Breathing and

exchange of gases
*** Different animals have different respiratory organs depending
up on their habitat and level of organisation

Protozoans .,,. Plasmalemma, pellicle

In Sponges .., Cell membrane of each cell

Ctenophora and coelenterates, the gas exchange occurs through the

cell surface directly

Flat worms and round worms do not have a circulatory system but
gases are diffused through body surface
*** Different animals have different respiratory organs depending
up on their habitat and level of organisation

Earthworms exchange gases with their moist skin

Insects have tracheal system (Most efficient respiration in invertebrates)

Aquatic arthropods and molluscs have gills
Book lungs – Scorpions and Spiders
Book gills – Limulus (King crab)

External gills are present in most species of salamanders (i.e

Necturus) , lungfish, and bichirs
Ventilation and Perfusion
Two important aspects of gas exchange in the lung are
ventilation and perfusion.

Ventilation is the movement of air into and out of the lungs.

Perfusion is the flow of blood in the pulmonary capillaries.

For gas exchange to be efficient, the volumes involved in

ventilation and perfusion should be compatible
(a) The residual air in the lungs slightly decreases the efficiency
of respiration in mammals

(b) The presence of non-respiratory air sacs, increases the

efficiency of respiration in birds

(c) The principle of countercurrent flow facilitates efficient

respiration in the gills of fishes
 RESPIRATORY PASSAGE
1. External nostrils

2. Nasal chamber (vestibular, respiratory, olfactory regions)

There are two nasal chambers
Internally lined by epithelium – respiratory epithelium
(pseudostratified ciliated columnar)
3. Internal nares ... guarded by uvula (velum palati)
4. Nasopharynx
Only air passes through this chamber
Opens into trachea through glottis (upper opening of larynx)
Glottis is covered by epiglottis – prevents the entry of food into trachea

5. Larynx (sound/voice box) ..

Made up of nine cartilages & two pairs of vocal cords
( 1st/outer pair is false vocal cords as its not involved in sound
production and 2nd/inner pair is true vocal cords)

Air- larynx- vibrations- sound production

The pitch of sound – tension on the vocal cords
 3 Paired
3 unpaired
Trachea (wind pipe)
10 – 12 cm long and 2.5 cm in diameter
Divides into two bronchus at the level of 5th thoracic vertebrae
Lined by C-shaped (incomplete dorsally) rings of cartilage (hyaline) to
prevent it from collapsing

Bronchi
Splits and forms secondary, tertiary bronchus and bronchioles
Bronchi and initial bronchioles are also supported by rings of
cartilage
Arteries – carries blood away from the heart, pulmonary artery*
Veins - carries blood towards the heart, pulmonary veins*
Alveoli
Very thin layered, irregular walled balloon like structures called
alveoli
alveolar duct – atria – alveolar sac
Richly supplied with blood vessels

150 million alveoli in each lung

Lecithin (surfactant) - lower the surface tension at the air/liquid

interface within the alveoli of the lung – secreted by type II
alveolar epithelial cells (70 – 100 m2)
 LUNGS
1.Bronchi, bronchioles and alveoli are enclosed in a double membranous bag
like structure called lungs
2.Pink color at birth but change into dark grey due to exposure to
carbonaceous material
3. Each lung is enclosed by two pleural membranes –
Outer – parietal pleura
inner – visceral pleura
Pleural cavity is the space between two pleural membranes which contains
pleural fluid to reduce friction between pleura

4. Right lung - Broader and shorter due to the presence of liver

Left lung- narrower and longer due to the presence of heart
 HEART

10 segments
625 grams LIVER

8 segments
565 grams
External nostrils – nasal chamber – internal nares –
nasopharynx – glottis – trachea – primary bronchi – secondary
bronchi – tertiary bronchi – bronchioles – alveolar ducts – atria
– alveolar sac – alveoli

