1RAY OPTICS

1) Explain the formation of mirage?

Ans) 1. mirage is an optical illusion due to total internal refletion.
2. on hot summer day, temperature of air near the surface of earth is maximun
3. as we go up temperature of air decreases and refractive index increases
4. light from long object under goes total internal reflection
5. it appears to be inverted image is formed in a pool of water
2) Define critical angle. Explain total internal reflection using a neat diagram?
Ans.:Critical angle: when light travels from denser medium to rarer medium, the angle of
incidence for which angle of refraction becomes 90 o is called critical angle.
According to snell’ law
μd sin i = μr sin r
if μd = μ and μr =1 (air)
μ sin i = 1 .sin r
for critical angle i = c and r = 90o
then μ sin c = sin 90o ( since sin 90o = 1 )
sin c = 1/μ
Total internal reflection: when light travels from denser medium to rarer medium ,if the
angle of incidence is greater than critical angle then incident light bounce back in to the
same medium this phenomenon is called total internal reflection.

3) With a neat labeled diagram explain the formation of image in a simple

microscope? (and)
4)What is the position of the object for a simple microscope? What is the maximum
magnification of a simple microscope for a realistic focal length?
Ans.1. It consists of convex lens of short focal length
2. object is placed with in the principle focus of convex lens
3. then it forms the virtual,magnified and errected image on same side as the object.
Case1:if image if formed at near point
height of the image
linear magnification m =
height of theobject
m= v/u

m = 1+( D
f )
case2:if image is formed at far point
angle subtended by the image
angular magnification =
angle subtended by the object
θi
m=
θo
D
m=
f
the maximum magnification of simple microscope is m ≤ 9
5) Define Snell’s Law. Using a neat labeled diagram derive an expression for the
refractive index of the material of an equilateral prism?
Ans.
1. let ABC be the principle section of prism
2. let PQ be the incident ray and RS be the emergent ray
3. the angle between incident ray and emergent ray is called angle of diveation.
From quadralateral AQNR
A + N = 180o........................................(1)
from triangle QNR
r1 + r2+ N = 180o.............................................(2)
from (1) and (2)
r1 + r 2 = A
from triangle QMR
i - r1 + e – r2 = δ
i + e - ( r1 + r2 ) = δ ( since r1 + r2 = A )
i+e -A=δ
i + e = A + δ.
I – d curve:
at minimum diveation
i = e and r1 = r2 = r
r1 + r 2 = A
2r = A and r = A/2
i + e = A + δ.
2i = A + δ. And i = (A + δ.)/2
μ = sin i/ sinr
A+ δ
sin
2
μ=
A
sin
2
above equation is called prisem formula.

Wave optics
1. Explain Doppler Effect in light. Distinguish between Red Shift and Blue Shift?
Ans. Doppler Effect in Light:
The apparent change in the frequency of light due to relative motion between the source
and observer is called Doppler Effect
c
Consider a source produce light of frequency ϑ =
λ
c
λ=
ϑ
If source approches the observer with relative velocity ‘v ‘
ϑ’ = ϑ + v / λ
c
=ϑ+v/( )
ϑ
v
ϑ’ = ϑ (1 + ) ....................(1)
c

If source moving away from the observer with relative velocity ‘ v ‘

v
ϑ’ = ϑ (1 - )........................(2)
c
from (1) & (2)
v
ϑ’ = ϑ ( 1 ± )
c
v
ϑ’ = ϑ ± ϑ
c
v
(ϑ’ – ϑ ) / ϑ = ±
c
v
Δϑ / ϑ = ±
c
if source approches ,apparent frequency increases ,apparent wavelength decreases Δϑ is
positive
this is called blue shift
if source receeding away,apparent frequency decreases ,apparent wavelength increases
Δϑ is nagtive
this is called red shift
2.What is total internal reflection? Explain the phenomenon using Huygens
principle?
Ans:
Total internal reflection: when light travels from denser medium to rarer medium ,if the
angle of incidence is greater than critical angle then incident light bounce back in to the
same medium this phenomenon is called total internal reflection.

μ1 sin i = μ2 sin r
i = ic & r = 90o
μ1 sin ic = μ2 sin 90o
μ1 sin i c = μ2
sin i c = μ2 / μ1
i>ic
there is no refracted light
threfore total internal reflection takesplace.
3. Derive the expression for the intensity at a point where interference of light
occurs. Arrive at the conditions for maximum and zero intensity?
Ans :
consider two light waves from cohernt source interfere at a point
let ϕ be the constant phase difference between them
y1 = a cos wt
y2 = a cos ( wt +ϕ )
according to superposition principle
y = y1 + y 2
y = a coswt + a cos ( wt + ϕ )
y = a ( coswt + cos ( wt + ϕ ) )
y = 2a ( cos (wt + ϕ – wt )/2 cos (wt + ϕ + wt )/2 )
y = 2a cos ( ϕ/2 ) cos ( wt + ϕ/2 )
y = A cos ( wt + ϕ/2 )
amplitude of resultant wave is 2a cos ϕ/2
I = k A2
I = 4 ka2 cos2ϕ/2
intensity of resultant wave I = 4I o cos2ϕ/2
condition for maximum intensity:
if ϕ = 0, ±2π ,± 4π..........................± n (2π)
where n = 0,1, 2, 3..........................
constuctiv interference takes place I max = 4 Io
condition for minimum intensity :
if ϕ = ± π ,±3π ,5π......................±(2n+1)π
where n = 0,1, 2, 3..........................
distuctiv interference takes place I min = 0.
4. Does the principle of conservation of energy hold for interference and diffraction
phenomena? Explain briefly?
Ans:
1 .The principle of conservation of energy holds good for both interference and diffraction.
2. in interference pattern, I max = 4 Io and I min = 0.
I avg = ( I max + I min ) /2
I avg = 2 Io
3. if there is no interference I = I1 + I2 = 2 Io
4. avarage intensity is same in both cases
5. from this we can say that, in interference pattern intensity of light is redistributed and
energy is being transferred from distructive interference to constuctive interference
6.thus principle of conservation of energy is valid in interference of light
7. diffraction of light due to interference of secondary waves so conservation of energy is
also valid in diffraction pattern.
 Electric charges and fields
1. State and explain Coulomb’s inverse square law in electricity?
Ans: coulombs law:The force of attraction (or) repulsion between two charges is directly
proportional to the product of two charges and inversely proportional to the square of the
distance between them and acts along the line joining the charges.
Consider two charges q1 and q2 are separated by a distance r
F α q 1q 2
F α 1 / r2
F α q 1 q 2 / r2
in medium

