AGRICULTURAL BASIC SCIENCE.

CYTOLOGY
A cell is a basic structural and functional unit of life of an organism.
PLANT CELL
It is bound by cell wall. The plant cell consists of nucleus, nucleolus and the cytoplasm. The centre
of the cell is taken up by a large vacuole filled with a solution containing the cell sap.
Structure of a plant cell

THE ANIMAL CELL

It is bound by a cell membrane and consists of a nucleus, nucleolus and a cytoplasm. There are
certain darkly staining materials inside the nucleus known as chromatin. This chromatin will be in
different forms depending on the stage of cell activity. It may appear as scattered particles,
interwoven threads or rod shaped. Chromatin threads are known as chromosomes. The
chromosomes occur in pairs (diploid number) and they carry a large number of genes which are
basic unity of heredity. Each species has a specified number of chromosome pairs e.g. cattle has 30
pairs, sheep has 27 pairs, swine/pig has 19 and the horse 30.
The gene is the unit of inheritance which is transmitted in the gametes or productive cells and by
interaction with other genes and with the environment, control the development of characteristics.
Biologically, a gene is a fraction of a molecule of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).
NB: the living material between the nucleus and the cell surface membrane is known as cytoplasm.
This contains a variety of organelles. An organelle is distinct part of the cell which has a particular
structure and function.
Generalized structure of animal cell

Functions of the parts of a cell

Cell surface membrane; it is a partially permeable barrier controlling exchange between the cell
and its environment.
Nucleus;
• It controls all activities of the cell
• It has chromosomes containing DNA the molecule of inheritance. DNA is organized into
genes.
• The nucleolus manufactures ribosomes.
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER); if ribosomes are found on its surface, it is called rough ER and it
transports and isolate the proteins synthesized by ribosomes.
The smooth ER has no ribosomes and is a site of lipid and steroid synthesis.
Ribosomes; these are sites where protein synthesis takes place.
Cytoplasmic matrix; this contain organelles like endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria etc.
cytoplasm is part of the between the nucleus and the cell membrane. Protoplasm is the substance of
a living cell including the cytoplasm and the nucleus.
Golgi apparatus/body;
• This is where raw material for secretion are funneled or packed before being shed from the
cells.
• The Golgi body transport the materials to other parts of the cell to the cell surface membrane
for secretion.
 • Therefore it is an internal processing and transport system.
• It makes lysosomes.
Lysosomes; they are responsible for splitting complex chemical compound into simpler sub units
i.e. they destroy worn out organelles into the cell and digest bacteria.
Mitochondria (singular mitochondrion); it is where chemical reaction of respiration takes place
by which energy in form of ATP is generated for the need of the cell.
Specific parts on a plant cell
Cell wall
• It provides mechanical support and protection
• It allows a pressure potential to be developed which aids in support.
• It is a pathway for movement of water and mineral salts.
Middle lamella; it cements neighbouring cells together
Plasmodesmata (singular plasmodesma)
• It enables a continuous system of cytoplasm
• It allows transport of substances between cells.
Chloroplast; it is the organelle in which photosynthesis takes place, producing sugars from carbon
dioxide and water using light energy trapped chlorophyll. Light energy is converted to chemical
energy.
Structure of chloroplast

Directi
onAof B Green plantsA
IAtmospheric
A water
II III B IV VSmall Crills
carbondioxide
flow channels
Large central vacuole; this is a sac bounded by a single membrane called tonoplast. It contains
(0.03%)
cell sap. carrying water
• It stores various substances including wastes products. and soil
Gulley carrying
• It makes an important contribution to the osmatic properties of the cell. Sometimes it
functions as a lysosome. water and soil
C between plant cell and animal cell
Differences
D
Plant cells Animal cells

• Have chloroplasts • Do not have chloroplast

• Have cell vacuole/tonoplast • Do not have vacuole/tonoplast

• Have cellulose cell walls • Do not have cell walls

• Contain starch grains • Do not have starch grains

E • Have a middle lamella

Animals F • Do not have a middle lamella G
• Do not have lysosomes • Have lysosomes
• Has plasmodesmata • Do not have plasmodesmata

• Centrioles absent • Centrioles present

Bacteria & Fungi
• Contains starch granules • Contains glycogen granules

• No cilia or flagella • Some have cilia or flagella

• Nucleus is at the peripheral • Nucleus is central
Prehistoric• Smaller than plant cells
• Larger than animal cell
plants/fossil fuel
Qn; Outline the differences between a plant cell and animal cell
Specialized plant cell
Cell Function

Root hair cells Absorbs water and minerals from soil

Palisade cells Produce sugar by photosynthesis and contain many chloroplasts. It is just
below the upper surface of leaves to absorb light energy
Epidermal cells Prevent water loss from plants. They form the skin of the plant. They are
tightly packed and secrete a waxy cuticle on their outer walls which acts as a
water proof layer which protects the cells

Specialized animal cells

Red blood cell Carry oxygen

Sperm cell For reproduction

Neurone Carry electrical messages or impulses around the

body

Tissues, organs and organ systems

Multicellular organisms have specialized cells to perform specialized functions. A tissue is a group
of these specialized cells e.g. nerve tissue in animals and phloem tissue in plants.
Organs are distinct units made up of different types of tissues. Organs carryout specific tasks. In
animals, the heart pumps blood around the body and in plants the root absorbs water and mineral
salts.
The small intestine To digest and absorb food

Organ systems are groups of organs working together to perform an overall function. The organ
systems of higher plants are

Root system All parts below ground

Shoot system All parts above ground

Animal organ system

Digestive system Mouth and gastro intestinal

Circulatory system Heart and blood vessels

Respiratory system Trachea and lungs

Excretory system Kidney and bladder

Nervous system Brain, spinal cord, nerves and sensory organs

Reproductive system Gonads (sperms and ovum)

Muscular Muscles

Homeostatic Skin, liver, pancreas and endocrine

Skeletal Bones

TRANSPORT A CROSS THE CELL SURFACE MEMBRANE

There are four basic mechanisms, namely diffusion, osmosis, active transport and bulk transport
(endocytosis or exocytosis). The first two processes are passive i.e. they do not require the
expenditure of energy by the cell and the last two are active i.e. they are energy consuming
processes.
Diffusion
Diffusion is the movement of molecules or ions from a region of their high concentration to a
 region of their low concentration down a diffusion gradient. It is a passive process i.e. it doesn’t
require energy and happens spontaneously e.g. if a bottle of perfume were opened in a closed room,
the perfume would eventually spread throughout the room. Oxygen diffuses from the lungs into the
blood while at the same time carbon dioxide diffuse in the opposite direction.
Factors that affect the rate of diffusion
• The steepness of the diffusion gradient, or difference in concentration between point A
and B. The steeper the gradient, the faster the rate of diffusion e.g. speeding up the
flow of blood through the lungs or by breathing faster.
• The greater the surface area of a membrane through which diffusion is taking place, the
greater the rate of diffusion.
Direction Cloud
• The rate of diffusion decreases with distance i.e. it is effective over short distance.
of water
Original bank before
• The temperature of the medium; an increase Present bank due
in temperature causes the particles to
flow
erosion move more rapidly resulting in a high diffusiontorate.bank erosion
Importance of diffusion in living organisms
• Gas exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide at respiratory surfaces.

• Sensitivity; an animal’s sense of smell depends on chemical substances in the air

diffusing towards it.
• Absorption of substances e.g. glucose across the ileum wall.
Falling
• Removal of wastes across the cell membrane into the bloodraindrop

• Movement of manufactured food in plants takes place partly by diffusion.

Soil particles
Splash eroded area deposited by
Osmosis forceful raindrop
Osmosis is the movement of water molecules from a region of their high concentration (a dilute
solution) to a region of their low concentration (a more concentrated solution) through a partially
permeable membrane (semi-permeable). It is best regarded as a form of diffusion in which only
water molecules move.
The tendency of water molecules to move from one place to another is measured as water
potential (Ψ). Water always moves from a region of higher water potential to one of lower water
potential.
Solute molecules reduce water potential i.e. they dilute the water. The extent by which they lower
water potential is called solute potential.
Illustration of osmosis
Experiment to demonstrate osmosis using potato tissue
Apparatus; potato cylinders, ruler, razor blade, sucrose solutions of different concentrations, petri
dishes/test tubes.
Procedure; cylinders are made from a potato using a cork borer of the same size and trimmed to
the same length. A range of sucrose solutions are prepared e.g. 0.1M, 0.2M, 0.3M etc. One cylinder
is placed in each sucrose solution so that it is completely submerged and left to stand for 1 hour
Observations; after this period the cylinders are then removed, dried and measured again. It is
found that some are longer and others shorter than their original length while one remains at the
original length. The physical condition of the cylinders also changes, some are strong and hard
while others are weak and soft.
Conclusion; these changes in length demonstrate that water has moved into or out of the cylinders
by osmosis
Interpretation; cylinders in which water has been gained remain strong because their cells are
turgid. Those in which water has been lost become soft or flabby because their cells are
plasmolysed. In general, if water is lost the cylinder becomes shorter and if water is gained the
cylinder becomes longer.
That solution in which there is no change in the length of the cylinder has the same concentration
as the cell sap, and is said to be isotonic to it.
A cylinder becomes shorter if it is placed in a solution which is more concentrated than its cell sap.
Such a solution is said to be hypertonic. The cylinder loses water to it by osmosis since its cell sap
has a higher concentration of water than the solution it is in. If the plant cell is placed in a solution
that is more concentrated than the cell sap (hypertonic), water moves out by osmosis and the cell
shrinks. It loses its turgor and is said to be flaccid (flabby or limp). If the cell continues to lose
more water, the cytoplasm finally pulls away from the cellulose cell walls. This process is called
plasmolysis and the cell in this state I said to be fully plasmolysed. Plasmolysis is the withdrawal
of water from a plant cell due to osmosis resulting in contraction of the cytoplasm away from the
cell walls.
A cylinder placed in a solution with a lower concentration (dilute solution) than its cell sap, it gains
water from it. Its cells become turgid and it becomes longer and turgid. Such a solution is said to be
hypotonic. If the plant cell is placed in a solution that is less concentrated than the cell sap
(hypotonic) water enters by osmosis and the cell swells up until it cannot swell any more due to the
resistance of the cellulose cell wall. Turgor or turgidity is the state of a cell in which the cell-wall
is rigid and stretched by increase in the volume of the vacuole and the protoplasm during
absorption of water by osmosis.
Summery
Turgor
This is the attainment of enough water in the cell to make it expand to its maximum volume.
Turgor pressure
This is the force exerted on the cell wall of the plant cell due to pushing of the cytoplasm as a result of water
entering the cell vacuole and expanding.
Turgidity
Is a destination of a cell which has attained enough water and expanded to maximum size.
When a plant cell is placed in a dilute solution (water) than the cell sap, water enters by osmosis through
the semi permeable cell wall and cell membrane into the cell sap. The volume of cell sap increases and it
makes the sap vacuole expand. This causes the cytoplasm move towards the cell wall and gaining turgidity.
Time comes when all the cytoplasm is pressing against the cell wall and no more water can be absorbed. At
this state, the cell is said to have gained full turgidity and the force on the cell wall is called turgor pressure.
Plasmolysis
This is the loss of water from the cell to the surrounding causing the vacuole to shrink and cause the
cytoplasm to lose contact with the cell wall.
When the cell is in this condition, it is said to be flaccid or plasmolysed. Therefore a flaccid cell is one
whose cytoplasm has lost contact with the cell wall due to loss of water from the cell sap of the vacuole.
When the cell is in a more concentrated solution than the cell sap, water moves from the cell sap through a
cytoplasm than the cell wall to the surrounding solution. This causes the vacuole to shrink and the
cytoplasm to lose contact with the cell wall and the cell is said to be flaccid or plasmolysed.
Terms used in osmosis
Water potential (ψ the Greek letter psi or ψw)
This is the concentration of water in a solution. Water molecules possess kinetic energy, which
means that in liquid or gaseous form they move rapidly and randomly from one location to another.
The greater the concentration of water molecules in a system, the greater the total kinetic energy of
water molecules in that system and the higher its water potential.
Pure water has the maximum water potential which by definition is zero. And water always moves
from a region of higher water potential to one of lower water potential.
All solutions have lower water potentials than pure water and therefore have negative values of
water potential (at atmospheric pressure and a defined temperature)
Therefore OSMOSIS; can be defined as the movement of water molecules from a region of higher
water potential to a region of lower water potential through a partially permeable membrane.
Solute potential (ψs)
This is a measure of the change in water potential of a system due to the presence of solute
molecules. The effect of dissolving solute molecules in pure water is to reduce the concentration of
water molecules and hence to lower the water potential. Solute potential is always negative and the
more solute molecules present, the lower (more negative) is ψs.
Pressure potential (ψp)
If pressure is applied to pure water or a solution, its water potential increases. This is because
pressure tends to force the water from one place to another e.g. when water enters plant cells by
osmosis, pressure may build up inside the cell making the cell turgid and increasing the pressure
potential. Pressure potential is always positive
Therefore; ψ=ψs+ψp
At full turgid ψ(zero)= ψp+ψs
ψs= ψp
At full plasmolysis ψ=ψs+ψp(zero)
ψ=ψs
Hypotonic solutions
This is used to describe a solution containing less solute and more water molecules compared to
another e.g. hypotonic solution has a lower osmotic pressure and is generally termed as less
concentrated.
Isotonic solutions
These are solutions with the same concentration of salts and water i.e. Solutions with the same
isotonic pressure
Hypertonic solutions
This is used to describe a solution with more solutes and less water molecules than the other. A
hypertonic solution has a higher osmotic pressure and is generally termed as more concentrated
solution.
Importance of osmosis to plants to plants
• Absorption of water from the soil by root hairs.
• Support in non woody plants, these depend on the turgidity of the cells.
• Opening and closing of stomata.
• In germination for the initial absorption of water.
• Opening and closing of flowers in some species.
Importance of osmosis to animals
• Selective reabsorption of water in the nephron into the blood important in excretion and
osmoregulation.
• Reabsorption of tissue fluid into the blood stream at the capillaries.
• Absorption of water in unicellular organisms e.g. amoeba
Active transport
This is the energy consuming transportation of molecules or ions a cross a membrane against a
concentration gradient i.e. molecules move from a region of low concentration to a region of high
concentration. Energy from respiration is required because the substance must be moved against its
natural tendency to diffuse in the opposite direction. It is aided by special protein molecules known
as transport proteins or carrier proteins.
The importance of active transport
• Absorption of mineral salts from the soil by plants
• Absorption of digested food products in the ileum e.g. amino acids.
• Absorption of chloride salts by marine bony fish for osmoregulation.
• Extraction of chloride salts by fresh water bony fish for osmoregulation.
• Selective reabsorption of nutrients by the kidney nephron.
• Removal of toxic wastes from the kidney tissues into the nephron.
• Active transfer of salts from & to ascending limb of the nephron to allow water
reabsorption.
• Ionic changes that results in impulse transmission in nerves.
NB; plants are able to take in mineral salts until they are completely exhausted from the water
irrespective of their concentration because of active transport.
TRANSPORT IN PLANTS
Both animals and plants have vascular systems. A vascular system is one which has tubes which
are full of fluid being transported from one place to another. In plants the xylem and phloem form
vascular systems. In animals the blood system is a vascular system and these systems require a
source of energy to function.
The movement of substances through the conducting or vascular tissues (xylem and phloem)
of plants is called Translocation.
Xylem translocates mainly water and mineral salts from the roots to the aerial parts of the plant. It
consists of xylem vessels and tracheids
Phloem translocates a variety of organic and inorganic solutes, mainly from the leaves or storage
organs to other parts of the plant. Phloem consists of sieve tubes and companion cells.
Uptake of water from soil
Uptake of water by plants is also called absorption. This occurs in the root where there are fine
single celled hair like extensions of epidermal cells known as root hairs.
The process involved is osmosis and the root hairs are adapted in a number of ways to enhance
osmosis and increase the rate of absorption i.e.
• They are slender and flexible and can therefore grow between soil particles.
• They are numerous which increases the surface area for water uptake.
• They lack a cuticle which would otherwise restrict water absorption. Their membrane are
therefore thin to allow diffusion.
• The cell membrane is semi permeable to water and dissolved salts. This concentration
gradient usually exists because the soil water is normally a very dilute solution of various
mineral salts and is usually less concentrated than the solutes in the cell sap. This allows
osmosis to occur.
Illustration of the route taken by water
After absorption water moves across the cortex and into the xylem by osmosis. This
is possible because cells receiving water tend to have their sap diluted relative to the
adjacent cells towards the xylem.
Root hairs in the soil are surrounded by a film of water containing mineral salts/ soil solution.
The soil solution once inside the root hair vacuole is called cell sap and is a strong solution than the soil
solution( has a lower osmotic potential and the cell membrane of the root hair is semi permeable.
The above conditions enable water to move from the soil, passes through the cell membrane in to the
vacuole by osmosis.
Addition of water to the root hair all which is absorbed by osmosis makes it to attain higher osmotic
potential as compared to the neighboring cells with stronger cell sap.
This enables water to move to and from the root hair to other cells of the cortex and through the cortex cells
until it reaches the xylem which conducts water up the plant.
The water rises up the xylem by the following forces
Capillarity
This is the ability of water to move up the fine tube. It is usually caused by the surface tension but because
the capillary tube is narrow, the water rise is limited.
Cohesion – tension forces
This is a force of attraction between the molecules of the same substance.
Cohesion between water molecules allows water in a continuous column without breaking.
This occurs because as water is lost by transpiration from the leaves, the water potential at the top of xylem
vessels falls below that at the bottom of the xylem in the root. Water is now pulled by this potential difference
because of the cohesion of the water molecules.
Adhesion
This is the force of attraction between molecules of different substances (unlike)
Adhesion forces between walls of xylem and water molecules support a considerable weight of water within
the xylem tissue and prevent the xylem vessels from collapsing.
Root pressure
This is regarded as the pressuring force of the water up the stem from the roots. The root pressure is an
active process confirmed by the fact that: It occurs only in living tissues/ plants. It is affected by the same
factors that affect respiration in living cells like oxygen supply, temperature, starch supply and the presence
of respiratory poison like cyanides.
Transpiration pull
This is the pulling force generated by the evaporation of water from the leaves. This is caused when the cells
of the spongy mesophyll layer in the leaf lose water by evaporation in to the air spaces causing their cell
sap to become more concentrated and as a result they draw the water from the surrounding cells by osmosis.
Importance of water to the plant
Raw material for photosynthesis
Solvent for mineral salts and oxygen that enable them to diffuse into the roots.
It is a constituent of the cytoplasm and all sap of the growing plants
Provides turgidity which provides support in non woody plants
Cools the leaves of the plants during transpiration

