Result: Can lead to a too-steep Occurs over dark, featureless
entry into the original spin.
or too-shallow approach. terrain or water, causing the
Coriolis
Runway Slope Illusion pilot to misjudge the descent
Head movement during a prolonged
An uphill runway makes you angle.
turn causes a false sensation of
feel too high; a downhill runway Result: Pilot may fly a
movement on a different axis.
makes you feel too low. dangerously low approach,
Result: Pilot may try to correct
Result: Can cause improper risking landing short.
the perceived attitude, leading to
approach angle (too steep or Ground Lighting Illusion
disorientation.
too shallow). Rows of lights (e.g., highways)
Elevator Illusion
False Horizon may be mistaken for runway
Rapid upward acceleration (updraft)
Sloping clouds, ground lights, lights, or bright runway lights
feels like a climb, and rapid
or stars are misinterpreted as may cause the pilot to feel
downward acceleration (downdraft)
the horizon. lower on approach.
feels like a descent.
Result: Pilot aligns the aircraft Result: Pilot may align with
Result: Pilot may unnecessarily alter
with the false horizon, creating a road or fly a too-high
pitch.
an unsafe attitude. approach.

31
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