1 q1 q2
F= ( since εr = ε / εo ,ε = εrεo )
4 π ϵ r2

1 q1 q2
F= ( in air εr = 1)
4 π εr ϵ o r2

1 q1 q 2
F=
4 π ϵ o r2

where εo is permitivity in free space

its value is
∈ o = 8.854 × 10 − 12 farad / m.
2. Define intensity of electric field at a point. Derive an expression for the intensity
due to a point charge?
Ans: Intensity of Electric Field (E): The force acting on unit positive charge placed at a
point in the electric field is called the Intensity of electric field at that point.
Let us consider a test charge qo placed at in aelectric field produced by the charge Q.
Let r be the position vector of charge qo

1 Q qo
the force between two charges is F= r^
4 π εo r2
F̄
force acting on unit positive charge is Ē=
qo

1 Q qo
E= r^
4 π ε o r 2 qo
1 Q
E= r^
4 π εo r2
it is vector quantity in the direction of position vector op
3. Derive the equation for the couple acting on an electric dipole in a uniform
electric field?
Ans:
1. let us consider an electric dipole of dipole moment P and length 2l placed in uniform
electric field at angle θ to the field direction
2. the force acting on positive charge in the field direction is Eq
3. the force acting on nagtive charge is in oposite to the field direction is Eq
4. these two forces constitute the couple tends to rotate the dipole in the field direction
from ABC
sinθ = BC/AB
sinθ = BC/ 2l
BC = 2l sinθ torque = force x perpendicular distance
= Eq x 2l sinθ
= E (qx2l)sinθ
= P E sinθ
=P x E

4. Derive an expression for the electric intensity of electric field at a point on the
axial line of an electric dipole?
Ans:
consider a dipole of dipole moment P and lenth2l
consider a point p at a distance r from the centre of the dipole
electricfield due to positive charge at p is
1 q
E1=
4 π ε o ( r −l )2
electricfield due to nagtive charge at p is
1 q
E 2=
4 π ε o ( r +l )2
net electric field intensity E a = E1 -E2
1 q 1 q
Ea = 4 π ε −
o ( r −l )
2
4 π ε o ( r +l )
2

q
Ea = 4 π ε (1
o ( r −l )
2
−
1
( r +l )2 )
q
E a = 4πε
o (
r 2 +l 2+ 2rl − r 2 − l2 +2 rl
( ( r −l ) ( r +l ) )
2
)
q 4 rl
E a= 4πε 2
o ( ( r − l )( r +l ) )
 1 2 ( q 2l ) r
E a= 4πε 2
o ( ( r − l )( r +l ) )

if r » l
1 2P
E a=
4 π εo r3

5 . Derive an expression for the electric intensity of electric field at a point on the
equatorial line of an electric dipole?
Ans:
consider a dipole of dipole moment P and lenth2l
consider a point p at a distance r from the centre of the dipole
electricfield due to positive charge at p is
1 q
E1=
4 π ε o ( r +l 2 )
2

electricfield due to nagtive charge at p is

1 q
E2=
4 π ε o ( r 2 +l 2 )
E = E1 = E2

E e = √ E21 + E22 +2 E1 E 2 cos 2 θ

E e = √ E2 + E2 +2 E E cos 2θ

E e = √ 2 E 2+ 2 E2 cos 2 θ

E e = √ 2 E 2 ( 1+cos 2 θ )

√ (
E e = 2 E 2 2 cos2
2θ
2 )
E e = 2E cos θ
1 q l
E e = 2 4 π ε 2 2 cos θ ( since cos θ = 1/ 2 )
o ( r +l ) ( r +l 2 )
2

1 q l
E e = 2 4 π ε 2 2 2 2 1/ 2
o ( r +l ) ( r +l )

1 q x 2l
E e = 4 π ε 2 2 3/2
o ( r +l )

1 P
E e = 4 π ε 2 2 3/2
o ( r +l )

if l « r
 1 P
Ee=
4 π εo r3

6. State Gauss's law in electrostatics and explain its importance?

Ans:
Gauss's law : the electric flux over a closed surface is equal to 1 / εo times the charge
enclosed by the closed surface.
q
Φ = ∮ E . ds =
ϵo

importence :
1) gauss law is valid for any closed surface of any shape
2) it is valid for stationarycharge as well as for moving charges.
3) it is used to caleculate the number of electric field lines from closed surface.
4) it is applicable for the any distribusion of charge from closed surface.
5) it gives the relation between electricfield and charge.