Uptake of mineral salts.

Mineral salt uptake is an active process taking place by active transport. Mineral salts
are moved in the plant in the xylem in solution with water. Roots absorb mineral salts in form of
ions by diffusion and active transport. Active transport is the movement of the materials against the
concentration gradient by the use of energy released from respiration.
Transport of the products of photosynthesis by phloem
The process by which the soluble products of photosynthesis are carried in plants is called translocation.
Translocation is the movement of manufactured food from the site of photosynthesis. Throughout the plant,
sugars and amino acids are transported in the phloem from the leaves to the growing parts of the plant or
storage organs. Food substances may also move from the storage organs to the growing regions of the
plants. In the phloem, food substances may move upwards/down wards.
The process of translocation in the phloam
The process of photosynthesis leads to accumulation of food substances in leaves. This causes a high turgor
pressure within the leaves.
Food substances in the roots are used for respiration or they are stored in the storage organs and these results
in the low turgor pressure in the root cells. The difference between turgor pressure in the roots and leaves
enables the food substances to move from leaves to other parts of the plant by a process called mass flow
which is the major process of translocation. There is also a minor process i.e. active transport where the
sugars e.g. sucrose are actively transported from leaves to the storage organs.
 TRANSPIRATION
Transpiration is defined as the loss of water in form of water vapour (evaporation) by plant surfaces
to the atmosphere. Such loss may be through stomata (stomatal transpiration), leaf cuticle
(cuticular transpiration) and lenticels in the stem (lenticular transpiration)
Evapotranspiration is the loss of water in form of water vapour by plant surfaces and from the
soil.
NB; the loss of water from a plant can also occur in solution. This is known as guttation. Plants
able to do this use special structures called hydathodes found on the leaf tips or margins. This
normally occurs in cold weather and is a means of getting rid of excess water. The dew we see on
grass in the mornings is a result of this process.
Factors affecting the rate of transpiration.
Environmental factors;
Temperature of the surrounding air; a high temperature provides a lot of heat energy which
vaporizes the water from the spongy mesophyll of the leaf. Therefore when the temperature is high
the rate of transpiration is also high and when the temperature is low the rate of transpiration is low
Humidity of the surrounding air; humidity is an expression of how much water vapour is present
in the atmosphere (i.e. the moisture content of the air). If there is high humidity less water
evaporates from the leaf surface. The rate of transpiration is high when the humidity is low that is
when the temperature is dry/hot.
Presence and speed of wind; wind blows the vapour in the air around the leaf or plant as soon as
it evaporates which causes more water to evaporate from the mesophyll cells onto the leaf surface
and into the atmosphere. High speed increases the rate of transpiration.
Light intensity; light intensity is one of the factors affecting the opening of stomata. It also
provides energy as heat for the evaporation of the water. The rate of transpiration is therefore high
during the presence of light and low during dark.
Water supply; when water supply from the soil is low, stomata closes and the transpiration rate
lowers to minimum level.
Atmospheric pressure; atmospheric pressure affects the evaporation of water at the leaf surface
such that a low atmospheric pressure results in high evaporation and hence a high evaporation rate.
For this reason plants on high mountains are likely to have higher transpiration rates than those
growing on the foot of the same mountain.
Leaf structural factors
Stomata number, distribution and features; some plants have a reduced number of stomata,
many have more stomata on the lower epidermis and others stomata surrounded by hairs while
others have stomata in pits on the leaf surface (sunken stomata) all these features are aimed at
reducing the rate of transpiration.
Cuticle thickness; the thicker the cuticle the lower the rate of transpiration.
Leaf hairs; hairy leaf surfaces e.g. pumpkin leaves reduce the rate of transpiration by trapping
moisture at the leaf surface hence the more hairy the leaf is the lower the rate of transpiration.
Leaf thickness; thick leaves store water and at the same time the thickness of the leaf reduces heat
loss this is why leaves found in dry areas tend to be thick while those found in well watered areas
are thin.
Leaf surface area; the larger the surface area the more likely the number of stomata on it which in
turn results in a higher rate of transpiration.
Functions of transpiration
• It helps in absorption of water and its movement up the plant parts for other processes
like photosynthesis and support.

• Dissipation (removal) of radiant energy from the plant during evaporation and
therefore cools the plant surfaces.
• Movement of mineral salts up the plant to areas where they are needed for the plats life
processes.

• It helps in the opening and closing of stomata.

Transpiration is also a wasteful process because it results in the loss of water from the plant which
is a useful compound to the plant. If transpiration rate becomes higher than water supply, the plant
wilts and may even die.
Adaptations of terrestrial plants to reduce the rate of transpiration
• Shedding of leaves when the environment becomes too hot. This is possible in deciduous
species like mahogany.

• Reducing the number, size and distribution of stomata. Such plants have few stomata most of
which are distributed on the under surface of the leaf.

• Structural adjustments in the stomata e.g. sunken stomata and hairy stomata.

• Reversal of the stomatal rhythm. In some plants stomata open during the night (when the
transpiration rates are low) and close during the day (when transpiration rates are high)

• Possession of thick cuticle on the leaves

• Shiny surfaces to reflect light

• Reduction in leaf area to spines/hairs.

Opening and closing of stomata

Stomata open and close by the changes in the shape of the guard cells due to osmotic uptake or loss
of water respectively.
When guard cells take in water by osmosis they become turgid and expand more towards the thin
outer wall. As a result of this the inner walls move apart and the stomata open. When the guard
cells lose water they become flaccid and the inner walls move closer and the stomata close.
Nucleic acids
There are two principal types of nucleic acid found in cells.
(i) Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

(ii) Ribonucleic (RNA)

DNA, is mainly confined to the nucleus, whereas RNA is found mainly but not exclusively, in the
cytoplasm. Like proteins, nucleic acids are long chain molecules but the chains are much longer
than those of proteins and the sub-units are more complicated than amino acids. The building
blocks of a nucleic acid are nucleotides, a nucleotide consists of three molecules linked together, a
5- carbon sugar (pentose), an organic base and phosperic acid. The sugar, (ribose), the nucleotide
(phosphoric acid), an organic base make the nucleic acid. The bases are any five of these, adenine,
guanine, thymine, cytosine or uracil, abbreviated to A, G, C, T and U respectively. In RNA all
sugars ribose, in DNA they are deoxribose. The phosphate groups are identical in both RNA and
DNA. The bases, however, show no such uniform, A, G, C, T and U. DNA contain A, G, C and T,
in RNA, T is replaced by U. thymine and cytosine are pyrimidine bases consisting of a single
hexagonal ring. Adenine and guanine are purine bases consisting of a hexagonal ring joined to a
pentagonal ring
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
This is the synthesis or organic compounds and primary sugars from carbon dioxide and water
using sunlight as the source of energy and chloroghyll for trapping the light energy. The main
products being carbohydrates and oxygen.
Stages of photosynthesis
Light stage
• Energy is captured by chlorophyll present in plants from the sun. It takes place in the grana of
the chloroplast.

• It starts with the activation of the chlorophyll molecules by sunlight energy leading to
excitation and emission of electrons.

• Electron is moved through a series of electro acceptors at different energy levels until they are
handed over to ferrodoxin. Movement of electrons from a high energy level acceptor to a
low energy acceptor leads to loss of energy which is used to form ATP from organic
phosphates (P) and ADP, a process called photophosphorylation.
• Water is split/oxidized to produce H+ and OH
 • H+ is used in the formation of reducing power called NADpH2/FADpH2.

• ATP is used to provide energy in the dark/light independent reaction/stage.

• NADpH2/FADpH2 provide the reducing power in the dark reaction.

The dark stage

This is the stage of production of carbohydrates which begin with the fixation of carbohydrates. It
takes place in the stoma of the chloroplast and occurs independent of the light using ATP and
NADpH2/FADpH2 from the light dependent stage/reaction.

• The substance that traps/fixes carbon dioxide is Ribulose (1,5-disphosphate, RUBP0

• RUBP reacts with carbon dioxide and produce 2PGA (phospho-glyeric acid) mplecules

• PGA is very unstable and is readily reduced by NADpH2/FADpH2 into 3-

phosphogyceraldehyde (3 PGAL) triose sugar.

• Energy for the reaction is derived from the breakdown of ATP.

• A series of chemical reactions take place leading to production of hexose phosphates then
glucose, fructose, sucrose, starch and cellulose.

Equation of the overall reaction is;

6CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6 + O2 + Energy

• RUPB is then regenerated through a series of reactions for further absorption of CO2

The leaf as an organism of photosynthesis

Modification of leaves to perform their functions
• They are thin and flattened to reduce the diffusion distance of gases through the
photosynthetic cells.

• They have a reach network of veins containing vascular bindles to ensure good supply of
raw materials and removal of photosynthetic products.

• They are broad and therefore, offer a large surface area for trapping sunlight.

• They have large air spaces in the sponge mesophyll to ensure a good gaseous exchange.

• They have a shiny waxy cuticle to reduce on water loss.

• Their mosaic arrangement ensures capture of enough light for photosynthesis by each
leaf.

• They have stomata to enhance gaseous exchange.

• Some have marginal buds for vegetative propagation e.g. bryophyllum..

• Some are thick and succulent for storage of water and food e.g. sisal.

• Some are reduced to spikes/thorns for protection.

• Some are modified into twinning organs/tendrils for climbing

Importance of leaves to plants

• Used in the manufacturing of chemical energy in the form of ATP that is used in the
growth plants photosynthesis

• Through transpiration, the leaves transport materials in plants and help in cooling
plants in hot conditions.
• To some plants like bryophyllum, leaves are organs of perenation/propagation.

• Leaves are organs where gaseous exchange occurs in plants

• To some plants, leaves are storage organs for water for water and food.
Factors that influence the rate of photosynthesis
• The concentration of carbon dioxide in the photosynthetic area.