From Nasal chamber to Terminal bronchioles are conducting

part of respiratory system
Alveolar ducts and alveoli forms exchange/ respiratory part of
respiratory system.
trachea – primary bronchi – secondary bronchi – tertiary
bronchi – initial bronchioles are supported by incomplete rings
of cartilage

Terminal bronchioles - do not have the rings of cartilage

FUNCTIONS OF CONDUCTING PART

✓Mucus is sticky, hence traps dust and microorganisms
✓Makes the incoming air humid
✓Brings the temperature of incoming air to body temperature
 Steps in respiration

1.Breathing : Inhalation and exhalation of air

2.Diffusion of O2 from alveoli into blood and CO2 from
blood into alveoli
3.Transportation of gases
4.Diffusion of gases between blood and tissues
5.Utilisation of oxygen by cells

C6H12O6 + 6O2 ----- 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy

 Steps in respiration

1.Breathing : inhalation and exhalation

2.External respiration : exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide

between alveolar air and capillaries around alveoli

3.Internal respiration : exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide

between blood vessels and body tissues

4.Cellular respiration : Utilization of oxygen (i.e. Glycolysis)

 MECHANISM OF BREATHING
Duration of Inspiration (0.5 – 2 sec)
Duration of Expiration (2 – 5 sec)

Robert Boyle’s Law: States that the pressure (p) of a given quantity of
gas varies inversely with its volume (v) at constant temperature

The Hering–Breuer reflex (also called the inflation reflex) ., when the
lungs are normally inflated pulmonary stretch receptors activate pnemotaxic
centre via vagus nerve , pnemotaxic centre then inhibits Apneustic centre
(Apneustic centre will not send any signals for DRG )
Dorso-ventral
axis

Urge to inhale
is due to
raising CO2

Anterio-
posterior axis
Forceful expiration

Internal intercoastal muscles – contracts – moves ribs

downward and inward – reducing thoracic volume – increase in the
pressure of pulmonary cavity

Abdominal muscles – contract – reduced thoracic cavity –

increase in the pressure of pulmonary cavity
 Stage of Contraction / Volume of
Muscles involved
breathing relaxation thoracic cavity
Diaphragm (Flattens) Contracts increases
Normal
inspiration increases
Ext intercoastal muscles Contracts
Diaphragm (Dome-shaped)
relaxes Decreases
Normal
expiration Ext intercoastal muscles
relaxes Decreases
internal intercoastal muscles
Forceful Contracts Decreases
expiration Abdominal muscles Contracts Decreases
Lungs of Mammals – Suction pump type
Lungs of Frogs – pressure pump type

Intra-pulmonary pressure : Pressure of the gases present

in alveolar cavity/ lungs
Intra-Pleural pressure : Pressure of gases in the pleural
cavity
This is because the volume of the expired air is slightly less than that of inspired air, which is caused by the fact
that the amount of CO2 evolved is less than the amount of oxygen absorbed.

pO2 .. In atm air = 159 mm/hg

in Alveolar air = 104 mm/hg
in expired air = 116 mm/hg

pCO2 .., In atm air = 0.3 mm/hg

in Alveolar air = 40 mm/hg
in expired air = 32 mm/hg
CO2 is more in alveolar air than expired air.
➢It is possible to breath only by moving Diaphragm without moving ribs

➢We can't breath or survive if the thoracic cavity is punctured

➢Shallow breathing, thoracic breathing, costal breathing or chest breathing is

the drawing of minimal breath into the lungs, usually by drawing air into the
chest area using the intercostal muscles rather than throughout the lungs via
the diaphragm.