Electric potential and capacitance

1. Derive an expression for the electric potential due a point charge?

A. Electric Potential:
The work done to bring a unit positive charge from infinity to that point in the electric field is
called the electric potential at that point.
1 q
V=
4 π ϵo r

1. consider a charge Q at a point in the space

2. consider a test charge qo placed at distance x from the q
3. force between q and qo is

1 qq o
F=
4 π ϵ o x2

small work dw = F.dx

dw = F dx cos 180o
dw = [-Fd]
total work from ∞ to r is
w = ∫ dw
w = ∫ - F dx
 r
q qo
w= ∫ 4 π1ϵ x
2
dx
α o

r
1
w=- qq
4 π ϵo o ∫ x12 dx
α

[]
r
1
w=- q qo − 1 ]
4 π ϵo x ∞
1 q qo
w=
4 π ϵo r
1 q
v = w /qo =
4 π ϵo r

2. Derive an expression for the electrostatic potential energy of a system of two

point charges and find its relation with electric potential of a charge?
Ans.
Consider two charges q1 and q2 are at infinite separation
now q1 is fixed at A
the potential due to charge q1 at B is

1 q1
V=
4 π ϵo r

the work done to bring q2 from infinity to point B is

w = Vq2

1 q1
w= q2
4 π ϵo r

1 q1 q 2
w=
4 π ϵo r

this work is stored as potential energy of system of two charges

1 q1 q 2
U=
4 π ϵo r

relation with elecric poential of charge is

U = Vq2.
3. Derive an expression for the potential energy of an electric dipole placed in a
uniform electric field?
Ans:
1. let us consider an electric dipole of dipole moment P and length 2l placed in uniform
electric field at angle θ to the field direction
the torque acting on the dipole is τ =P x Q
τ = P E sin θ
small work dw = τ dθ
dw = PE sin θ dθ
total work from θ1 to θ2 is
θ2

W = ∫ dw
θ1

θ2

W= ∫ PE sin θ d θ
θ1

θ2
W = PE [ −cos θ ] θ 1

W = PE ( cos θ1 – cos θ2 )
if θ1 = 90o and θ2 = θ
W = PE ( cos 90o – cosθ )
W = -PE cosθ
this work is stored as potential enrgy
U = -PE cosθ
U = −P. E
4. Derive an expression for the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor?
Ans:
1) consider two conducting plates A and B are separated by a distance d
2) let +Q be the charge given to the plate A and -Q be the charge given to the plate B
3) let +σ be the surface charge density on plate A -σ be the surface charge density on
plate B
4) V be the potential difference between the plates of capacitor.
5) the electric field between plates of the capacitor is
σ σ
E= +
2 ϵo 2ϵo

σ σ
E=
ϵo ϵo

V=Ed
σ
V= d ( since σ = q / A )
ϵo
 Q
V= d
A ϵo

Q ϵo A
=
V d

Q ϵo A
C= = .
V d
5. Explain the behavior of a dielectric in an external field?
Ans:
case1:
1. when dielectric slab with non-polar molecule is placed in an electricfield,
2. centre of gravity of positiv charge pulled towards negative plate and centre of gravity of
negative charge pulled towards positive plate .
3. this effect is called polarisation of dielectric.
Eo
Resultant field E = Eo – Ei =
k

case2:
4. polar molecules have their own dipole moment.
5. in the absence of electric field the dipoles are oriented randomly so net dipole moment
is zero.
6. in the presence of electric field the dipoles are aligned them seleves in the direction of
field so net dipole moment increases.
7. the alignment increases with increase of electric field .

6) Explain series and parallel combination of capacitors. Derive the formula for
equivalent capacitance in each combination?
Ans:
series combination of capacitors:
consider three capacitors C1,C2&C3 are connected in series to the battrey of potential V.
In series combinations charge on each capacitor is same
voltage is divided among the capacitors
Q Q
PD across C1 is V1 =
C1 C1

Q
PD across C2 is V2 =
C2

Q
PD across C3 is V3 =
C3

totel potential V = V1 + V2 + V3
Q Q Q Q
= + +
C s C 1 C2 C 3

1 1 1 1
= + +
C s C 1 C2 C 3

parallel combination of capacitors:

consider three capacitors C1,C2&C3 are connected in parallel to the battrey of potential V.
In parallel combinations potential difference on each capacitor is same
charge is divided among the capacitors
charge on C1 is Q1 = C1V
charge on C1 is Q2 = C2V
charge on C1 is Q3 = C3V
totel charge Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3
CpV = C1V + C2V + C3V
Cp = C1+ C2 + C3