• The environmental temperature.

• Availability of water in the photosynthetic area

• Chlorophyll concentration.

• Oxygen concentration.

• Pollution level by some gases

• Presence of specific inhibitors such as herbicides.

Adaptations of plants to capture maximum light

• The plants/trees grow tall.

• The plants develop broad leaves provide a large surface area trap the light.

• They develop the mosaic arrangement of leaves to ensure that they receive sunlight, thus
maximizing trapping of light energy.

• Many plants have chloroplast concentrated in the under layers of the leaves allowing them to
trap enough light.

• Some have developed climbing mechanisms by which they anchor themselves on taller trees
to harness light energy.

GENETICS IN AGRICULTURE
Cell division
This is the division of the cell nucleus and the cytoplasm into two to form two daughter cells. Cell
division leads to production of new cells which aid life processes like;
➢ Growth

➢ Reproduction

➢ Healing of wounds

➢ Regeneration

Mitosis. This is a type of cell division forming the replication of chromosomes in which two
daughter cells are formed each having exact same number of chromosomes as the parent cell.
In animals, it occurs in the following;
➢ Somatic cells/body cells.

➢ Malpighian cells of epidermis

➢ Epidermal cells of the gut.

➢ Bone marrow.

In plants, it occurs in the apical meristems and the cambium.

1. Importance (Significance) of mitosis

➢ It produces daughter cells which are exact copies of the parent cell i.e maintains
the parental characteristics.

➢ It increases the number of cells hence growth.

➢ It helps in the repair of damaged cells.

➢ It helps in asexual reproduction.

➢ It allows for quick colonization which is similar to the parents.

Meiosis. This refers to the type of cell division where four daughter cells are formed each
having a half number of chromosomes to that of the parent cell. E.g. If a parent cell has 46
chromosomes then the daughter cell will each have 23 chromosomes.
Meiosis occurs in reproductive cells e.g. in plants it occurs in the pollen grains and in the
ovules while in animals, it occurs in gametes cells i.e. in sperms / spermatozoa(for males)
and in ova( for females).
Importance of meiosis
➢ It helps in the formation of gametes.

➢ It allows the cells to retain the number of chromosomes at fertilization

➢ Leads to increased variation because of crossing over.

Comparison between mitosis and meiosis

Similarities
• Both are cell (nuclear) divisions.

• Both begin with a diploid nucleus.

• Both involve single duplication of chromosomes.

• Both follow similar stages i.e. interphase, prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase.

• In both there is spindle formation, centriole replication, DNA replication etc.

• In both there is arrangement of chromosomes (or chromatids) at the spindle equator.

Differences between mitosis and meiosis

Mitosis Meiosis

Occurs in somatic cells Limited only to germinal cells which produce

gametes.

Single division of chromosomes and nucleus Single division of chromosomes but double
division of the nucleus

Two daughter cells are formed Four daughter cells are formed

Chromosomes number is diploid as in the Chromosomes number is half that in the

parent cell parent cell (haploid)

Homologous chromosomes do not Homologous chromosomes associate to form

associate/bivalents are never formed bivalents in prophase I

Chiasmata are never formed Chiasmata may be formed

Crossing over never occurs Crossing over may occur

Daughter cells are identical to parent’s cells. Daughter cells are genetically different from
(in absence of mutation) parental ones.

Chromosomes form a single row at the Chromosomes form a double row at the
equator of the spindle during metaphase. equator of the spindle during metaphase I.

Chromatids move to opposite poles Chromosomes move to opposite poles during

meiosis I

It is brief (takes 1-2 hours) to complete Along process e.g. in human females it takes
several years while in males it takes 24 days
to complete.

Question for research

1(a) Explain & describe the process of mitosis in any organism.
(b) Describe the stages of meiosis in any organism.
2. Compare and contrast mitosis and meiosis
 2. Genetics
Genetics is the study of heredity and variation.
Heredity is the transition of characteristics from parent plants/animals to off springs by
means of Genes.
Terms used in genetics
1. Chromosomes: These are fine thread like structure found in a nucleus of a living cell in
which genes are carried. OR They can be defined as thread like structures found in the
nucleus of a cell and carry genes.

Each half pair of a homologous chromosome is called chromatid. Chromosomes exist in pairs,
a pair of homologous chromosomes (similar chromosomes) is called a bivalent.
These homologous (similar chromosomes) can exchange genes through the process of crossing
over. Organisms (plants & animals) of any species have a definite number of chromosomes in
each cell.
The diploid number(2n) of chromosomes is the total number of chromosomes in a body cell.
The haploid number (n) of chromosomes is the half number of chromosomes in a body cell.
Haploid number is present in reproductive cells e.g. sperms, ova, pollen grains, etc.
Individual cell Chromosome No. in body Chromosome No. in
cell gametes

Man 46 23

Cattle 60 30

Sheep 54 27

Earth warm 36 18

Mouse 40 20

Cray fish 200 100

Maize 20 10

Duck 80 40

Drosophila (fruit fly)

Pig 38 19

Dog 78 39

Goats 60 30

Cat 38 19

Buffalo 60 30

Horse 64 32

Donkey 62 31

Apple 34 17
Beans, cow peas 22 11

Banana 88,44, etc. 44, 22

Wheat 42 21

Cucumber 14 7

Carrots 18 9

Cabbage 18 9
Coffee 22,44,66,88 11, 22, 33, 44

2. Genes. This is the basic unit of inheritance. Or It is a specific length of DNA, which
 controls a characteristic. Each gene controls a specific character.

A Characteristic in genetics is the feature of an organism controlled by a gene, e.g. one gene
will determine whether cattle are having black or white fur. Another gene determines
whether the fur is long or short.
Genes are made up of nucleic acid called DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), DNA is made up of
nucleotides and nucleotides are made up of nitrogenous bases e.g. phosphate or phosphoric
acid, deoxyribase sugar.

Nitrogen base Nucleotides DNA Genes

3. A test cross is a cross which is carried out in order to determine the organism’s genotype.
Such a test crosses with the homogenous recessive, these are the routine method of
establishing an organism genotype, weather it is self-fertilized or not. When an
organism is cross bred with another of the same species that is homozygous recessive,
the resulting characteristics of the off springs enables one to tell the genotype of the
organism.
4. Back cross. This is a specific test cross where the homozygous recessive offspring is
crossed with the parent organism. It is a test cross which involve crossing an
individual organism with one of its parents
5. Phenotype. This is the physical or outside appearance of an individual organism.
6. Genotype. This is genetic makeup of an organism. It includes the inside appearance
of an organism. E.g. the genotype of a tall pea plant is TT or Tt.
7. Allele. This is the alternative forms of a gene that produces different effects e.g. a
gene for tall pea plants Tt with allele T for tallness (dominant) and t of short
(recessive). The gene for the seed shape in pea plants has two alleles, the one
determining the round shape and the other one determining the wrinkle shape.
8. Multiple allele. These are characters that are determined by more than two alleles
e.g. Blood groups are determined by three alleles. A, B, O.
9. Locus. This refers to the position of alleles/genes in chromosomes; alleles always occupy
the same locus.
10. Dominant allele. This refers to an allele that always show its self as a characteristic i.e.
it is that gene or allele that shows itself over the other e.g. In Tt, T is dominant.
11. Recessive allele. This refers to an allele/gene whose effect cannot be seen in
presence of a dominant gene e.g. in Tt, t is recessive.
12. Homozygous. This is where alleles of a gene for a particular characteristic are
identical or when two alleles which determine the same form of a particular
character occur together in the same locus (position) in a homologous chromosome
e.g. TT or tt.
They are called homozygous dominant when they control a dominant character. TT is
homozygous dominant tall.
They are called homozygous recessive when they control a recessive character e.g. tt is
homozygous recessive.
13. Heterozygous. This is when alleles of a gene for a particular characteristic / character
are different. Or it is when two different alleles determining the same character occur
together on the same locus or position e.g. Tt which is called heterozygous tall in pea
plants.
14. A hybrid. It is an organism resulting from parents having different genotype (different
purelines). Heterosis (hybrid vigor) is the extent to which an animal/crop performs
better than parents. This is reached through cross breeding. Hybridization is the
crossing of two different purelines of plants or animals.
15. Co-dominance. This is a condition where by both allele of a gene are expressed equally
in the phenotype. E.g. red and white hair coat in cattle forming roan, red and white in
four o’clock flower forming pink, long and short hair in angora and rex rabbits forming
intermediate silky fur
16. Linkage. Genes located on the same chromosome are said to be linked. They form
linkage groups and therefore transmitted together. Genes located on the same sex
chromosome are s 2aid to be sex linked.
Epistasis. The presence of one gene suppresses the action of the other gene at another
locus e.g fur colour in mice is controlled by a pair of genes occupying different loci.
The gene that is suppressed is called epistatic and suppressing is called hypostatic.
Characters. Examples of sex linked characters in human beings are Hemophilia (delay
in clotting time of blood), color blindness, sickle cell anemia etc.
Generation: a group of organisms of approximately the same age within a population.
F1 generation: offsprings produced by two pure breeds carrying contrasting variations. (F1 refers
to first filial)
F2 generation: offsprings produced by mating the F1 generation.
17. Polyploidy; is a type of mutation where gametes and somatic cells contain multiple haploid
numbers of chromosomes/more than one pair of homologous/multiple chromosomes in an
organism. Aneuploidy is where mutation leads to the loss or gain of a single chromosome and
euploidy/polyploidy is where there is an increase in the entire haploid sets of chromosome.
Allopolyploidy is a condition when the chromosome number in a sterile hybrid becomes doubled
and produces a fertile hybrids
A polyploid is an individual/organisms whose cells contain more than the diploid number of
chromosomes or more than two sets of chromosomes
How polyploid conditions affect the quality of crops.
• New crop species are produced and they are usually high yielding.
• May lead to development of large sized products in crops e.g. large size flowers and leaves in
ornamentals.
• May lead to production of drought resistant crop varieties.
• Can lead to production of pests, diseases and weed resistant/tolerant crops.
• May lead to protection of sterile individuals that are hard to reproduce.
• Leads to production of faster growing and quick maturing plants.
• High value crops are formed in terms of nutrient content/colour/flavor.

1. MONOHYBRID INHERITANCE.
Gregor Mendel Johan
He studied the inheritance of just one pair of contrasting characteristics, what is known as a
monohybrid inheritance. And later two pairs of contrasting characteristics called dihybrid
inheritance.
He is regarded as the father of modern genetics, he putforward many principals of genetics as
seen in his experiment using garden pea*(Pisum sativum) in which he studied contrasting
characteristics e.g.
Characteristic Parental appearance

Dominant Recessive

Length of stem Tall dwarf

Shape of seed Round Wrinkled

Colour of seed Yellow green

Shape of pod inflated Constricted

Colour of pod Green Yellow

Position of flower Axial Terminal

Colour of flower Red White

3. Method
In such experiment he chooses a pure breeding tall pea plant (TT) and crossed it with pure short
(dwarf) plant (tt).
He planted these peas, cross− pollinated them and he later counted the resulting off spring.
It was found that all the seeds gave rise to tall plants, no short (dwarf) plants being produced a
tall, He called this first filial or F₁−generation.
One of these tall F₁ plants were then self-pollinated, he made a count of the resulting offspring
he called this second filial or F₂ generation
Mendel found that the F2 were a mixture some were tall and some short (dwarf). In other words
the proportion of tall to dwarf plant approximates to a ratio of 3:1.
Mendel termed the character that appeared in the F₂ generation but did not appear in the F1
generation as recessive character.
The result of this cross can be summered as follows.
Parents tall × short (dwarf)

F 1
tall (selfed)
 F 1
tall short (dwarf)
3:1
Note: a dominant character is represented by a capital letter and recessive character by a small
letter.
For example: let T represent alleles for tall pea plants and t represent s alleles for short pea plant.
Parents’ ♀ ×
Parent’s phenotype. Tall × dwarf (short)
Parent’s genotype. TT × tt
Gametes. T T t t

F 1
genotypes Tt Tt Tt Tt
F1 phenotypes = all tall
F1 genotype = all heterozygous tall.
F1 generation all plants were tall because the tall plants were homozygous dominant
(TT).
Selfing F1 generation.

F phenotype:
1
Tall × tall
F genotype:
1
Tt × Tt
Gamete: T t × T t

F Genotypes
2
TT Tt Tt tt
F2 Phenotypes Tall Tall Tall Short (dwarf)
F2 Phenotypic ratio: 3:1
F2 genotypic ratio: 1 homozygous tall: 2 heterozygous tall: 1 homozygous short
= 1:2:1
Another way to show the crosses is by using a chequer board or a punnet square.
Punnet square to show fusion of F1 gamete.
T T

T TT Tt

t Tt Tt
Phenotypic ratio = 3:1
If selfing F1 pea plants produced 280 off springs
a) How many of the items were tall pea plants.
 Solution
Ratio = 3:1 = 4
The tall pea plants = ¾ × 280 = 210
b) What percentages of plants were short?
Solution
Percentage of short pea plants
280-210= 70
= 70/280 × 100= 25%

4. Examples of monohybrid inheritance.

Horned condition in cattle (recessive).
The gene for hornless condition (H) is dominant to the one of horns (h). The genotype of hornless
cattle is therefore HH and horned hh e.g. In cattle, the gene for hornless condition is dominant
over the other one of horned condition. A hornless cow was mated with a horned bull. Using
suitable symbols determine the phenotype and genotype of F1 generation
Solution
Let H represent the allele of hornless.
Let h represent the allele of horned.
Parents ♀ ×
Parent’s phenotype hornless cow × horned bull
Parents genotype H H H h
At fertilization

F genotype
1
Hh Hh Hh Hh
Phenotype: all hornless
Genotype: all heterozygous hornless
Self-cross the off springs in F1 generation to get F2 generation and state the
genotype and phenotype & their ratios.