➢Females have thoracicoabdominal breathing pattern… it is mainly due to

the fat distribution over the abdomen

➢Males have abdomino-thoracic breathing ., males have stronger/10%

longer diaphragm than females
Pulmonary/ respiratory volumes and capacities

Pulmonary/ respiratory volumes: quantity of air which our lungs

can hold or expel under different conditions

TIDAL VOLUME (TV) : volume of air inspired or expired during normal

breathing (500 ml), ***lowest among all respiratory volumes

INSPIRATORY RESERVE VOLUME (IRV) : extra volume of air a person

can inspire by forceful inspiration (2500 ml to 3000 ml)

EXPIRATORY RESERVE VOLUME (ERV) : extra volume of air a person

can expire by forceful expiration (1000 ml to 1100 ml)
RESIDUAL VOLUME (RV) : volume of air which remains in lungs even
after the forceful expiration (1100ml to 1200ml)

Respiratory capacities : sum of two or more respiratory volumes is

called respiratory capacity

INSPIRATORY CAPACITY (IC): total volume of air a person can inspire

(TV + IRV)

EXPIRATORY CAPACITY (EC): total volume of air a person can expire

(TV + ERV)
FUNCTIONAL RESIDUAL CAPACITY (FRC): volume of air remain in
lungs after normal expiration (ERV + RV)

VITAL CAPACITY (VC): Maximum volume of air a person can breath

in after a forceful expiration or maximum volume of air a person can
breath out after a forceful inspiration (ERV + IRV + TV)

TOTAL LUNG CAPACITY : total volume of air present in the lungs and
respiratory passages after a maximum inspiration
(RV + ERV + IRV + TV or VC + RV)

Spirometer – used to measure lung volumes and capacities

DEAD SPACE (physiological dead space ) = 150ml

is the volume of air that is inhaled that does not take part in the gas
exchange, because it either remains in the conducting airways or
reaches alveoli that are not perfused or poorly perfused

Anatomical dead space – volume of air in conducting parts

*** Old man has high dead space than old woman
Pulmonary Ventilation:
TV * Respiratory rate

Alveolar Ventilation:
(TV – Dead space) * respiratory rate
Exchange of gases

Factors that affect the rate of diffusion

1. Solubility of gases : gas with high solubility diffuses fast
(CO2 is 20-25 times more soluble than O2)
2. Partial pressure : high partial pressure – faster the
diffusion
3. Thickness of the diffusing membrane: more thick – slow
diffusion
 pO2 = 104 pO2 = 104
pCO2 = 40 pCO2 = 40

pO2 = 95
pO2 = 40
pCO2 = 40
pCO2 = 45
Normal composition
of alveolar air

14% oxygen,
6% carbon dioxide,
pO2 = 40 pO2 = 40 80% nitrogen
pCO2 = 45 pCO2 = 45
This is because the volume of the expired air is slightly less than that of inspired air, which is caused by the fact
that the amount of CO2 evolved is less than the amount of oxygen absorbed.

pO2 .. In atm air = 159 mm/hg

in Alveolar air = 104 mm/hg
in expired air = 116 mm/hg

pCO2 .., In atm air = 0.3 mm/hg

in Alveolar air = 40 mm/hg
in expired air = 32 mm/hg
CO2 is more in alveolar air than expired air.
DIFFUSING MEMBRANE
0.2 -0.3 μm thick

1.Thin squamous epithelium of

alveoli
2.Endothelial layer of capillaries
3.Basement substance : present
between these two layers
Transport
of
gases
 Transport of oxygen

oxygen is transported in following ways

In dissolved form : about 3% of O2 is transported by plasma in
dissolved state
As oxyhaemoglobin : about 97% is transported by haemoglobin
(RBCs)

Hb contains four heme groups and

four globin protein chains
(2 alpha and 2 beta)
 Cooperativity / cooperative
Near lungs binding Binding of one oxygen
Neutral pH, increases the Hb affinity with
low temperature oxygen
High pO2 , low pCO2
Hb + 4O2 Hb (O2)4
hemoglobin oxyhemoglobin

At tissues
Acidic pH,
warm
low pO2 , high pCO2
Each Hb - maximum of four oxygen atoms at a time
One RBC contains 250 million Hb molecules
(ie. 1 RBC can carry as many as 1 billion molecules of O2)