current electricity
1.State Kirchhoff’s law for an electrical net work. Using these laws deduce the condition for
balance in a Wheatstone bridge?
Ans: junction law: the algebraic sum of currents meeting at the junction is equal to zero
∑i = 0
ex: i1+i2+i5 -i3-i4 = 0
loop law: the algebraic sum of voltages in a closed circuit is equal to zero.
∑V =0
ex: - iR1 -iR2 -iR3 + E = 0
E = i ( R1 + R2 +R3 )
i = E / ( R1 + R2 +R3 )
wheat stone bridge :
1 . consider 4 resistos P,Q,Rand S are connected among the junctionsA,B,C & D respectively
2. galvanometer is connnected between B& D.
3. battery is connected between A & C
according to junction law
at B : i1 – i3 – ig = 0
i1 = i3 + ig ............................(1)
at D : i2 + ig – i 4 = 0
i2 + ig = i 4 ...........................(2)
according to loop law
from close mesh ABDA
-i1 P – ig G + i2 R = 0
i1 P + ig G = i2 R ................................(3)
from closed mesh BCDB
-i3 Q + i4S + ig G = 0
i3 Q = i4S + ig G ..............................(4)
when bridge is balenced ig = 0
(1) ..............→ i1 = i3
(2)................→ i2 = i 4 .
(3).................→i1 P = i2 R ...................(5)
(4)....................→i3 Q = i4S ................(6)
i1 P i2 R
(5) / (6) ......→ =
i3 Q i 4 S
P R
=
Q S
2) State the working principle of potentiometer. Explain with the help of a circuit diagram
how the emf of two primary cells is compared by using the potentiometer?
Principle:It works on the principle of potential difference across any part of the wire is directly
proportional to length of that part,when constant current passing through it.
e=ø l
where ø is potential drop per unit length
comparision of cells :
consider two cells of emf’s E1and E2 are connected in secondary circuit as shown in fig.
Case1:if 1&3 are connected
then galvanometer is conected to cell of emf E1
now, jockey is moved on the potentiometer wire until galvanometer shows null deflection.
Note the balancing length l1
E1 = ø l1....................................(1)

Case2:if 2&3 are connected

then galvanometer is conected to cell of emf E2
now, jockey is moved on the potentiometer wire until galvanometer shows null deflection.
Note the balancing length l2
E 2= ø l2....................................(2)
E1 ϕ l 1
(1)/(2) .............................................. =
E2 ϕ l 2

E1 l 1
=
E2 l 2

3) State the working principle of potentiometer explain with the help of a circuit diagram how
the potentiometer is used to determine the internal resistance of the given primary cell ?
Principle:it works on the principle of potential difference across any part of the wire is directly
proportional to length of that part,when constant current passing through it.
e=ø l
where ø is potential drop per unit length
To determine internal resistance of a cell:
consider cell of emf E and internal resistance r is connected in paralle with resistance box in
secondary circuit as shown in fig.
Case1:if k2 isopen,
now, jockey is moved on the potentiometer wire until galvanometer shows null deflection.
Note the balancing length l1
E = ø l1....................................(1)
case2:if k2 is closed,
now, jockey is moved on the potentiometer wire until galvanometer shows null deflection.
Note the balancing length l2
V = ø l2....................................(2)
E l1
from (1) and (2) =
v l2
E I ( R+r )
=
v IR
E r
=1+
v R
l1 r
=1+
l2 R
r l
= 1 −1
R l2

( )
l1
r = −1 R
l2
 17

moving charges and magnetisem

1. State and explain Biot – Savart law.
Ans:
Consider a current carrying conductor ‘XY’
let i be the current pssing through it
The magnetic induction due to small element dB at a point is is

1) Directly proportional to the current (i)

dB α i
2) Directly proportional to Length of the element (dl).
dB α dl
3) Directly proportional to Sine of the angle between the element and the line joining the point
dB α sinθ
4) Inversely proportional to the square of the distance
1
dB α 2
r
idl sin θ
dB α
r2

μ o i dl sin θ
dB =
4π r2
μ o i ( dl x r )
in vector form dB =
4 π r3
2. State and explain Ampere’s law?
Ans:
Ampere’s law: the line integral of magnetic induction over a closed path is equal to μo times net
current passing through area bounded by closed path.
∮ B . dl = μo iIn
consider current carrying conductor come out from the plane of paper
for closed path 1:
consider small element dl
B.dl = B dl cos θ (since θ = 0o)
B.dl = B dl cos 0o
μ i
B.dl = o r d θ
2π r
μ
B.dl = o i d θ
2π
for total path
μ μ
∫ B.dl = o i ∫ d θ= o i ( 2 π )
2π 2π
∮ B . dl= μo i
for closed path 2:
for arc AB
μ i
B.dl = o r θ AB
2π r

for arc BC
B.dl = 0
for arc CD
 18

μo i
B.dl = rθ
2 π r CD

μoi
for total path∮ B . dl= ( θ +θ +......... )
2 π AB CD
∮ B . dl= μo i
This is known as Ampere’s circuital law.
Second method:
2. State and explain Ampere’s law?
Ans:
Ampere’s law: the line integral of magnetic induction over a closed path is equal to μo times net
current passing through area bounded by closed path.
∮ B . dl = μo iIn

explanation:
1. consider closed path of any shape in clock wise direction around the current carrying conductors
2. let B be resultant magnetic induction at small element dl
3. the inward currents are taken as positive and the outward currents come are taken as negative
by Ampere’s law ∮ B . dl = μo (I1- I2 -I3 + I4)
∮ B . dl = μo inet
3.Derive an expression for the magnetic induction at the centre of a current carrying
circular coil using Biot-Savart law?
Ans :
consider a circular coil of radius r
let i be the current passing through coil
let us consider small element dl in the coil
according to Biot- savart’s law
M.I due to small element is
μo i dl l sin 90o
dB =
4π r2
μo i dl
dB =
4 π r2
M.I due to circular coil at the centre is
B = ∫ dB
μo i dl μo i
B=∫ = ∫ dl
4π r 2
4 π r2
μoi
B= 2
2π r
4πr
μ i
B= o
2r
for n turns
μ ni
B= o
2r
 19