Solution
Parents(f1) ♀ ×
F phenotype
1
hornless × hornless
F genotype
1
Hh × Hh
Gametes H h H h
At fertilization

F genotype
2
Hh Hh Hh Hh
F Phenotype: HH = hornless
2

Hh = hornless
Hh = horned
F phenotypic ratio: 3 hornless: 1 horned =3:1
2

F genotype: HH homozygous hornless

2

Hh heterozygous hornless
hh homozygous horned
genotypic ratio: 1:2:1
5. Exception of Mendelian interference
1. Incomplete dominance (co-dominance)
2. Multiple allele e.g. blood groups in humans (A,B,O)

3. Linkage ( linked characters)

6. Incomplete dominance (co-dominance)

Here both alleles of a gene are expressed equally in a phenotype. Off springs produced have
heterozygous intermediate condition (no allele of a gene dominate the other). In other words, co-
dominance is a condition in heterozygous where both members of the allelic pair contribute to the
phenotype which is then a mixture of phenotypic traits.
This is an exception to Mendelian inheritance which results into the phenotypic ratio of 1:2:1
instead of 3:1 and no dominant or recessive gene since they show up equally.
In co-dominance, different letters are used and they can be in capital or small letters to represent
different characteristics.
Note: complete dominance is a condition where one allele of the gene suppresses the expression of
another in the phenotype. The off spring produced has no intermediate condition. I.e. there may be
a dominant or recessive gene.
Examples of co-dominance (incomplete dominance)
1. Genes responsible for white and red coat in cattle

Red cow × white bull

RR WW

RW (Roan)
The roan off spring will have both and red hair equally distributed.
Self-cross the F1 generation using a punnet square
R W
R RR RW
W RW WW
Phynotypic ratio is 1:2:1
2. Using the white and red flowers in rose plants to produce pink flowers.
a) Using suitable symbols show the results of crossing white and red flowers in the rose plants
to produce pink flowers.
b) What would be the phenotypic and genotypic ratios, if pink flowers from F1 were self-
pollinated?
Let R represent allele for red flower
Let W represent allele for white flower
solution

Parents ♀ ×
Parent’s phenotype red flower × white flowers
 Parent’s genotype RR × WW
Gametes R R W W

After fertilization
F genotype
1
RW RW RW RW
F phenotype: all pink flowers
1

Using a punnet square.

W W

R RW RW

R RW RW

b). selfing F generation (produced all three characteristics)

1

Parents ♀ ×
F phenotype
1
pink flower × pink flower
F Genotype
1
RW × RW
Gametes R W R W

F Genotype
2
RR RW RW WW
OR
R W
R RR RW
W RW WW

F2 phenotype

RR= red flower

RW= Pink flowers
WW= white flowers
Phenotypic ratio= 1:2:1
Question.
After selfing the F1, the plant produced 200 flowers, how many were red, pink, and white?

Example 3
Productinn of blue Andalusion fowls by crossing pure-breeding black and splashed white parental
stocks. The presence of black plumage is the result of the possession of an allele for the production
of the black pigment melanin. The splashed white stock lack this allele. The heterozygous show a
partial development of melanin which produces a blue sheen in the plumage e.g.
Let B represents allele for black
Let W represents the splashed white allele.

Parents phenotype black (homozygous) X splashed white(homozygous)

Parental genotypes (2n) BB X WW
Gametes (n) B B X W W
F1 genotypes (2n) BW, BW BW, BW
F1 phenotypes All blue heterozygotes
Selfing
Parents phenotype Blue X Blue
Parental genotypes (2n) BW X BW
Gametes (n) B W X B W
F2 genotypes (2n) BB, BW, BW, WW
F2 phenotypes All blue heterozygotes
F2 phenotypic ration 1:2:1

7. DIHYBRID INHERITENCE
Greger Mendel also carried out experiments on two pair of contrasting
characteristics: e.g.
➢ Leaf shape (smooth & shape) with height of a plant (tall or short).
➢ Colored& colorless seeds with smooth and wrinkled characteristics.
Mendel did not stop at any one pair of contrasting characteristics; he then went to
study the inheritance of two pairs of characteristics i.e. adihybrid cross.
In the experiment he crossed a pure breeding tall pea plant possessing colored
flowers with a dwarf plant possessing white flowers. In the F1 generation he obtained
nothing but tall plants with colored flowers. These were then self-pollinated, in the
F2 generation and four different kinds of plants were produced.
➢ 9 tall with colored flowers
➢ 3 tall with white flowers
➢ 3 dwarf with colored flowers
➢ 1 dwarf with white flowers
In other wards the off spring showed the two pairs of characteristics (tall-dwarf,
colored-white) combined in every possible way. As before, Mendel counted the
different types of plants and in one particular case he got 96 tall colored, 31 tall
white, 34 dwarf colored, 11 dwarf white, giving a ratio of approximately 9:3:3:1.

Summary of the experiment

Parents tall × dwarf

Colored flowers white flowers
F 1
Tall colored flowers (selfed)

Tall colored tall white dwarf colored

dwarf white
Flowers Flowers flowers
 flowers
9 : 3 : 3 : 1
Conclusion
To begin with the fact that the F1 plants are tall with colored flowers tells us that tall is dominant to
dwarf, and colored to white flower.
Representation
T represents the allele of tallness
t for dwarfness
C for colored flowers
c for white flowers
Being pure breeding, the parent plants must be homozygous for both genes. The
genotype for tall plant with colored flowers must therefore be TTCC, and the dwarf
plant with white flowers ttcc. Bearing in mind Mendel’s firs law (the law of
segregation), the gametes produced by the parent plants must be TC and tc
respectively, all F1 Off springs will therefore be TtCc, heterozygous for both genes.
If all four possible combinations of the characteristic are to show up in the F2
generation, Mendel concluded that the F1 plants produced four kinds of gametes i.e.
TC, Tc, tC, and tc.
To be tall the genotype must at least contain one T allele, to be colored it must
contain at least one C allele.
From the chart, it can be seen that of 16 possible fusions, 9 will give tall colored
plants, 3 tall white, 3 dwarf colored, and 1 dwarf white.

Parents ♀ ×
Parents phenotype tall colored × dwarf
white
genotype TTCC ttcc

Segregation segregation

Gametes all TC all tc

Gametes fuse
Tall colored × tall
colored
F 1
TtCc selfed
TtCc

Segregation with
segregation with
independent assortments independent
assortments
 TC Tc tC tc TC Tc tC
tc

Male gametes (pollen nuclei)

TC Tc tC tc

Femal TC TTCC TTCc TtCC TtCc

e
gamet Tall colored Tall colored Tall colored Tall colored
es
(egg
cells)

Tc TTCc TTcc TtCc Ttcc

Tall colored Tall white Tall colored Tall white

tC TtCC TtCc ttCC ttCc

Tall colored Tall colored Dwarf dwarf
colored colored

Tc TtCc Ttcc ttCc ttcc

Tall colored Tall white Dwarf Dwarf white
colored

F 9/16 tall colored, 3/16 tall white, 3/16 dwarf colored, 1/16
2

dwarf white.

8. 1st Mendel’s law (law of segregation).

It states that the organim’s characteristics are determined by internal factors which
occur in pairs. Only one of a pair of such factors can be represented in a single
gamete i.e. the characteristics of a diploid organism are controlled by alleles
occurring in pairs. Of a pair of such alleles, only one can be carried in a single
gamete. This is produced by meiosis i.e. in meiosis homozygous chromosomes
segregate from each other as a result of which a gamete receives only one of each
type of chromosome instead of the normal two. Alleles also occur in pairs, each
being located on one of the two homozygous chromosomes.

9. 2nd Mendel’s law (the law of independent assortment)

It states that each of a pair of contrasted characteristics maybe combined with either
of another pair i.e. each of the two alleles may combine randomly with either of the
alleles of another gene.
Example 1
In a variety of maize, a colored smooth seed character is dominant over colorless
wrinkled character. When yellow smooth maize was crossed with colorless wrinkled
maize, all F1 plants yielded yellow smooth seeds. In subsequent selfing, the F2
produced 556 seeds.
a). Using suitable symbols state the four possible characters in F2 and their
corresponding phenotypic ratios (assume no linkage).
b). calculate the number of seeds for each of the characters in the F2 population.
Solution
Let C represent the allele for the colored condition,
c represent the allele for the colorless condition
S represents the allele for smooth condition
s represent the allele for wrinkled condition

Parental phenotype colored smooth × colorless

wrinkled
Genotypes CCSS × ccss
Gametes CS cs
CcSs
F phenotype
1
all colored smooth

Yellow smooth × yellow smooth (selfing F ) 1

CcSs
C c S s

CS Cs cS cs
CS Cs cS Cs
CS CCSS CCSs CcSS CcSs

Cs CCSS CCSs CcSs Ccss

cS CcSS CcSs ccSS ccSs

cs CcSs Ccss ccSs Ccss

Phenotype: 9 yellow smooth

3 colorless smooth
3 yellow wrinkled
1 colorless wrinkled

b). yellow smooth seeds

9/10 × 556=312.75
Colorless smooth seeds
3/16 × 556=104.25
Yellow wrinkled seeds
9/10 × 556= 104 seeds
Colorless wrinkled
1/16 × 556= 34.75
Polygenic inheritance and gene complex
A single character is controlled by the allele of two or more genes interacting with
one another i.e. a single characteristic may be controlled by the interaction of two or
more genes situated at different loci of different chromosomes. A characteristic
which is controlled by more than one gene is known as a polygenic character and its
transmission is called polygenic inheritance. For example in the case of the
inheritance of the shape of the comb in domestic fowl in different poultry breeds.
If a true breeding pea combed fowl is crossed with a true breeding rose combed fowl,
all the F1 offspring display a quite different kind of comb called walnut. If two of
these are crossed, the F2 produces birds with all the three types of comb (pea, rose
and walnut) plus a further fourth type known as the single comb.
Assuming that the four types of comb are produced by the interaction of two pairs of
alleles which can be designated Pp and Rr. A pea comb develops when P alone is
present without R; Arose comb when R is present without P; A wallnut comb when
P and R are present together; and a single comb when p and r are present alone in
the absence of P and R (i.e. only in the homozygous double recessive condition pprr)
The genes are transmitted in a normal mendelian manner and they show free
assortment and give the same ratios as in ordinary dihybrid crosses. But although
they are transmitted independently they control the same characteristic and are
interdependent in the way they express themselves in the phenotypes
Phenotypes and possible genotypes associated with comb shape in poultry
Phenotype Possible genotypes
Pea PPrr, Pprr
Rose RRpp, Rrpp
Walnut PPRR, PpRR, PPRr, PpRr
Single Pprr

Genetic explanation of comb inheritance in fowl.

Let P represent presence of pea comb (dominant)
Let p represent presence of pea comb (recessive)
Let R represent presence of rose comb (dominant)
Let r represent presence of rose comb (recessive)

If apure breeding pea comb hen is crossed with a pure breeding rose comb cock
Parental phenotypes pea comb X rose comb
Parental genotypes (2n) PPrr X RRpp
Gametes(n) Pr X Rp
Random fertilization
F1 genotypes (2n) all PpRr
F1 phenotypes all walnut comb
Wallnu comb X walnut comb
PpRr PpRr
PR, Pr, pR, pr PR, Pr, pR, pr
PR Pr pR pr
PR PPRR(walnut) PPRr(walnut) PpRR(walnut) PpRr(walnut)
Pr PPRr(walnut) PRrr(pea) PpRr(walnut) Pprr((pea)
pR PpRR(walnut) PpRr(walnut) ppRR(rose) ppRr(rose)
pr PpRr(walnut) Pprr(pea) ppRr(rose) Pprr(single)

Phenotypic ratio; 9walnut comb:3peanut comb:3rose comb:1single comb

In some cases of interacting genes, the presence of one gene suppresses the action of
another. This is known as epistasis and it can give rise to unusual ratios in genetic
crosses. The gene which does the suppressing is described as epistatic and the suppressed gene is
hypostatic.
NB; Dominant and recessive alleles occur at the same loci on homologous chromosomes, epistatic
and hypostatic genes occur at different loci.
An example of epstasis is provided by colour differences in onion bulbs. The red is obtained if C
and R are present, yellow if C is present without R, and white if c (without its dominant allele C) is
present with either R or r. the relationship between the colours and their underlying genotypes
indicates that c is epistatic to R. For example trying selfing a redbulbed onion plant with the
genotype CcRr; although the alleles are transmitted in a normal mendelian fashion, the phenotypes
obtained are far from the 9:3:3:1 ratio typical of mendel’s crosses with pea plants.
Phenotypes Genotypes
Red CCRR, CCRr, CcRR, CcRr
Yellow CCrr or Ccrr
White ccRR, ccRr, ccrr

VARIATION
Variation is the difference between individuals of the same species. OR It is a condition
where individuals of the same species look different.
Types of variation
Discontinuous variation; variation in this case produces individuals showing clear cut differences
with no intermediate between them e.g. blood groups in humans, wing length in a drosophila, sex
in plants and animals. It is controlled one or two major genes which may have two or more allelic
forms their phenotypic expression is relatively unaffected by environmental conditions. Since the
phenotypic variation is restricted to certain clear-cut characteristics, this form of variation is
alternatively known as qualitative inheritance, as opposed to quantitative inheritance which is
characteristic of continuous variation.
Continuous variation; many characteristics in a population show a complete gradation from one
extreme to the other without any break. This is illustrated most clearly by characteristics such as
mass, shape and colour of organs and organisms. Characteristics exhibiting continuous variation
are produced by the combined effects of many genes (polygenes) and environmental factors.
MUTATION
This is a change in the amount, arrangement or structure of the DNA of an organism. Mutation may
refer to the sudden or spontaneous changes in the structure or chemical nature of chromosomes or
genes. There are two types of mutations i.e. gene and chromosome mutation.
Gene mutation/point mutation; this results from a change in chemical nature of a gene i.e.
change in the sequence of a change by either substitution or depletion of a nucleotides making up
the gene. It can also be as a result of duplication, deletion, inversion, substitution or insertion of
nucleotides making up the genes. It the results of a change in the nucleotides sequence of the DNA
molecule in a particular region of the chromosome
Chromosomal mutations; usually occurs during meiosis and involve a variety of structural
aberrations e.g. deletion, breakages or loss of chromosome parts.
These changes in chromosome may involve the loss or gain of single chromosomes, a
condition called aneuploidy, or the increase in entire haploid sets of chromosomes, a condition
called euploidy (polyploidy)
Pieces of a chromosome may break and be translocated to another chromosome, resulting in a
translocation. A chromosome may duplicate, resulting in the set of duplicated genes on the same
chromosomes.
All the above results in the change of the gene sequence in chromosomes.
Causes of mutations
• X-rays/radiations, Y-radiations, ultra-violent light, chemicals like colchicines, mustard
gas
• High temperatures
•