Normal range of Hb = 15g / 100ml

1g of Hb can bind to 1.34ml of O2

Arterial blood = 20 ml of O2 / 100ml , Veins = 14.4 ml of O2 / 100ml

About 5 ml of O2 is delivered into tissue cells by 100 ml of blood

Under exercise, 15ml of O2 is delivered into tissue cells

% saturation of Hb
percentage of hemoglobin bin
ding sites in the bloodstream
occupied by oxygen

P50 (=27) partial pressure of

oxygen at which 50% of Hb is
saturated
Increases = affinity decreases
Decreases = affinity increases
The following physiological factors influence the affinity of
hemoglobin for oxygen:

The partial pressure of CO2

pH, independent of CO2
The concentration of 2,3-DPG inside the erythrocytes
The presence of unusual haemoglobin species
Temperature
/Steeper

Bohr’s effect
Mb > Hb-F > Hb-A
 Transport of carbon dioxide
Is transported in following 3 ways

In dissolved form through plasma : 7% of CO2 is transported this way

As carbaminohaemoglobin by RBCs : about 20-25% is transported this
way

✓Increase the stability of T- form of haemoglobin (tensed form)

✓Decrease the affinity of haemoglobin to oxygen
✓Shift the dissociation curve to right
As bicarbonate ions :
about 70% is transported this way
H+ ions combines with Hb and form haemoglobinic acid (H Hb)
The HCO3- diffuses out form RBC into plasma and combine with Na+
and form sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3)

When the HCO3- moving out of RBCs, chloride (Cl-) ions moves into
RBCs from plasma ...called chloride shift/hamburger phenomenon

Effect of oxygenation of blood on dissociation of

Carbaminohemoglobin and Sodium bicarbonate is called haldane’s
effect

100ml of blood delivers 4ml of CO2 into the alveoli

How much amount of oxygen is delivered to tissues by 5 litres
of blood under normal conditions and strenous conditions ?

Under normal conditions = 250ml (5ml of oxygen by 100ml of

blood)
Strenous conditions = 750 ml (15ml of oxygen/100ml of blood)
Pulmonary vein carries Oxygenated blood
Systemic artery carries Oxygenated blood
Pulmonary artery carries De-oxygenated blood
Systemic vein carries De-oxygenated blood
 Regulation of breathing
Respiratory rate is controlled by neural and chemical regulation
i. Neural regulation is by Medulla and Pons
Ii. Chemical regulation is by Chemoreceptors
Neural regulation
In medulla oblongata -
Respiratory rhythm centre : (undersurface, ventral )
has two branches of neurons
The ventral respiratory group stimulates voluntary forced expiratory
movements
The dorsal respiratory group stimulates normal inspiratory movements.
(The medulla also controls the reflexes for non-respiratory air movements, such as
coughing and sneezing reflexes, as well as other reflexes, like swallowing and vomiting)
In pons
its main function is to control the rate or speed of involuntary respiration
Apneustic center sends signals for inspiration for long and deep breaths.
inhibited by the stretch receptors of the pulmonary muscles at maximum
depth of inspiration, or by signals from the pnuemotaxic center.
It increases tidal volume.
Pnuemotaxic center sends signals to inhibit inspiration which reduces
duration of inspiration and increases breathing rate.
Its signals limit the activity of the phrenic nerve and inhibits the signals of the
apneustic center.
It decreases tidal volume.

The apneustic and pnuemotaxic centers work against each other to control the
respiratory rate.
 Chemical regulation

Central chemoreceptors:
present on ventrolateral surface of medulla oblongata
Detect changes in pCO2 pH of cerebro spinal fluid (CSF)
They can be desensitized over time from chronic hypoxia (oxygen deficiency) and
increased carbon dioxide.