4. Derive an expression for the magnetic induction at a point on the axis of current carrying
circular coil using Biot-Savart law?
Ans:
consider a point on the axis of a circular coil of radius R
let i be the current passing through the coil
according to Biot- savart’s law
μo i dll sin ϕ
M.I due small element at p is dB = (since Ø = 90o )
4π r 2

μo i dl
dB =
4 π r2
total M.I due to circular coil is B = ∫ dB sinθ

B=∫ (
μ o idl R
4 π r2 r )
μo i R
3∫
B= dl
4πr
μo i R
B= 2π R
4 π r3
2
μoi R
B= 3
2r
2
μo i R
B= 3 /2
2 ( R 2+ x 2 )
for n turns
μo n i R2
B= 2 3 /2
2( R + x )
2

5) Derive an expression for the magnetic dipole moment of a revolving electron?

Ans :
consider an electron of mass m moving with velocity v in a circular orbit of radius r around the
nucleus
if an electron moves in anti clock wise direction then equivalant current current passed through coil
in clock wise direction
wkt L = mvr →vr = L/m
e
i= ( since T = 2π r / v )
T
e ev
=
i = 2 πr 2π r
v
μe = n iA
ev
μe = 1 . .πr2
2π r
evr
μe =
2
e
μe = vr
2
e L h
μe = ( since L = )
2m 2π
 20

eh
μe =
4πm
1. Deduce an expression for the force on a current carrying conductor placed in a magnetic
field. Derive an expression for the force per unit length between two parallel current
carrying conductors.
Ans:
1) consider a conductor of length l and area of cross section A placed in uniform magnetic field at
angle θ to the field direction.
2) i be the current passing through the conductor
3) let n be the number of electrons per unit volume
force acting on the electron fm = - e ( vx B)
force acting on the element dfm = nAdl(- e ( vx B) ) ( since v = - dl / dt )
dl
d fm = nAdl e ( x B) )
dt
nA dl e nA dl e
d fm = ( dl x B ) ( dl x B )
dt dt
d fm = i ( dl x B )

force acting on the entire conductor is

F m = ∫ d fm

Fm = i (l x B)
Fm = B i l sin θ.
Force between two stright parallel current carrying coductors.
1. cosider two infinite conductors I and II separated by distance r
2. let i1 and i2 are the currents passing through them in same direction
3. M.I due to Ist conductor at II conductor
μ o i1
B=
2π r
4. M.I due to Ist conductor at II conductor
μ o i2
B=
2π r
5. force on I conductor due to II second conductor
F21 = B1 I2 l
μ o i1 i2
F21 = l
2π r
6. force on IIconductor due to I second conductor
F21 = B2 I1 l
μ o i1 i2
F21 = l
2π r
hence two conductors attract with each other
μ o i1 i2
F= l
2π r
the force acting per unit length
μ o i1 i2
F’= F /l =
2π r
2. Obtain an expression for the torque on a current loop placed in a uniform magnetic field.
Describe the construction and working of a moving coil galvanometer?
Ans:
torque acting on the current carrying coil placed in magnetic field:
1. consider rectangular coil ABCD of length l and breadth b.
 21

2. let i be the current passing through the coil

3. normal to the plane makes an angle θ with the field direction.
4. the forces on the sides AD and BC acts along the vetical in opposite direction hence they cancel
each other.
5. the forces on the sides AB and CD is Bil acts at the mid points P and Q
6.these two forces forms the couple
τ = force x perpendicular distance
τ = Bil x bsinθ = BiA sinθ
if plane of the coil makes an angle θ with the field directon
τ = BiAn cos θ.

Moving coil galvano meter:

principle: it works on the principle of torque acting on the current carrying coil placed in magnetic
field.
Constuction :
1. it consists of copper coil wound on the brass frame
2. it is suspended between magnetic poles with the help of wire
3. a mirror is arranged little above the copper coil to measure deflections.
4.a soft iron is placed in side the copper coil to increase the magneti intensity
5. the concave shaped poles produce radial field so plane of the coil always parallel to magnetic
field
6. so maximum torque acting on the coil at any position
theory:
deflecting torque τd = BiAn
restoring torque τr = Cθ
at equilibrium BiAn = Cθ
i=( ) C
BAn
θ
i=kθ

5. Derive an expression for the force acting between two very long parallel current carrying
conductors and hence the define ampere?
Ans:
Force between two stright parallel current carrying coductors.
1. cosider two infinite conductors I and II separated by distance r
2. let i1 and i2 are the currents passing through them in same direction
3. M.I due to Ist conductor at II conductor
μ o i1
B=
2π r
4. M.I due to Ist conductor at II conductor
 22