10. Importance of mutation in agriculture.

Mutations are important in agriculture because they can be used in production of hybrid organisms
in agriculture. Therefore used in plants and animals breeding.
It causes genetic variation which is the basis of natural selection where the fit ones survival and the
unfit ones die.
GENETIC ENGINEERING AND GENETICALLY MODIFIED ORGANISMS (GMO’s)
Genetic engineering or modification is the addition of new DNA to an organism or living organism,
thereby modifying its genetic makeup. It is the process of inserting/including new genetic
information/ material in the existing cells/some cells of an organism of the same/different species
thus modifying its genetic characteristics.
It is the use of modern biotechnology or gene technology tools to introduce new traits into
organisms from related and non-related organisms’ e.g.
A DNA from a plant(X) that has high resistance to pest can be copied and introduced (added) to
another plant (Y) so that plant Y will have the pest resistance trait/character.
A scientist wants to make blue apples. The scientist decides on the reason for making blue apples.
He can get a plant with blue fruits e.g. blue berries and he extract DNA for blue colour in berries.
He inserts it into the apples DNA. He plants the new apple seeds and the apple tree produces blue
apples instead of red. But it is not plants alone, if he wants a cow to have some desired traits such
as high milk production, he can get the DNA of a cow with that trait and fix its DNA into the new
cow so that the recipient cow will have a high milk production trait. And some times, the DNA of a
fish can be modified by a DNA from a plant which is a completely non-related organisms.
Sometimes chemicals used in farming, such as herbicides end up killing lots of the crops planted
together with weeds. Here, the DNA from a herbicide resistant plant can be added to the cells of the
food crop so that the food crop will withstand herbicides when they are applied to the crop.
Cloning; this is the development of an entire organism from a single body cell. To clone something
means to duplicate or making an exact copy of something. Genetically, cloning is the creation of an
exact copy/copies of an organism. This means that the DNA or genes of the cloned organism is the
same as the original organisms. E.g. a scientist can take female egg cell of a pig and fertilize it with
a male sperm cell of a pig. At the fertilized egg (zygote) stage he can duplicate the zygote into 5-6
zygote and place them into different female pigs to carry until they are born and all the 6 pigs will
have the same DNA and will be called clones. Also, new varieties of crops can be multiplied
quickly by getting genes and cultured into other same plants using a cultured media. Therefore no
new genes are added.
Terms used in genetic engineering
Embryo rescue; the removal and culture of an immature embryo to produce a plant, often
following a wide cross.
Cultivar; a product of plant breeding that is released for access to producers.
Gene cloning; isolating a gene and making many copies of it by inserting the DNA sequence into a
vector, then into a cell and allowing the cell to reproduce and make many copies of the gene.
Vector; an agent that is used to carry the gene of interest into another cell. They can be viruses,
yeast or plasmids.
Genetic erosion; the loss of genetic diversity caused by either natural or manmade processes.
Gene marker; a genetic factor that can be identified and thus acts to determine the presence of
genes or traits linked with in but not easily identified.
Genetically modified organisms (GMOs); organisms whose genetic makeup has been changed by
any method including natural processes, genetic engineering, cloning, mutagenesis etc.
Germplasm; the sum total of all hereditary material in a single (interbreeding) species
Landrace; A population of plants, typically genetically herogeneous, commonly developed in
traditional agriculture from many years of farmer directed selection and which is specifically
adapted to local conditions.
Steps of genetic engineering
• Isolation of genes of interest.
• Insertion of the genes into a transfer vector.
• Transfer of the vector to the organism to be modified.
• Transformation of the cells of the organisms.
• Separation of the genetically modified organisms drom those that have not been successfully
modified.
Benefits of genetic engineering in agriculture
• It enhances improvement in the quality of existing crops/enhances crops with lacking
minerals and vitamins.
• It enables development of drought resistant crops that are adapted to water shortage
leading to high survival and yield.
• It enables breeders to produce animals with any desired genetic
constitution/composition.
• It enables the development of new crop varieties that are adapted to different soil
conditions thus promoting high chances of survival.
• Enhances production of crops which are resistant to pests and diseases.
• It increases resistance /tolerance of crops to chemicals e.g. herbicides.
• It shortens the maturity period of crops and animals thereby reducing management
costs
Advantages of GMO’s
• GMO crops are more productive and have high yields.
• They have inbuilt resistance to pests, weeds and diseases.
• They are nourishing to the body.
• They are more capable of thriving in regions with poor soil or adverse climate.
• Genetic engineering increase food supply thus less starvation in the world due to the fact
 that it cuts food prices.
• GMO’s is an effect way to provide farmers a larger profit while spending less time and
resource.
• More GMO’s crops can be grown on relatively small piece of land and therefore an
answer to feeding growing world population.
• They decrease food prices thus helping families that cannot afford to buy the food they
need for everyday living.
• The technology help to increase herbicide resistance in crops thus increasing efficiency
of herbicide application.
• Some GMO’s do not need large amount of pesticides because the crop its self is
dangerous to some insects.
• GMO’s have high shelf life.
• GMO’s are tolerant to drought
Challenges of genetic engineering in agriculture
• Expensive/costly to buy equipment and reagents to use.
• Absence of enabling laws or policies to govern the application of biotechnology.
• Inadequate information on the benefits of biotechnology.
• Evaluation of new crop varieties which may outcompete indigenous species.
• Seeds from genetically/modified crops are planted only once.
• Genetic modification may lead to unexpected disastrous gene defects e.g. cancers,
growth malformation.
• It is time consuming to execute all the processes involved in genetic engineering.
• Many people and farmers are conservative and biased which makes application of
genetic engineering difficult.
• Inadequate skills to apply biotechnology
• Limited research centres and facilities for biotechnology.
• Inadequate knowledge to use biotechnology.
Disadvantages of GMO’s
• GMO’s could be dangerous to some important insects. This is because the new genes of
the crops can be deadly to certain insects like butterflies that are not actually
dangerous to crops.
• The people oppose GMO’s that they don’t taste good as compared to naturally
produced crops.
• Critics claim that GMO’s can cause particular disease or illnesses.
• Environmental concern; the use of heavy chemical residue, weeds that were killed will
contain chemical residue posing a threat to soils and living organisms in them.
• It may lead to transfer of allergic genes to people.
• There is a worry concerning the uncertainty surrounding it. Many people feel that we
may be going into an area that we cannot control if it gets out of hand.
• It takes longer to get a single variety of crop or breed of animal with desired genes.
Reasons for low adoption of genetic engineering technology in Uganda
• The equipment and reagents for use in genetic engineering like DNA markers are expensive
to most farmers.
• The population is genetically ignorant and nor willing to adopt genetic engineering
technology.
• Inadequate personnel and skills to develop and monitor the genetically engineered organisms.
• Negative public perception of GMOs. The population is not willing to adopt the technology
since it is considered strange and inappropriate.
Alternatives for genetic modification
• Cross breeding.
• Budding and grafting
• Pests, disease and weed control
• Selection
• Hybridization
• Introduction
• Improved farming techniques
• Use of fertilizers.
CROP IMPROVEMENT
This refers to the art and science of manipulating and altering genetic makeup of a crop to get off
springs that are superior to their parents.
It is a change in quality and quantity or any other attribute that the farmer may admire from the
plant.
Plant breeding; refers to the branch of biology that deals with crop improvements
Germplasm is the genetic material that can be used to perpetuate a species or population. It
provides the materials (parents) used to initiate a breeding program.
Sources of germplasm for plant breeding includes
• Domesticated plants are plants used for food or other uses
• Undomesticated plants are wild plants used in crosses that have desirable traits like disease
resistance and adaptation to stress.
Aims/objectives/reasons of crop improvement/plant breeding
• The farmer carries out crop improvement in order to get high yielding varieties.
• To develop better quality crops in terms of tastes, shape, size, colour.
• To modify the growth habits e.g. shorter plants for easy harvesting.
• To improve nutritive value.
• To develop quick maturing varieties.
• To develop crops that are resistant to pests and diseases.
• To get crops of short height to prevent lodging e.g. in cereals.
• To develop crops that have better response to fertilizer application.
• To get crops that can tolerate drought and water logging.
• To develop varieties of crops with the seeds that are easy to germinate.
• To produce crops that adapt the needs of the grower and consumer.
Methods of crop improvement
The following are the methods of crop improvement.
• Introduction
• Selection
• Mutation breeding
• Genetic engineering
• Grafting
Mutation breeding; the genetic makeup of the plant is changed using radiations of x-rays, high
temperatures and chemicals. The number of genes can be increased or decreased.
Introduction; new varieties are brought into an area from other areas.
It can be used in three different ways;-
• It can be used directly for good economic use as in the case of rubber and cocoa.
• Can be used for selection of suitable crops for cultivation
• Can be used for hybridization or other breeding programs.
Problems of plant introduction
• The introduced plant may not be adaptable to the particular new location. This means
that we have to make a series of introduction to get adaptable varieties.
• The introduction of a plant needs aspects of the environment. Certain crops need
particular insects for pollination which means the insects has to be introduced. If it is
legumes, it needs effective Rhizobia for nodulation.
• Plant introduction requires the labour and a preliminary study of the climatic and
adaphic conditions in the area where introduction is to be made.
• It may make insects/organisms that where not pests to be pests.
Selection; it is the process by which organisms which appear physically, physiologically and
behaviorally better adapted to the environment survive and reproduce. This may be natural or
artificial selection
Natural selection occurs without influence man and it’s based on the principle of survival for the
fittest. Crops/animals that are better suited in the environment survive in the next generation while
the less suited die off.
Natural selection occurs when
• Organisms within a population usually show variation
• Some organisms bear characteriistics that are favoured while others have unfavourable
characteristics.
• Individuals with favoured variations survive and pass on their fovourable characteristics to
the next generations while those with unfavourable variation are weeded out in the struggle
for existence.
Natural selection has the following importance;
• Organisms within environment is controlled within supportable limits.
• Natural selection favours emergence of new species under constantly changing environmental
conditions
• Organisms that are best adapted for a particular environment are allowed to survive.
• Deleterious genes are eliminated from the population.
In artificial selection; the farmer chooses planting materials from only those plants that have
desirable qualities and in the long run, only plants with good qualities will remain in the
population. Seed selection is the choosing of seeds for use in planting.
There are several methods of selection e.g. mass selection, pureline selection, pedigree selection,
hybridization
Mass selection; seeds are collected from many good looking plants and mixed together. This may
be used in self- pollinated plants (Dioecious plants).
It is called mass selection because seeds are selected from many looking plants and mixed together.
Therefore it is based on the phenotype/external characters of the plant.
Procedure;
• Seeds from similarly appearing and best crops are collected.
• The seeds from all the selected plants are mixed together to get the mass of seeds.
• The mixture obtained is used for replanting.
• The new seeds are obtained from the best appearing and most vigorous plants replanted.
• The seeds are then collected and mixed as a new variety after plants show uniformity in the
desired characters.
Advantages of mass selection
• The operation is simple, quick and easy to carryout.
• It needs no scientific knowledge.
• Pollination need not to be controlled to provide a new variety.
• To meet the needs of the farmers, it is the only method for improving the local or wild
varieties.
• New varieties can be developed within a minimum period
Disadvantages of mass selection
• Success in mass selection depends on the inherent degree of variability and if this is
lacking or not conspievious, mass selection becomes difficult.
• The phenotypic characteristics used in selection may be due to environmental
conditions.
• Selection is based on the material characteristics without considering the source of the
pollen for pollination i.e. no control of pollination.
• It is not possible to increase yield because of environmental factors.
• In cross pollinated crops, the variety produced is heterozygous.
Pure line selection; this is used in improving self-pollinated/ fertilized plants.
It is the process of isolating a desirable homozygous individual from the mixed population and
multiplying the same without contamination to release as anew variety. A pure line is a group of
plants obtained from a single self-fertilized homozygous plant
A single good looking plant is chosen and its offspring is used to develop a new variety.
Procedure;
• A large number of good looking plant(s) with desirable qualities are identified.
• The seeds are collected from these plants and kept separate.
• The seeds from each plant are planted separately and in isolated fields to prevent
contamination by off types.
• The performance of each seeds from all the plants is noted and the best performing plant is
also noted.
• The seeds of the best performing line is multiplied and released for sale as anew variety.
Advantages of pure line selection
• it is easy and cheap method of crop improvement
• it is quick and the line are usually genetically fixed or the same.
• Plants in such variety react in similar fashion to the environmental conditions.
• There is maximum possible improvement over the original varieties.
• It is useful in improving low heritability trait as selection is based on progeny
performance.
Disadvantages of pure line selection
• Pure lines have poor adaptability due to narrow genetic base
• The selection is powerless to bring changes in heredity factors.
• It is limited to self-pollinated crops.
• It time and space consuming
• More expensive trials has to be conducted.

Clonal selection; this is practiced in vegetatively propagated plants.