Peripheral chemoreceptors:
aortic body - (Present in aorta) detects changes in blood O and CO2, but not pH,
carotid body - (Present in Carotid artery) which detects all three (O2, CO2, pH)
They do not desensitize, and have less of an impact on the respiratory rate compared
to the central chemoreceptors.
 Disorders of respiratory system

Asthma
It occurs due to allergic reaction to foreign substances (the agents
which cause allergy are known as allergens)

Symptoms
✓Difficulty breathing due to inflammation (swelling and redness of
bronchi and bronchioles)
✓Characterized by spasm of smooth muscles present in walls of
bronchiole
✓Coughing, wheezing
Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD)
Emphysema
Emphysema means inflation . . . . Chronic disorder
Major cause is excessive cigarette smoking

Symptoms
Walls of alveoli are damaged
Loss of elasticity of walls of bronchioles and alveoli (alveolar sacs
remain filled with air even after expiration)

DEAD SPACE – alveolar dead space tend to increase

PNEUMONIA

S pnemoniae
H influenza
Occupational respiratory disorders

Continuous exposure to harmful substance, gases, fumes and dust in

the working environment
Silicosis and asbestosis are the most common examples
Other example includes Pneumoconiasis

Symptoms
Proliferation of fibrous tissues
Causing inflammation (swelling and redness of lungs)
Cystic Fibrosis/Bronchiectasis
Cystic fibrosis is a genetic respiratory disease caused by mutation in a
gene called CFTR (cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance
regulator)
it creates thick and sticky mucus that clogs up tubes and passageways
This mucus causes repeat, and dangerous, lung infections

Pleurisy
Inflammation of pleural membranes
pleurisy causes sharp chest pain (pleuritic pain) that worsens during
breathing
Causes include infection of virus, bacteria, fungi, rib fracture
Hay fever, or allergic rhinitis

is a common condition with symptoms similar to those of a cold.

There may be sneezing, congestion, runny nose, and sinus pressure

caused by an allergic response to outdoor or indoor allergens, such

as pollen, dust mites, or tiny flecks of skin and saliva shed by cats,
dogs, and other animals with fur or feathers
Respiratory disorders in divers

As diver descends, the gas mixture he inspires comes under

increasing pressure
nitrogen is five times more soluble in lipids .. Fats, nervous
system take up nitrogen

As diver ascends – gases come out of solution – bubbles

Causes pain or severe pain (caisson’s /bend’s disease/
Dysbarrism)
Altitude sickness / mountain sickness
Inadequate supply of oxygen to body tissues
Higher altitudes have low atmospheric pressure
Low affinity of Hb to Oxygen

Adaptations
➢Higher cardiac output with tachycardia
➢No change in Stroke volume
➢Slight increase in blood pressure temporarily
➢Increasing the RBC production
Carbon monoxide poisoning

CO has 250 times higher affinity towards Hb than Oxygen

CO binds to Hb to form carboxyhaemoglobin
Reduced supply of oxygen to body tissues
Headachae, nausea, dizziness and even death

Atelectasis
Means collapse of alveoli
Caused due to reduced or absence of surfactant (Respiratory
dystress syndrome)
Dysbarism describes any condition resulting from changes in
ambient pressure that occur at a rate outpacing the body's ability
to adapt safely. Examples of dybarism include decompression
sickness (DCS), nitrogen narcosis, high-pressure neurological
syndrome (HPNS), barotrauma, and arterial gas emboli (AGE)
Eupnea : normal breathing
Apnea : transient cessation of breathing
Hyperpnea : increased pulmonary ventilation .. Exercise
Dyspnea : Painful breathing
Orthopnea : Difficult breathing
Asphyxia : deficiency of oxygen in the body (due to injury or choking
of airway passages)
Hypoxia : insufficient oxygen at cellular level (inadequate delivery,
uptake or utilization of oxygen)
Cyanosis : blueness of the skin due to inadequate oxygen in arteries
Hypercapnia : excess CO2 in arterial blood
Hypocapnia : low CO2 in arterial blood