Thermocouple :

A thermocouple is a widely used temperature sensor in industrial applications due to its simplicity,
durability, wide temperature range, and fast response time. It consists of the junction of two
dissimilar metallic conductors, in which an electromotive force is induced when the conductors are
maintained at different temperatures, the force being related to the temperature difference: used to
determine the temperature of a third substance by connecting it to the junction of the metals and
measuring the electromotive force produced .

Basic Principle Of Thermocouple:

The working principle of thermocouple is based on three effects, discovered by Seebeck, Peltier and
Thomson. They are as follows:

Seebeck effect: The Seebeck effect states that when two different or unlike metals are joined
together at two junctions, an electromotive force (emf) is generated at the two junctions. The
amount of emf generated is different for different combinations of the metals.

Peltier effect: As per the Peltier effect, when two dissimilar metals are joined together to form
two junctions, emf is generated within the circuit due to the different temperatures of the two
junctions of the circuit.

Thomson effect: As per the Thomson effect, when two unlike metals are joined together forming
two junctions, the potential exists within the circuit due to temperature gradient along the entire
length of the conductors within the circuit.

Fig : Structure of Thermocouple

Types Of Thermocouple:
There are different types of thermocouple based on the requirement the thermocouple has to be
choosen. The types and temperature range of thermocouple is given by

Type Conductor Combination Temperature Range

°F °C
J Iron / Constantan 32 to 1400 0 to 760
K Nickel-chromium/ 32 to 2300 0 to 1260
Nickel Aluminium
N Nicrosil/ Nisil 32 to 2300 0 to 1260
R Platinum 13% 1600 to 2640 870 to 1450
 Rhodium/
S Platinum Platinum 1800 to 2640 980 to 1450
10% Rhodium /
Platinum
T Copper / Constantan -75 to +700 -59 to +370

Thermocouple in Industrial Application :

In industry, thermocouples are essential for monitoring and controlling temperature in processes
that require precision and reliability. Each industry selects the thermocouple type (such as Type K, J,
T, or R) based on required temperature range, environmental conditions, and desired accuracy. Type
K thermocouples are the most commonly used in general-purpose industrial applications due to
their wide range (-200°C to 1350°C), cost-effectiveness, and stability. Thermocouples are also valued
for their robustness and ability to function in harsh environments, including corrosive atmospheres
and high-pressure zones. They can be encased in protective sheaths like stainless steel or Inconel to
enhance durability.

In automation and control systems, thermocouples are integrated with PLCs (Programmable Logic
Controllers) and DCS systems to provide real-time temperature feedback, ensuring process
optimization, safety, and energy efficiency. Their compatibility with data loggers and microcontrollers
also supports advanced monitoring and predictive maintenance.

Fig : Thermocouples

Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD) :

A Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD) is a highly accurate and stable temperature sensor widely
used in industrial applications where precision and repeatability are critical. RTDs work on the
principle that the electrical resistance of a metal changes with temperature. Typically, platinum is
used (e.g., Pt100), due to its predictable and linear resistance-temperature relationship.

Basic working process :

1) Temperature change causes a change in the resistance of the RTD element.

2) This resistance is measured using a Wheatstone bridge or a suitable resistance-measuring circuit.

3) The measured resistance is then converted into temperature using a calibration equation or a
standard reference table (like the IEC 60751 for Pt100).
Application in Industry :
Industries such as oil refinery rely on RTDs for accurate temperature measurement, especially within
the range of -200°C to 600°C. Unlike thermocouples, RTDs offer better accuracy, repeatability, and
long-term stability, making them ideal for monitoring controlled environments and sensitive
processes.

The most common industrial RTD is the Pt100, which has a resistance of 100 ohms at 0°C. RTDs are
available in 2-wire, 3-wire, and 4-wire configurations, where the 3- and 4-wire types help eliminate
the effect of lead wire resistance, improving accuracy — a key requirement in process industries.

In modern industries, RTDs are integrated with DCS (Distributed Control Systems), PLCs, and digital
transmitters to enable real-time temperature monitoring and process control. Their high accuracy
supports critical operations such as quality control, safety interlocks, and regulatory compliance in oil
industries.

Temperature Switch :
A temperature switch is a control device that monitors temperature and triggers an action—such as
turning equipment on or off—when a specific temperature threshold is reached. It plays a crucial
role in industrial automation, protection, and temperature regulation systems.

The basic working principle of a temperature switch involves a sensing element (such as a bimetallic
strip, thermistor, RTD, or thermocouple) that detects temperature changes. When the sensed
temperature crosses the preset limit, the switch opens or closes electrical contacts, controlling
connected devices like heaters, fans, alarms, or pumps. The switching mechanism can be mechanical
or electronic, depending on the type.