Procedure
• Crops/plants with desirable characteristics are identified from within the population.
• Vegetative plant parts obtained from each parent/individual plants are chosen.
• The performance of the clones are multiplied and compared to the normal variety.
 • If the clones performs significantly better than the normal variety, they undergo trials at
different experimental sites.
• The successful clones are given names as they are released as a new variety.
NB; bud selection is a form of clonal selection where the unit of selection is a bud.
Pedigree selection; it involves selection within offspring of certain lines (it a breeding method in
which the breeder keeps records of the ancestry of the cultivar). In this method, superior types are
selected in successive segregating generations and a record is kept of all parent-progeny
relationship.
Selections begins in the F2-generation when individuals considered are able of producing the best
progeny are selected. A pedigree record of relationship between families and their distinguishing
features are kept and this record is used in deciding the families to be continued and the ones to be
discarded. From such a record, the parent crop which should be of high yield adaptability and
resistance is selected.
Procedure of pedigree
• Identify desirable hpmozygous parents and make about 20-200 crosses.
• Bulk seeds (2000-5000 plants) (F2). Space the plants to allow individual plants to be
examined and documented.
• Select desirable plants and harvest them separately keeping records of their identities.
• Seeds from superior plants are progeny-rowed in the F3-F5 generations, making sure to
space plant rows for easy record keeping. Selection at this stage is both within and
between rows by first identifying superior rows and selecting 2-5 plants from each
progeny to plant the next generation.
• By the end of the F4 generation, there should be between 25-50 rows with records of the
plant and row. Grow progeny of each selected as F5.
• Family rows are planted in the F6 to produce experimental lines for preliminary yield
trials in the F7. The benchmark or check variety is a locally adapted cultivar. Several
checks may be included in the trial.
• Advanced yield trials over locations, regions and years are conducted in the F8-F10
generations, advancing only superior experimental material to the next generation.
Advantages of pedigree selection
• Record keeping provides a catalog of genetic information of the cultivar unavailable from
other methods.
• Selection is based not only on the phenotype but also on genotype (progeny row) making it an
effective method for selecting superior lines from among segregating plants.
• Using the records, the breeder is able to advance only the progeny lines in which plants that
carry the genes for the target traits occur.
• A high degree of genetic purity is produced in the cultivar, an advantage where such a
property is desirable.
Disadvantages of pedigree selection
• Record keeping is slow, tedious, time consuming and expensive.
• The method is not suitable for species in which individual plants are difficult to isolate
and characterize.
• Pedigree selection is along procedure, requiring about 10-12 years or more to complete.
• The method is more suitable for qualitative than quantitative disease resistance
breeding.
• Selection in F2 (early generation testing) on the basis of quantitative traits such yield
may not be effective.
Hybridisation; this is the crossing of pure-lines to produce a hybrid. It’s done by combining the
desirable characteristics found in a population of plants. It is mainly used in breeding for disease
resistance. Pure line cultivars are produced for species that are highly self-pollinated.
Hybrid cultivars are produced by crossing inbred lines that have been evaluated for their ability to
produce hybrids with superior vigor over and above those of parents used in the cross.
Procedure of hybridization
• Plants with desirable qualities are selected.
• Seeds from the selected plants are collected and selfied to obtain homozygosity i.e. purelines.
This is only done in cross pollinated plants (self-pollinated plants are already homozygous
due to natural selfing).
• Seeds of pure lines are then collected and planted.
• The male parts of plants to serve as females are removed before they mature to prevent self-
pollination in self-pollinated plants.
• The females and males are then labeled for easy identification during crossing.
• The flowers are then covered. In females, it prevents natural cross pollination and in males, it
prevents contamination of pollen with foreign pollen and eases pollen collection for
crossing.
 • Crossing is then carried out. Pollen from the bagged males are collected and dusted on the
females and labeled.
• Seeds are then collected after maturity and sown.
• The offsprings of theF1 are tested at various research stations to find suitability to various
environments.
• If found desirable, the seeds are multiplied, given names and numbers and released to
farmers.
How a farmer can ensure high crop yields
• Growing crops suited to the soils and climate of the area to ease the establishment of the
plant and reduce diseases associated with stress.
• Use of improved seeds that give higher yields.
• Proper tilling of the land for good aeration and water infiltration.
• Timely planting; plant at the beginning of rain (early plant) to enable crops get
maximum benefits from the available rainfall.
• Use of proper spacing to control pests and diseases and to reduce on the competition of
nutrients, space and light.
• Proper and timely weeding to remove weeds that may be alternate hosts for pests.
• Proper and timely disease control by chemicals, cultural or any other methods to ensure
proper crop growth.
• Irrigating if necessary and possible to provide enough water to the crops.
• Proper application and use of fertilizers to ensure that crops have enough nutrients for
proper growth.
• Proper drainage of the soil to avoid rotting of the plants and to improve aeration.
• Pruning to control pests and to ensure efficient use of available plant nutrients.
• Gapping/gap filling to ensure an optimum plant population.
• Thinning where there is excess plants to ensure correct spacing.
• Staking/trellising/earthingup to prevent damage to fruits and ensure that plants have
access to sunlight. Earthing up prevents logging of plants.
• Mulching to retain moisture and add organic matter to the soil.
• Shading in shade crops like vanilla to reduce heat stress
Qn; 1 (a) Define the following terms
(i) Genetic engineering
(ii) Cloning
(iii) Polyploidy
(iv) Hybridization
(b) Describe the procedure of mass selection.
(c) How can you ensure high yield of maize field.
UNEB 2016
POLLINATION
This is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma. It occurs when the anther wall
dries up and the cells shrink creating tension which causes the anther wall to split along the side to
release pollen grains. The stomium is aline of weakness where the splitting occurs to release the
pollen grain.
Types of pollination
(i) Self-pollination (inbreeding); this is the transfer of pollen grain from the anther to the stigma
of the flower or another flower but on the same plant.

Features that promote self-pollination

• A flower being bisexual (hermaphrodite) with both the androecium and gynoecium being
borne on the same flower or different flower but on the same plant (monoecious)
• The anthers and stigma of the flower ripening at the same time encourages germination of the
pollen on the stigma.
• The flower remaining closed not until after pollination has taken place.
• Failure of the pollen from other flowers to germinate on the stigma.
(ii) Cross pollination (outbreeding); this is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the
stigma of a different flower located on a different plant but of the same species.
Features that promote cross pollination
• Dioecious condition; having separate male and female. In such plants, self-pollination is
impossible since the embryo sac of the female plant can only be fertilized by pollen from a
different flower on the male plant.
• Dichogamy; anthers and stigma ripening at different times. When the androecium mature and
ripen first it is termed as protandry. When the gynoecium mature and ripen first it is called
protogyny.
• Self-sterility (self-incompatibility); this is the failure of the pollen grains to germinate and
 grow fully on the stigma of the same flower. Such a flower can only be fertilized by pollen
from a different flower. This is due to gene interaction which results into proteins that
inhibit germination of the pollen grains.
• Special floral stural structure and arrangement; some flowers have stigma that lie high above
the anthers due to the long styles. In such a situation, pollination by pollen of the same
flower from the lower anther is impossible.
Agents of pollination
These include
• Insects
• Wind
• Animals
Characteristics of insect pollinated flowers
• Have brightly coloured petals to attract insects
• Have nactaries which secrete nectar tht is used as food by insect.
• Usually highly scented to attract insects
• Have large and conspicuous flowers and sometimes they are arranged in large groups
called inflorescences to provide a landing surface for insects.
• Produce sticky pollen grains which can easily stick on the hairs of the insects.
• Anthers lie inside the corolla so that pollinating insects brush against them, making
pollen to stick on the insect’s body.
• Possess small compact anthers that are firmly attached to the filaments and are held in
the best position to come into contact with the visiting insect.
• Possess large petals which act as landing platforms and vector guides of the insects to
the nectars. This allows the pollinating insect to come in contact with the reproductive
parts.
• Produce relatively less pollen grains because the pollination is more precise and reliable.
Characteristics of wind pollinated flowers
• Are usually small and inconspicuous.
• Are usually dull coloured
• They lack nectar and are often not scented.
• Stamens produce large quantities of smooth, light, powdery pollen grains. This enables
the pollen grains to be easily carried away by wind.
• Anthers are usually large and are loosely attached to the long filaments to enable them
swing easily in order to disperse the pollen grains.
• Have large and feathery stigma that hang outside the flower. The feathery nature
provides a large surface area for reception of pollen grains.
Measures undertaken to facilitate pollination in crops.
• Keeping bees in association with crop plants to increase the number of bees pollinating crop
plants.
• Pruning excess branches on flowering plants to expose flowers to agents of pollination.
• Eliminating weeds on the farm so as to redirect all pollinators to crop plants other than weeds.
• Planting crops at the proper spacing to ease movement of pollen from one crop to another.
• Reducing the use of agrochemicals especially pesticides that kill pollinators of crop plants.
• Practicing agoforestry by planting highly flowering shrubs to concentrate pollinators on the
crop gardens.
• Applying nitrogenous fertilizers to the soils to improve flowering of crops and pollination.

Fertilization in flowering plants

Mature pollen grains land on a compatible stigma of the same species. This stimulates the
epidermal cells of the stigma to secrete a sticky substance containing sucrose. This substance
stimulates germination of the pollen grain, forming a pollen tube and possibly also supplies food.
The pollen tube then grows through the loosely packed cells of the styles towards the ovule. This
growth is directed by chemicals secreted by the embryo sac and is controlled by genes in the pollen
tube nucleus located at the growing tip of the tube. Meanwhile the generative nucleus divides
mitotically to form two male nuclei.
On reaching the ovary, the pollen tube enters the ovule through the micropyle and then penetrates
into the embryo sac by secreting enzymes (pectases) that digest the wall of the embryo sac. After
penetration, the pollen tube nucleus degenerates.
One male nucleus then fuses with the haploid egg cell to form a diploid zygote while the other
male nucleus fuses with the two polar nuclei to form a triploid primary endosperm nucleus.
This kind of fertilization is termed double fertilization and is unique to flowering plants.
Diagram showing double fertilization
Fruit and seed dispersal
A fruit is usually the ripened ovary of a flower containing seeds. Fruits have two scars on them
while seeds have one. The fruits play a function of protecting seeds and aid in dispersal.
Dispersal refers to the scattering of fruit and seeds way from the parents, over a wide area.
Dispersal may be for the whole fruit or only the seeds.
Importance of seed dispersal
• Prevent overcrowing.
• Reduces competition for light and nutrients.
• Enables plants to colonise new localities.
• Minimizes epidemic diseases among crowded seedling
• Enhances the chances of survival of the species.
Dispersal mechanisms
Dispersal by animals; (birds, man, monkeys, bats)
They are either succulent or have features for attachment on to the animals fur or clothes e.g.
Trimfetta and Desmodium.
Large brightly coloured or scented fruits attract animals. In mango, only part of the fruit is eaten by
animals. The rest, containing the seed is thrown away; in guava, tomato and pawpaw, the whole
fruit is eaten and seeds passed out in feaces.
Dispersal by wind; fruits/seeds are light and have many hairs or wing-like structures that enable
dispersal by air currents e.g. Tridax fruit, Tecoma seed, silk cotton seed.
Dispersal by water; the fruit of coconut has a thick, fibrous mesocarp with numerous air spaces.
This reduces the relative density of the fruit, causing it to float passively in water. The white
mangrove Aricennia nitida, has seeds with a spongy seed coat which has air spaces in it.
Explosive mechanisms (self-dispersal/mechanical); in some legumes (e.g. cowpeas, oil bean),
there is uneven drying of the pericarp i.e. as certain parts become dry, other parts are still fresh.
This creates tension in the pericarp, causing the fruit to split open violently.

Factors influencing plant distribution

ECOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE

Ecology; this is the study of the interrelationships between organisms and their environment.

An ecosystem; it is a natural self-sustaining unit composed of both living and non-living

components of the environment. It includes all the living organisms that interact with one another
and also with the physical and non-physical factors present.

Habitat: This refers to a specific place where an organism lives. It is divided into

(i) Terrestrial habitats which are land habitats such as grassland, forests, deserts, mountains etc.

(ii) Aquitic habitats which are water habitats such as fresh water bodies and marine.

Population: this is a group of organisms of the same species living together in a particular habitat
at a given time.

Community: The total of all populations living together in a particular habitat. It consists of two or
more populations living together in the same habitat.

Biomass; this refers to the total dry weight of the organisms in a habitat

Biosphere; this refers to the part of the earth and its atmosphere that is inhabited by living
organisms i.e. it supports life

Niche: it refers to the role of an organism in its habitat. The position occupied by an organism in a
particular ecosystem, dependent upon the resources it uses. The more resources that are taken into
account then the more carefully defined the organism's niche will be, the organism will become
more specialized.
Carrying capacity; this refers to the maximum number of organisms a habitat can support at a
given time without exhausting its resources.

Environment; it refers to all factors which surround and influence an organism. It includes biotic
and abiotic factors.
(i) Biotic factors which are the living organisms such as parasites and predators.
(ii) A biotic factors which are non-living components in the environment such as light, humidity,
temperature etc.

Abiotic factors: they include climatic and edaphic factors

These are the physical factors that affect an ecosystem. They include the following:

(i) climatic factors.

Light: Many plants are directly affected by light availability since light is required for successful
photosynthesis, germination and flowering process in plants. Plants develop strategies in order to
cope with different amounts of available light.

They may have larger leaves; develop photosynthetic pigments that require less light; reproduce
when light availability is at an optimum.

Temperature: The major effect of temperature is on the enzymes controlling metabolic reactions.
As a rule plants will develop more rapidly in warmer temperatures, as will ectothermic animals. It
is partly due to temperature that migrations occur.

Water availability/rainfall: This is mainly a problem in terrestrial ecosystems and does not affect
aquatic ecosystems.

In most populations a lack of water leads to water stress which, if severe will lead to death. There
are some organisms (e.g., cacti and camels), which have developed successful strategies to cope
with water stress. There a fewer organisms in arid/desert areas than areas that receive high amount
of rainfall. Water is important during germination, dispersal of seeds and fruits, photosynthesis,
transpiration, turgidity and support in plants, temperature regulation (cooling), dissolving mineral
salts and it is a medium of transport and enzymatic reactions.

Wind; this affects rain formation hence affects distribution of organisms. It affects the rate of
transpiration and sweating of organisms thus influencing their distribution. It causes waves which
increase aeration of lakes and oceans and it enables dispersal of spores, seeds and is an agent of
pollination.

Atmospheric pressure; it regulates the amount of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
due to its variation which affects distribution of organisms.

Humidity; this is the amount of water vapour available in the atmosphere at aparticular time.
When humidity is low i.e. less water vapour in the atmosphere, the rate of transpiration and
sweating increases.
Oxygen availability: This may be a limiting factor in soil or water. In aquatic ecosystems it is
better to have fast flowing cold water as it holds a higher concentration of oxygen.

If water becomes too warm, or the flow rate is too slow there may be a drop in oxygen
concentration leading to suffocation for many aquatic organisms.
 A similar situation occurs in waterlogged soil where the air spaces between the soil particles are
filled with water, reducing the available oxygen for any plants.

Edaphic factors: This term covers any factors referring to soil e.g. salinity, pH and topography.
There are three main soil types, clay, loam and sand. The different soil types have different
particle sizes, this will have an effect on the organisms that are able to survive in them.