μ o i2
B=
2π r
5. force on I conductor due to II second conductor
F21 = B1 I2 l
μ o i1 i2
F21 = l
2π r
6. force on IIconductor due to I second conductor
F21 = B2 I1 l
μ o i1 i2
F21 = l
2π r
hence two conductors attract with each other
μ o i1 i2
F= l
2π r
the force acting per unit length
μ o i1 i2
F’= F /l =
2π r

ampere : when two identical conductors separated by1 meter distance in vaccum and
same current passing through them in same direction if they attract with force 2x 10 -7 N/m

then current passing through each conductor is one ampere

 23

electro magnetic induction

1.Obtain an expression for the emf induced across a conductor which is moved in a
uniform magnetic field which is perpendicular to the plane of motion?
Ans:
1)consider a rectangular coil PQRS of length l
2) let PQ be the movable wire
3) the uniform magneticfield B applied perpendicular to the plane of the coil
4) the movable wire moves with constant velocity v towards left
at any instant area enclosed by the loop is A = lx
magneticflux lincked with the loop Ø =BA = Blx
due to motion wire magnetic flux lincked with coil changes and emf induced in the coil
−d ϕ −d ( Blx ) dx
e= = =− Bl =Bvl (since dx / dt = -v )
dt dt dt

2.Describe the ways in which Eddy currents are used to advantage?

Ans:
electro magnetic breaking of trains: when electro magnets are activated, the eddy currents
induced in the rails which oppose the motion of the train.
Electro magnetic damping :when coil in the galvanometer oscillates , the eddy currents genarated
in the core oppose the motion and bring the coil to rest quickley.
Induction furnace:
1) induction furnace based on the heating effecting of eddy currents
2) the metal to be meltted is placed in high frequency change ing magneticfield
3) strong eddy currents are induced and large amount heat genarated on metal
4) induction furnace is used to separate metals from their ores and to make alloys.
Electric power meters: the shiney metal disc in electric power meters rotates due to eddy currents.
Induction cooking:the heat genarated by eddy currents in copper pots are used for cooking food
this process is called induction cooking.

3. Obtain an expression for the mutual inductance of two long co-axial solenoids?
Ans:
1) consider two solenoids S1 and S2 each of length l and area of cross section A
2) let N1 and N2 be number of turns in S1 and S2 respectively
3) let n1 and n2 be number of turns pr unit length in S1 and S2 respectively
4) let i be the current passing through the solenoid S1
5) the magnetic induction inside the coil S1 is B = μon1i
6) flux lincked with each turn of S2 is = BA
7) total flux lincked with S2 is Ø = N2 ( BA )
Ø = N2 ( μon1i A )
N N
Ø = μo 1 2 iAl ...................(1)
l l
 24

w.k.t. Ø = Mi .........................................(2)
N N
from (1) and (2) Mi = μo 1 2 iAl
l l
N 1 N2
M = μo Al
l l
M = μo n1n2 Al.

4. obtain an expression for the magnetic energy stored in a solienoid in terms of the
magneticfield , area and length of the solenoid.
Ans: let us consider a solenoid of length of length l and area of cross section A.
Let i be the current passing through the solenoid
work done by the battery aganist induced emf in 1 second = ei
work done by the battery aganist induced emf in dt time is
dw = ei dt
di
w.k.t e = L
dt
di
dw = L i dt
dt
dw = Li di
total work from 0 to io is W = ∫ dw
io

W= ∫ Li di
0
io

W = L∫ i di
0
i2
W =L o
2
this work is called energy stored in solenoid
i2
U= L o
2
B
wkt B = μoni .................→ i= and L = μo n2 Al
μo n
1
U = ( μon A l )
2
2 B 2
μo n ( )
1 B2
U= Al
2 μo
 25

Atoms
1. What is impact parameter and angle of scattering? How are they are related to each
other?
Ans:
scattering angle: the angle of diveation of α particle from its original direction is called scattering
angle
impact parameter: the perpendicular distance between velocity vector and central line of nucleus
is called impact parameter
2 θ
Ze cot
1 2
b = 4πε
o
( 1
2 )
m v2

3. What are the limitations of Bohr’s theory of hydrogen atom?

Ans:
1. this thory is only applicable to hydrogen like atoms
2. this theory explains circular orbits but not elliptical orbits
3. this theory does not explain, fine structures in hydrogen spectrum.
4. this theory does not take into account the wave properties of electrons

4. Explain the distance of closest approach and impact parameter?

Ans. Distance of Closest Approach (r0 ):
The minimum distance from the nucleus up to which the α-particle approach, is called the
Distance of Closest Approach (r0).
1) consider an α particle of kinetic energy E is directed towards the atomic nucleus.
2) Due repellsion between α particle and nuleus ,K.E decreases and P.E increaes as α particle
approches atomic nucleus
3) at closest approche K.E of α particle reduced to zero.
K.E of α particle E = 1/2 mv2
2 Z e2
P.E of α particle and nucleus P.E =
4 π εo r o
K.E = P.E
2 Z e2
1/2 mv =2
4 π εo r o
2
2Z e
ro =
( 1
4 π εo r o m v
2 )
2

5. Give a brief account of Thomson model of atom. What are its limitations?
Ans:
according to this model,
1. positive charge is uniformly distributed throught the volume of the atom.
2. the electrons are embedded like a seeds in water melon
3. total positive charge is balenced by total negative charge of electrons
4. this model is called plumpudding model of atom
limitations:
1.it failed to explain spectral series of hydrogen and other atoms
2. it failed to explain large scattering angles of α particle
6. Describe Rutherford atom model. What are the draw backs of this model?
Ans:
1. the atom consists of central core is called atomic nucleus in which entire mass and positve charge
are concentrated.
 26