Mechanical temperature switches, often using bimetallic strips, are simple and rugged, making them
suitable for harsh industrial environments. Electronic temperature switches, on the other hand,
provide more precise control and can be integrated into digital control systems like PLCs and DCS .

Key Applications of Temperature Switches :

1) Overheating Protection in Pumps and Motors:

 Temperature switches are installed on motor windings and pump casings to detect
overheating.

 If the temperature exceeds safe limits, the switch trips the power supply to prevent damage.
2) Furnace and Heater Safety Systems:

 In crude and vacuum distillation units, temperature switches monitor furnace tube
temperatures.

 They trigger shutdown or alarms to prevent tube rupture or fire hazards.

3) Reactor Temperature Monitoring:

 Used in catalytic cracking or hydro-treating reactors where precise temperature control is

vital.

 The switch ensures the reaction stays within a safe range, avoiding runaway reactions.

4) Heat Exchangers and Boilers:

 Used to detect abnormal temperatures in heat exchangers and boiler systems.

 Helps in maintaining thermal balance and preventing pressure build-up.

5) Storage and Tank Farms:

 In fuel and chemical storage tanks, temperature switches detect excessive ambient or
internal heat.

 Ensures safety during hot weather or abnormal conditions.

Temperature Transmitter :
A temperature transmitter is an electronic device that is used to convert the signal generated by
the temperature sensor such as a thermocouple, RTD, or thermistor to the standard
instrumentation signal. This signal indicates the temperature of the process under measurement
and control. The most common instrumentation output signal in temperature transmitters is 4 to
20 mA or 0-10V DC ranges. For instance, 4mA can indicate 0°C and 20mA means 100°C. The
temperature signal measured by the temperature transmitter is sent to the controller. The action
required for the process, such as lowering or raising the temperature, is performed by relevant
instrument ordered by the controller.

So transmitters can receive an electronic signal from a temperature sensor and convert it into a
reliable signal. This signal is easily transmissible and is provided to the control or processing unit.
Usually, the output signal of the transmitters is sent to a control device, such as PLC, DCS, PC, loop
controller, data logger, display, or recorder.

Temperature transmitters come in a variety of shapes and sizes that we will talk about it in the
following paragraphs. The Choosing of a temperature transmitter depends on the application and
the environment used.

Working principle of a Temperature Transmitter :

The temperature transmitter, proportional to the input of the temperature sensor, supplies its
current from a DC power supply and ultimately transmits the actual signal as a change in the power
supply.

For instance, a thermocouple input transmitter draws a current of 4 mA from the power supply
during the lowest temperature measurement.

Then, as the temperature increases, the transmitter draws proportionally more current until it
reaches 20 mA, which is the maximum temperature sensed by the sensor.

In other words, 4 and 20 mA corresponding to the lowest and highest temperature of the sensor,
respectively.

Flow Transmitter :
A flow transmitter is an instrument used to measure the flow rate of liquids, gases, or steam in
industrial pipelines and transmit this data to control systems like DCS or PLC. It works with a flow
sensor or primary element (like an orifice plate, turbine, or electromagnetic sensor) and converts
the flow data into a standardized output signal

Working Principle:
A flow transmitter works on the differential pressure (DP) flow measurement principle, based on
Bernoulli’s theorem. This is one of the most commonly used and reliable methods for measuring the
flow of fluids (liquids, gases, or steam) in pipelines, especially in industries like refineries. Differential
Pressure (DP) Flow Transmitter:

1. Installation of Orifice Plate:

o An orifice plate (a flat metal plate with a central hole) is installed between two
flanges in a pipeline.

o This plate creates a restriction in the flow path.

 2. Pressure Drop Generation:

o As the fluid flows through the pipeline and passes the orifice hole, it is forced to
accelerate, causing a pressure drop across the orifice.

o According to Bernoulli’s principle, an increase in velocity leads to a decrease in

pressure.

3. Sensing Differential Pressure:

o Tappings (pressure ports) are placed upstream and downstream of the orifice plate
to measure the pressure difference (ΔP).

o This differential pressure is proportional to the square of the flow rate.

4. Flow Transmitter Function:

o A differential pressure transmitter connected to the tapping points senses this ΔP.

o The transmitter then calculates the flow rate using the formula:

Qα √∆ P
Where:

Q = flow rate

ΔP = pressure difference across the orifice

5. Signal Transmission:

o The transmitter converts the calculated flow into a standard output signal (e.g., 4–
20 mA).

o This signal is sent to DCS, PLC, or SCADA systems for monitoring, control, or
recording.

Industrial Use :
In a refinery like NRL, flow transmitters are vital for process control, safety, and efficiency.
Applications include:

 Crude oil and product flow monitoring in pipelines.

 Steam and utility flow control in boilers and heating systems.

 Fuel gas and air flow measurement in burners and furnaces.

 Water and effluent flow in treatment plants and cooling systems.

 Chemical injection flow in reaction units and blending operations.