BIOTIC FACTORS

The living components of an ecosystem can be grouped by deeding (trophic) levels as producers,
consumers and decomposers

Trophic levels

This describes a specific level in a food chain. The term trophic refers to nutrition.

• Producers: Organisms which convert some of the energy from the sun into stored chemical energy in
the process of photosynthesis (usually green plants).
• Primary consumers: Organisms that obtain energy by consuming producers. They are herbivores like
grazers such as cattle, hippos and browsers like rabbits, goats, giraffes and insects like grass
hoppers
• Secondary consumers: Organisms which obtain energy by consuming primary consumers. They are
carnivores e.g. cheetah, leopard, lion, snakes
• Tertiary consumers; these feed on secondary consumers e.g. hyenas, lions, crocodiles, eagles, Nile
perch, vulture etc.
• Decomposers: These organisms form the end point of every food chain. They are bacteria or fungi
that obtain their energy by breaking down dead organisms from the other trophic levels.

Each description of a trophic level will describe an organism’s role in the ecosystem. Organisms
may occupy more than one trophic level, (e.g. when acting as omnivores).
Qn; Explain the factors influencing plant distribution
ENERGY FLOW IN AN ECOSYSTEM

Solar energy is utilized in the ecosystem through photosynthesis. Producers trap light energy and
convert it to chemical energy in form of food. The total solar energy produced by the sun is not
utilized by plants because 40% is reflected immediately from the clouds, dust in the
atmosphere,15% is absorbed and converted to heat energy in the atmosphere by ozone and others
by radiation and evaporation.

In the process of feeding, energy moves from producers, through primary consumers, secondary
consumers to higher trophic levels.

From one trophic level to the next, energy is lost as

➢ Organic waste products of metabolism and excretion
➢ Undigested food materials are lost through egestion
➢ Heat of evaporation
➢ i) Some energy is used up during respiration.
➢ ii) Some energy is lost from herbivores in form of indigestible and non-consumable plant
material e.g. roots and cellulose or fibre
➢ iii) Some organisms die before they are eaten.
➢ iv) Some of the chemical energy is converted into other forms such as sound, light energy,
heat energy, which easily escapes from the organisms.

10% of the energy in one trophic level is transferred to the next. Upon death of organisms,
decomposers break tissues releasing energy. This energy is lost in form of heat while nutrients are
released back to the ecosystem for recycling. Net primary productivity is the net gain of organic
materials in photosynthesis after allowing for losses due to respiration. Gross primary productivity
(GPP) is the rate at which chemical energy is stored by plants.
Energy is lost at every stage in the first transfer of energy from solar energy received to NPP is
high. The average efficiency of transfer from plants to herbivores is about 10% and from animal to
animal is about 20%
In general, herbivores make less efficiency use of their food than do carnivores because
• Plants contain a high proportion of cellulose or fibres which are relatively indigestible and
 therefore unavailable as energy sources for most herbivores
• There is loss of energy in respiration, egestion and excretion.
• Some are lost to decomposers after death before utilized by herbivores

Qn; (a) Give the reasons why herbivores are not able to utilize all the carbon present in plants
(b) State the reasons why not all the solar energy produced by the sun is not utilized by plants.

In an ecosystem, energy flow is represented in food chains, food webs, pyramid of numbers and
pyramid of biomass.

Food chain

A food chain is a feeding relationship in which energy flows from producers through consumers
without a break in the sequence of feeding. The arrow points to the direction of energy flow (eaten
by) e.g. food chain of termites, chicken, grass, human.

Grass Termites Chicken human

Food web

This is a feeding relationship which consists of several interconnected food chain.

E.g. bush rat, grass hopper, guinea fowl, lizard, termite, grass and kite

Kite

Guinea fowl Bush rat Lizard

Termite grass hopper

grass

Pyramids in ecology

Ecological pyramids are used as a tool to illustrate the feeding relationships of the organisms,
which together make up a community.

1. Pyramid of numbers

This is the simplest way of illustrating the feeding relationships within a community. The
commonest form shows that the numbers of organisms occupying each trophic level decreases
from producers to secondary consumers and beyond.
Two problems with this form of pyramid are that the numbers involved may be huge (in the
hundreds of thousands) and some pyramids may be inverted.

2. Pyramid of biomass

This indicates the feeding relationship between organisms occupying different trophic levels with
reference to their biomass.

Biomass can be measured as either wet mass or dry mass. Measuring the dry mass is more accurate
as it does not include the variable water content of organisms.

The commonest form of the pyramid of biomass shows that the total biomass of organisms
occupying each trophic level decreases from producers to secondary consumers and beyond.

There is still the problem that a pyramid of biomass can be inverted and also it does not take
account of changes over time. The sampling must all be carried out at one moment in time and
therefore indicates the standing crop and not the productivity.

3. Pyramid of energy

This is the most accurate representation of the feeding relationship between the organisms at
different trophic levels. It takes into account the energy gains and losses over a period of time.

Adaptation of plants to their external environment

Water availability is the most important external factor which determines the distribution and
abundance of plants. According to presence of water in the surrounding, plants are grouped into the
following;
(a) Xerophytes
These are plants living in dry areas. They have the risks of desiccation in dry periods. They have
the following features;
• Some have thick, fleshy (succulent) stems and branches which store a lot of water.
• In some plants, the leaves are covered with hair/scales to reduce water loss by transpiration
• Some have roots which grow extensively close to the surface (superficial). They provide a
large surface area for absorbing maximum amount of water after a short time.
• Some have leaves reduced to spines to minimize water loss.
 • Some of the plants have deep roots to absorb underground water far below the surface.
• In some plant species, the leaves have thick waxy cuticle which reduce the rate of
transpiration.
• The cuticle is very shinny to reflect light or solar radiations hence preventing the leaf from
heating up.
• In some plants, the stomata open at night and close during the day to reduce the rate of water
loss.
• In some species, the leaves are needle like with stomata reduced in number reducing the rate
of transpiration.
• Some plants have underground organs like bulbs and corms which store food and water.
Mesophytes
These are plants that live in well watered areas. They are normally found in tropical rain forests.
Mesophytes have a problem of too much water. They have the following adaptations;
• Many of them have got broad leaves with a lot of stomata hence increasing the rate of
transpiration.
• Some have got more stoamata on the upper surface.
• Some have got hydrathodes on the leaf margins which actively secrete water by the process of
guttation.
Hydrophytes
These are plants which are partially or fully immersed in water e.g. elodea, algea, water lilies,
water hyacinth, papyrus etc.
Adaptations of hydrophytes
• Their roots have no root haairs to reduce the surface area for water absorption.
• The submerged plants or parts lack cuticles to enable easy absorption of minerals salts.
• Leaves floating on water surface have more stomata on the upper surface to increase on water
loss by transpiration.
• They have got large air spaces in the leaves, stems and roots which provide buoyancy/up
thrust (allow them to float on water)
• The air spaces also store oxygen which is used during respiration and carbon dioxide used in
photosynthesis
• The submerged plants have very sensitive chloroplasts to light enabling them to carryout
photoasynthesis under low light intensity.
Halophytes

These are plants that grow in soils with high salinity (high salt concentration). Such areas have high
salt content with low oxygen concentration. Halophytes have a risk of losing water by osmosis due
to the high salt concentration/high osmotic pressure of the soil surrounding them.
Adaptation of halophytes
• Some plants accumulate salts actively into their cells. This increases the osmotic
pressure of their cells enabling the plant to take up water by osmosis
• Some plants have got salt glands in their leaves which excrete excess salts.
• Some have got succulent tissues which store water absorbed from the soil when the soil
water content is relatively small.

INTERACTIONS BETWEEN POPULATION.

Individual organisms in the population do not live in isolation in a community. They are continuously
interacting with each other in the following ways:
Competition
Predation
Mutualism
Parasitism

COMPETITION
As the population of the individuals increase, the resources become limited and the organisms compete for
them. Examples of resources competed for include, food, space, mates, etc. Competition is of two types;
1. Interspecific competition; this is the competition between organisms of different species, e.g. the
competition between goats and cattle for pastures.
2. Intraspecific competition; this is the competition between organisms of the same species, e.g. the
competition between goats for grass.
PREDATION
This is the relationship between a predator and the prey.
A predator is an organism that hunts and kills another organism (prey) for food.
A prey is an organism that is hunted and killed for food. Ecology.
The graph showing the predator-prey relationship
Description and explanation of the graph:
The population of the prey is higher than that of the predator at the start. This leads to an increase in the
number of predators.
The prey reaches a peak earlier than the predators. Further increase in the predator population leads to a
decrease in the prey population due to the fact that they are being fed on by the predators. When the number
of prey goes down, the predators starve and this makes their population to go down. When the predator
number decreases below that of the prey, the population of the prey increases again due to the fact that the
predators are few which would feed on them.
Note. Both the predator and prey control the population of each other.
Adaptations of predators that enable them to feed on prey
1. They have keen eyesight to see their prey.
2. They have strong jaw muscles to tear flesh of the prey.
3. They have sharp claws to hold and kill their prey.
4. They move very fast to enable them chase the prey.
5. They have streamlined bodies to cut through air during movement.
6. Some have very sharp canines to tear flesh of their prey.
7. They have colours, which help them to camouflage.

Adaptations of the prey to avoid being eaten by predators

1. They perceive sound with high accuracy and are able to sense their predators at a distance.
2. They are very fast in movement to escape from their predators.
3. They have developed structures for defense such as horns.
4. They normally move in groups to scare their predators.
5. They prefer to stay in areas, which give them good visibility such as grasslands.
6. They have colours, which help them to camouflage.
7. Mimicry; this is where a palatable harmless organism attains colours of an unpalatable harmful
organism and it is confused for a harmful organism.

FEEDING RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN ORGANISMS

SYMBIOSIS
This is the relationship between two organisms of different species in which both organisms derive
benefits from the association.
Examples
1. In the stomach of cattle and sheep there are bacteria. These bacteria help to digest cellulose,
which is used by the cow. The bacteria benefits by getting food and shelter from the cow.
2. The nitrogen-fixing bacteria in root nodules of leguminous plants. The bacteria provide nitrates
to the plant by converting nitrogen to nitrates and the bacteria are protected in the root nodules. The
bacteria may also use sugars produced by the plant during photosynthesis
3. The lichen is composed of a fungus and filament of algae. The fungus provides water and
mineral salts to the algae and the fungus benefits by using the sugars produced by the algae

COMMENSALISM
This is the relationship between the organisms of different species in which only one organism
(commensal) benefits but the other organism neither benefits nor loses.
Examples.
1. The shark and the ramora. The ramora is a small fish that lives as a commensal attached to the
shark by its sucker. When the shark feeds, the ramora feeds on left overs of the shark. The shark
neither benefits nor loses.
2. The cattle/buffalos and the egret. The egret gets food in form of insects forced to fly by grazing
animals. The cattle do not gain and do not lose.

PARASITISM
This is the association between two organisms in which one (the parasite) is nutritionally dependent
on the other (host). The host is harmed in the process.
Parasites are divided into two categories:
1. Endo-parasites; these are parasites that live inside the body of the host, e.g. plasmodium and
HIV
2. Ectoparasites; these are parasites which live outside the body of the host, e.g. ticks, lice and
flea.

Parasites can also be described as:

Obligate parasites; these are parasites which cannot live without their hosts. Examples of obligate
parasites are plasmodium and HIV.
Facultative parasites; these are parasites that can spend some time outside the bodies of their
hosts. E.g. Ticks.

Incidental parasites; these are organisms that are not usually parasite but may become parasitic
due to factors like lack of their normal food, increase in their numbers, etc. an example is
Entamoeba gingivalis.
Problems faced by parasites
i) Finding the host may be difficult since most hosts keep on moving from one place to another.
ii) Deficiency of food in case the host has similar deficiency.
iii) They may be killed by the hosts’ immune reactions.
iv) Death of parasites incase the host dies due to starvation.
v) Inabilities to live in a wide range of environment since most of them have low power of
locomotion i.e. they are not able to live freely.

To overcome some of these problems, the parasites have a number of adaptations so as to cope up
with their mode of life.
General adaptations of parasites
1. They have means of attachment to the host.
2. They have penetrative devices for entering and feeding on the host
3. They show degeneration of unnecessary organs and systems to reduce on their body size in order
to fit in the host. e.g. eyes
4. They produce many eggs, seeds or spores to enhance their survival.
5. They have vector intermediate hosts
6. They produce resistant stages to survive in periods when they are outside the host

ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION

This is the process by which communities colonize an ecosystem and are then replaced over time
by other communities. It is the orderly change in a community over time, starting with a pioneer
community and ending with a climax community.

The process of changing from bare rock to the climax community is called primary succession. The
first colonizers of the habitat are called pioneer community.

Lichens Moss Herbs Grass Shrubs

Trees

In the water, the pioneer community is the phytoplankton

Phytoplankton algae Water weeds swamp

vegetation papyrus.

Pioneer species to climax communities

Pioneer species: These are the first species to occupy a new habitat, starting new
communities. They have rapid reproductive strategies, enabling them to quickly
occupy an uninhabited area. Many have an asexual stage to their reproduction.
Seres: These are the various stages that follow on from the pioneer species.
Climax community: This is the stable community that is reached, beyond which, no
further succession occurs.
 Types of succession
Primary succession; this occurs when the starting point is a bare ecosystem, (e.g,
following a volcanic eruption or a landslide). The pioneer species are usually lichen,
moss or algae. They are able to penetrate the bare surface, trap organic material and
begin to form humus.

Over several generations soil begins to form. The soil can be used by a more diverse
range of plants with deeper root systems. Gradually larger and larger plants occupy
the ecosystem along with a diversity of animals.

Finally a climax community is reached and the species present do not change unless
the environment changes in some way.

An example of primary succession forming an oak woodland:

1. Bare rock is colonised by mosses and lichen.

2. Small plants, ferns and grasses take over.
3. Larger plants with deeper roots appear.
4. Bushes and shrubs replace non-woody plants.
5. Fast growing trees form a dense, low wood.
6. Larger, slow growing oak trees create the oak woodland.

Secondary succession; this occurs when the starting point is bare, existing soil, (e.g,
following a fire, flood or human intervention). This type of succession proceeds in
the same way as primary succession except that the pioneer species tend to be
grasses and fast growing plants.