2. the size of atom in the order of 10-10m and atomic nucleus in the order of 10-15m.
3. certain number of electrons revolve around the nucleus in circular orbits
4. the total negative charge of the electrons is equal to total positive charge on the nucleus.
Draw backs:
1. it failed to explain stability of atom.
2. it failed to explain spectral series of hydrogen and other atoms
7. Distinguish between excitation potential and ionization potential?
Ans:
Excitation potential Ionisation potential
1 The potential required to accelerate an The potential required to accelerate an electron so
electron so that it acquires excitation that it acquires ionisation energy is called
energy is called Excitation potential ionisation potential.
2 Vexe = E exe / e Vion = E ion / e
3 It can have many values ionisation potential is a single value
4 For ground state hydrogen atom ,the value For ground state hydrogen atom ,the value of
of excitation potential is 10.2V ionisation energy is 13.6V.
9.Write a short note on De Broglie’s explanation of Bohr’s second postulate of quantization?
Ans:
according to bohr’s second postulate angular momentum of an electron is quantised
nh
L = mvnrn =
2π
according to debroglie,
the electrons are associated with matter waves
when electron moves in the circular orbit a stationary wave is formed
the distance moved by the electron is equal to integral multiple of wave length λ
2πrn = nλ
2 π rn
λ= .............(1)
n
momentum of electron in nth orbit is P =mVn.................(2)
debrogle wave length λ = h / p

2 π rn h
=
n mV n
nh
mvnrn =
2π
3. State the basic postulates of Bohr’s theory of atomic spectra. Hence obtain an expression
for the radius of orbit and the energy of orbital electron in a hydrogen atom?
Ans:
first postulate:each and every electron revolve around the nucleus in circular orbit
2
mv
centripetal force Fc=
r
2
1 Ze
electrostatic force of attraction Fe =
4 π εo r2
Fc = F e

mv
2
1 Ze2
= ................(1)
r 4 π εo r2
h
second postulate:the angular momentum of an electron is equal to integral multiple of
2π
 27

nh
mvr = ..........................( 2)
2π
where n =1,2,3.....................................
third postulate:the energy of electron remains constant while revoving in the circular orbit
if electron emits or absorb energy when it jumps from one orbit to other orbit
E2 – E1 = hν...............................(3)
expression for radius:
nh
mvr =
2π
nh
v=
2 π mr
2
m v2 1 Ze
from (1) =
r 4 π εo r2
m 2 1 Ze 2
v=
r 4 π εo r2
2
ε o h n2
r=
πme Z
2

2
m v2 1 Ze
expression for K.E: = ................(1)
r 4 π εo r2
2 1 Ze2
mv =
4 π εo r
1 2 1 Ze 2
K.E = m v =
2 8 π εo r
expression for P.E:
1 q 1 q2
P.E =
4 π εo r

2
−1 Ze
P.E =
4 π εo r

expression for T.E: T.E = P.E + K.E

−1 Ze2 1 Ze 2
T.E = +
4 π εo r 8 π εo r
2
−1 Ze
T.E =
8 π εo r
 28

waves
1. Explain the formation of stationary waves in stretched strings and hence deduce the
laws of transverse waves in stretched strings?
Ans:
stationary wave:two progressive waves of same amplitude ,wave length and frequency travelling
in opposite direction super pose over each other stationary waves are formed
formation of stationary waves in a streatched string:
a string is fixed between two rigid supports and plucked at middle
then incident and reflected waves forms the stationary wave
y1 = a sin (kx - wt)
y2 = a sin (kx +wt)
according to super position principle
y = y 1 + y2
y = a sin (kx – wt) + a sin (kx + wt)
y = a ( sin (kx – wt) + sin (kx + wt)
y = ( 2a sin kx ) cos wt
y = A cos wt
amplitude of resultant wave is
A = 2a sin kx
condition for minima :the points of minimum displacement are called nodes
sin kx = 0
kx = nπ
2π
x=n π
λ
λ
x=n( ) ( where n= 1, 2,3............)
2
λ λ λ
x = 0 , , 2 , 3 ..................................................
2 2 2
condition for mixima :the points of miximum displacement are called anti nodes
sin kx = 1
kx = (2n + 1)π/2
2π π
x= ( 2n+1 )
λ 2
λ
x=(2n+1)( ) ( where n= 1, 2,3............)
4
λ λ λ
x = ,3 , 5 ..................................................
4 4 4
laws of transvers waves in streatched string :
fundamental frequency is given by n =
√ 1 T
2l μ
1 st law: the fundamental frequency of streatched string is inversely proportional to length
1
nα where T and μ are constant
l
second law: the fundamental frequency of streatched string is directly proportional to squre root of
tension
n α √T where l and μ are constant
third law: the fundamental frequency of streatched string is inversely proportional to squre root of
linear density
1
nα where T and l are constant
√μ
 29

2.Explain the formation of stationary waves in an air column enclosed in open pipe.
Derive the equations for the frequencies of harmonics produced.
Ans:
open pipe: a cylindrical tube open at both ends is called open pipe
formation of stationary waves in a open pipe:
1. a vibrating tunning fork is placed at the open end of open pipe
2. then compressions and rarefactions are produced in air column
3. these compressions and rarefactions move forward and reflected at open end
4. the incident and reflected waves forms the logitudinal stationary wave
case1: if air column vibrating with one node and two anti nodes
λ λ λ
l= + =
4 4 2
λ = 2l
v v
wkt n= =
λ 2l
v
n=
2l
this frequency is called fundamental frequency
case2: if air column vibrating with two nodes and three anti nodes
λ ' λ ' λ' λ'
l= + + =2
4 2 4 2
l
λ‘=2
2
v v
=
wkt n’ = λ ' l
2
2

( )
n’ = 2
v
2l
this frequency is called second harmonic.
case3: if air column vibrating with three nodes and four anti nodes
λ'' λ'' λ'' λ'' λ''
l= + + + =3
4 2 2 4 2
l
λ ' ' =2
3
v v
=
n’’ = λ ' ' l
2
3

( )
n’’ = 3
v
2l
this frequency is called third harmonic.
In open pipe harmonics are in the ratio 1: 2: 3:4.............................
3. How are stationary waves formed in a closed pipe? Explain the various modes of
vibrations in a closed pipe and establish the relation between their frequencies?
Ans:
closed pipe: a cylindrical tube closed at one end is called pipe
formation of stationary waves in a closed pipe:
1. a vibrating tunning fork is placed at the open end of closed pipe
2. then compressions and rarefactions are produced in air column
 30

3. these compressions and rarefactions move forward and reflected at closed end
4. the incident and reflected waves forms the logitudinal stationary wave
case1: if air column vibrating with one node and one anti node
waves
λ
l=
4
λ =4l
v v
n= =
λ 4l
v
n=
4l

this frequency is called fundamental frequency

case2: if air column vibrating with two nodes and two anti nodes
λ' λ' λ'
l= + =3
2 4 4
4l
λ'=
3

v v
n'= =
λ' 4 l
3
v
n '=3
4l

this frequency is called third harmonic

case3: if air column vibrating with three nodes and three anti nodes

λ' ' λ'' λ' ' λ''

l= + + =5
2 2 4 4
4l
λ' '=
5

v v
n' '= =
λ' 4l
5
v
n ' ' =5
4l

this frequency is called fifth harmonic

In closed pipe harmonics are in the ratio 1: 3: 5: 7............................

nuclei
Explain the principle and working of a nuclear reactor with the help of a labeled diagram
Ans:
Nuclear Reactor:a device which produce large amount of energy under controlled chain reaction
nuclear reactor has five components
 31

1) fuel ,2) moderator,3) control rods 4) coolent 5) radiation shielding

fuel: the fissonable material in the nuclear reactor is called fuel
ex: plutonium,92U235,92U238,99th232
moderator:the substence which slow down the fast moving nuetrons is called moderator
ex: graphite, heavy water.
Control rods: the materials which absorbs the excess nuetrons and control the chain reaction are
called control rods.
Ex:cadmium,boron.
Coolent:The material used to absorb the heat generated in the nuclear reactor and transferred to
required place is called coolant.
Ex: cold water, molten sodium etc.
Radiation shielding:any radiation leaking out from core of nuclear reactor are harm for the humans
and animals living near the nuclear reactor.
So walls of concrete, lead and steel of thickness 10m are constructed around the nuclear reactor is
called radiation shielding.
Working:When a 235 U nuclei undergo fission fast neutrons are liberated. These neutrons pass
through the surrounding graphite moderation and lose their kinetic energy to become thermal
neutrons.These thermal neutrons are captured by U which carries out the fission reaction.
By using the control rods the fission process can be controlled. The heat generated in this
process is used for heating coolant which in turn heat water and produce steam. This steam is
used to rotate a turbine for the production of electric power.
Uses of a Nuclear Reactor:
1) To generate electric power.
2) To produce radioactive materials like Plutonium-239 used in the fields of medicine, industry
etc.
Explain the source of stellar energy. Explain the carbon-nitrogen cycle and proton-proton
 32

cycle occurring in stars.

Ans:
energy of sun and stars:
1) the sun and stars have been radiating huge amount of energy from billions of years.
2) the energy of sun and stars are due to nuclear fusion in the core of stars.
3) scientists proposed two types cyclic reactions carbon -nitrogen cycle and proton- proton cycle.
carbon -nitrogen:

6C12 + 1H1 →7 N13 + γ

7 N13 → 6 C 13 + 1 e o + ν

6 C13 + 1H1 →7 N14 + γ

7 N14 + 1H1 →8 O15 + γ

8 O 15 → 7 N15 + 1e o +ν
7 N15 + 1H1 →6 C12 + 2 He 4
net result 4 1H1 → 2 He 4 + 2 1 e o + 2 ν + 3 γ
in this process energy released is 26.7 Mev
proton -proton cycle:
1H1 + 1H1 → 1 H 2+ 1 e o + ν

1 H2 + 1H1 →2He 3 +γ ..................................(1)

1 H1 + 1H1 → 1 H 2+ 1 e o + ν

1 H2 + 1H1 →2He 3 +γ ..................................(2)

from (1) & (2)

2 He 3 + 2 He 3 → 2 He 4 + 2 1H1
net result 4 1H1 → 2 He 4 + 2 1 e o + 2 ν + 2 γ
in this process energy released is 26.7 Mev