An example of secondary succession forming an oak woodland:

1. Bare soil is colonised by grasses and pioneer plants.

2. Grasses begin to predominate with time.
3. Shrubs replace the grasses.
4. Fast growing trees appear.
5. Slow growing oaks create the climax community.

The factors affecting population growth, and how populations increase in numbers are important
concepts in ecology as they are necessary in order to successfully study how ecosystems work.

The population growth curve

The growth curve is S-shaped and it is referred to as a sigmoid curve. It is divided into five phases.

Phase A
In this phase the rate of growth is low because the numbers of organisms multiplying are few and the
organisms are still adapting to the conditions.
Phase B
The rate of growth increases because the number of reproducing organisms has increased and the organisms
have adapted to the conditions.
Phase C
The rate of growth starts to slow down as the organisms start to die. This is due to the fact that their number
has become big and they have started competing for food, shelter, mates and space. The available resources
cannot support a big number of organisms.
Phase D
In this phase, the rate of birth is equal to the rate of death hence the population remains constant.
Phase E

The population is declining because the rate of birth is lower than the death rate. The organisms die at a
higher rate due to competition between them and the exhaustion of resources.

POPULATION SIZE

This refers to the number of organisms of the same species in a particular area at a particular time.

Determinants of population size

Population size depends on the following factors.
1. Natality (birth rate). This is the frequency of birth. Increase in natality results into increase in
population size.

2. Mortality (death rate). This is the frequency of deaths. When the death rate increases, the
population size decreases.

3. Emigration. This is the movement of individuals out of the population. It results into a decrease
in population size.

4. Immigration. This is the movement of individuals into the population. It causes the population
to increase.
5. Natural enemies i.e. pests, predators and disease causing organisms
6. Natural catastrophes e.g. flood, volcanic activities and earth quakes.
7. Light, water and temperature fluctuations.
8. Availability of space for breeding and dispersal.

Causes of imbalance in nature:

(Factors that affect distribution of an organism in an ecosystem)
Climate:
Draught makes the soil bare and cause emigration of animals. This is because without rainfall, no
food can be synthesised. It also the presence of rainfall determines the moisture and temperature in
an area. Therefore irregular changes in rainfall partner may produce a permanent effect on the
floral and fauna. A change in climate may lead to death on other species and this leads to an
imbalance in nature.
Over grazing:
This makes the sol bare. It involves herding of cattle in a area more than what the pasture can
support. Overgrazing removes the grass cover resulting;
Increase in abandancy of certain unpalatable species like the sporobulusspecies.
Increase in sheet, Gully and Rill erosion which may result into desertification.
Erosion of pasture by shrubs followed by succession form a forest as the climatic vegetation.
Reduction in abandancy of palatable grasses dominant in lightly grazed areas which may result into
low productivity.
Floods:
Where a large volume of H2O covers a large place thus taking all the lives present and since life
there is an adopted to terrestrial condition.
Volcanic eruptions:
When a volcanic eruption occurs, all life forms in the surrounding area are destroyed.
Invasion:
Introduction of new species in an area may change a balanced ecosystem because when the species
become more competitive, it becomes the dominant species e.g. introduction of certain plants
which become serious weeds e.g. lantana camara, introduction of later milotilus in Ugandan lakes
have threatened other fish species, like tilapia and others which are extinct.
Diseases:
This kills organisms which may be less resistant leading to an imbalance in nature.
Man’s activities: like mining, bush burning etc.
 Eutrophication and Salinization
This refers to increase in the nutrient enrichment in water bodies.
Salinization is the increase in the concentration of soluble salts in the soil
Causes of eutrophication
➢ Deposition of fertilizers washed from agricultural fields.
➢ Damping of chemicals and waste products from industries
➢ Disposal of sewage in water bodies
➢ Excessive use of pesticides
Negative effects of eutrophication
➢ Formation of algal blooms on water bodies
➢ Reduction in the amount of dissolved oxygen in the water bodies which results into death of
fish
➢ Turbidity increase
➢ Rate of sedimentation increases, shortening the life span of lakes
➢ Species diversity decreases and the dominant biota change.
➢ Massive growth of aquatic weeds which increases the production costs to control them and
interference with water flow and navigation
Qns. Crops of maize seedlings were sprayed with concentrated liquid fertilizer, later the
seedlings began to wilt but recovered when it rained. After one week, a nearby pond had
developed a thick covering of green algae. Later many fish in the pond died especially at night.
(a) Give an explanation for each of the following observations.
(i) Wilting of the seedlings.
(ii) Recovery of the seedlings from wilting after rain.
(iii) Growth of algae in the pond.
(iv) Death of fish, especially at night.
(b) Explain how agriculture affects the ecosystem.

SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE
This is the management of the soil to enhance and protect soil quality, selection of the species that
are well suited to the site and condition of the farm. Diversification of crops including livestock
and cultural practices to enhance biological and economic stability of the farm.
Sustainability rests on the principle that the needs of the present must be met without
compromising the ability of the future generation to meet their own needs.
Characteristics of sustainable agriculture
• Practicing soil and water conservation.

• Use of organic manures.

• Use of easily degradable agro-chemicals

• Use of resistant crop cover varieties and animal breeds.

• Controlled grazing/good farming practices.

• Recycling of waste agricultural bi-products.

• Use of high yielding varieties and breeds.

• Practicing agro-forestry.

Agricultural activities that can affect the ecosystem

• Land clearing which leads to elimination of habitats e.g. cutting trees, overgrazing, over
cultivation.

• Burning destroys vegetation and kills living organisms i.e. reduces biodiversity.

• Pollution due to application of agro-chemicals.

• Soil degradation through bad agricultural practices.

• Drainage of wet lands which eliminates habitants of organisms.
 • Irrigation which kills dry soil loving micro-organisms.

• Interrupting the food chain through elimination of some organisms.

• Soil pH change through fertilizer application.

• Fertilizer application provides nutrients for plants and soil organisms

• Bush burning may break seed dormancy for some plants e.g. eucalyptus

• Use of pesticides has led to death of aquatic organisms.

• Use of fertilizers and farm yard manure has resulted into eutrophication.

• Farming in wetlands has resulted into silting which has reduced wetland levels.

• Industrial wastes from agro based industries are poisonous to organisms, the heat from
these industries reduces oxygen solubility hence affecting respiration

• Dusts and fumes from agro based industries cover plants leaves reducing the rate of
photosynthesis

• Overgrazing and over cultivation leads to soil erosion thus affecting soil living
organisms and plants.

Ecological effects of drainage of nitrogenous fertilizers into rivers and streams.

• Accumulation of nitrates/eutrophication which encourages algae to proliferate/bloom.

• When algae die, bacterial decomposers use up a lot of oxygen for their decomposition.

• Fish and other aquatic animals die due to lack of oxygen.

• Light penetration is also cut off so aquatic plants are not able to carry out
photosynthesis, leading to death of animals and plants as a result of food shortage.
Effects of fire to the ecosystem
Merits of fire
It breaks seed dormancy due to hard seed coat leading to fast germination.
It increases recycling of nutrients in an ecosystem.
It is used in selective weeding.
It controls pests and diseases.
It improves on herbage in an area.
It improves on light penetration leading to rapid under growth in the forest.
It improves on the visibility of the prey to predators by burning the vegetation cover down.

Demerits of fire
It destroys the habitat of animals which may cause extinction of some animals.
It causes air pollution
It destroys green plants which are producers of the community.
It destroys animals in the ecosystem.
It increases predation due to improved visibility.
It leads to loss of some nutrients from the soil by decomposition e.g. humus and nitrates.

URBAN AND PERI-URBAN FARMING

This is the cultivation of crops and rearing of animals for food and other uses within and
surrounding the boundaries of cities. It involves the growing, cultivating, processing and
distribution of food and other products through intensive plant cultivation and animal husbandry
within a city or town boundary to generate revenue.
It is practiced in places like backyards, vacant lots, parking yards, rooftops, private and public
spaces to grow food for whole sale and retail.
Urban agriculture therefore includes the following activities
• Backyard gardens
• Container gardens
• Greenbelt agriculture
• Street and roadside trees
• Greenhouse agriculture
• Hedgerows consisting of edible plants
• Rooftop gardens
• Soil-filled sacks/bags
• Soil-filled wooden box
• School yard gardens
• Trellis/fence farms
• Vegetable gardens
• Hydroponics
• Aquaponics
Characteristics of urban farming
• Labour intensive; due to the small sizes of the gardens machines use is limited and the
system relies much on labour.
• Involves growing of high value crops
• Involves intensive cultivation of crops for high yields.
• Mainly uses organic inputs but chemicals are also used.
• Relies heavily on irrigation rather than rainfall.
• High yields are obtained.

Benefits of urban and Peri-urban farming

• It is a reliable source of income to the practicing farmers and contributes to local economic
development, poverty alleviation and social inclusion of urban poor and women.
• It contribute to fresh healthy food availability of the urban dweller. It therefore helps some
families to save it contributes to the greening of cities/urban centres.
• It contributes to the greening of cities/urban centres
• It provides a productive use of urban waste such as plastics and crop residues e.g. banana
peelings reducing their volume in the cities.
• Ensures utilization of under-used resources e.g. rooftops, roadsides, verandas etc.
• It provides employment to the urban/peri-urban masses especially the disadvantaged ones.
• It is a source of revenue to the town councils through taxing production and marketing
activities.
• Farmers have ready market for their products at very inviting prices.
• It makes good use of marginal areas e.g. verandahs, home compounds etc. to yield reasonable
income to the farmers.
• Reduces the costs of transporting food from rural areas.
• It provides an opportunity for treating industrial wastes and wastewater through re-use in
agriculture.
• It attracts new businesses such as agricultural equipment industries, processing facilities,
restaurants, shops and markets.
• It reduces urban heat
• Rooftop gardens retain up to 100% of precipitation which reduces storm water runoff and
minimizes irrigation requirements.
• It reduces noise and wind on rooftops, absorb carbon dioxide emissions and reduces methane
emission.
• Organic agricultural practices and landscaping involved minimize introduction of harmful
chemicals into city soil and water.
• It increases social opportunities in the form of community gardening, mentoring programs,
shopping at farmer’s market and harvest festivals.
• Improves the health of the farmers through balanced diet.
• It increases physical activity and recreational opportunities i.e. urban farming is done as
leisurely activity but in doing so participants make exercises to keep their fit and in shape.
• It increases food security in towns.
• It assists in protecting public spaces from unofficial users.
Challenges/problems of urban farming
• High level of pollution from industries i.e. highly polluted urban soils by industrial wastes
limit their use in crop production.
• It faces a lot of interference from urban management authorities.
• Limited space/land in urban areas.
• Generation of huge quantities of wastes from both crop and animal enterprises.
• Promotes encroachment on sensitive ecosystems e.g. swamps for farming.
• It is intensively managed requiring use of expensive technology e.g. for watering, fertilizer
 application etc.
• Theft and vandalism of crops and animals.
• Lack of policy and regulations addressing urban farming in statutory plans.
• High cost of inputs such as irrigation water and labour in urban areas.
• Possible noise, dust, traffic, pesticide use and odour associated with farming activities.
• An increase in real or perceived risks to health and safety
• Lack of appreciation of the regulatory and farming realities
• Lack of licensing specific to the nature and operations of farming businesses
• Restrictions on the selling of produce from farm sites.
• Restrictions on keeping small livestock and farm animals (e.g. chickens and bees)
• Restrictions on farm structures such as greenhouses and storage sheds.
Encouraging the adoption of urban farming in urban centres
• Incorporating urban gardens and rooftop gardens into integrated storms water
management plans and liquid waste management plans
• Providing school aged children living in urban environments a hands-on farm
experience.
• Supplying compost manure from collected garbage for free to urban farmers.
• Supporting urban farmers by providing credit or space on condition that ecological
modes of production are used along with adherence to food safety regulations.
• Creating permanent sites for farmers’ markets throughout the city
• Support public-private partnerships between city councils and urban farmers to
establish stable agricultural activities in and near cities.
• Support or provide incentives to schools, hospitals, military centres and other land
owners to promote food production on their grounds.
• Review city bylaws governing the keeping of livestock and other animals within the city.
• Establish a municipal agricultural land bank to link available land with people wishing
to practice farming.
• Incorporate urban agriculture into new developments by increasing the availability of
gardens, giving tax credits etc.
• Designate peri-urban agricultural zones in city development plans as part of “green
belts” or green corridors.
• Providing security to urban farmers
• The city authorities should partner with local gardening organizations to promote
urban agriculture demonstration gardens and education.
ORGANIC FARMING
This is a method of farming which employs the use of natural organic inputs to produce high
quality products on the farm. It is a farming system that avoids the use of synthetic chemicals such
as pesticides and fertilizers.
Examples of organic farming practices
• Using of medicinal herbs instead of chemicals to treat animal diseases.
• Using of herbsextracts to make insecticides for killing pests.
• Using of organic manure instead of artificial fertilizers to improve soil fertility.
• Crop rotation to maintain soil fertility.
• Using of biological agents to control pests.
• Using of natural seeds rather than genetically modified seeds.
• Selection and rearing of disease and pest resistant crops and animals.
• Using proper hygiene and sanitation measures to control crop and animal diseases.
• Recycling the nutrients by using crop residues (straws, stovers and other non-edible parts)
either directly as compost and mulch or through livestock as farmyard manure.
• Using renewable energies
Principle characteristics of organic farming
• It depends on sound rotations (crop rotation) to improve soil fertility
• Farmers do not use agrochemicals
• It depends on biological soil fertilizers e.g. nitrogen fixing bacteria.
• Farmers practice proper spacing
• Soil erosion is controlled by cultural means.
• Farmers use organic manures and mulches.
• Green manuring which adds organic matter and nutrients.
• Pest management which maintains an ecological balance instead of eradicating of pests i.e.
biological pest control.
• Recycling of agricultural wastes instead of destroying them.
 • Good livestock management e.g. good housing, sanitation, good pastures etc to reduce
disease spread and improve yields.
Objectives of organic farming
• To enhance biological diversity within the whole system
• To increase soil biological activity
• To maintain log-term soil fertility.
• To recycle wastes of plant and animal origin in order to return nutrients to the soil, thus
minimizing the use of non-renewable resources.
• To rely on renewable resources in locally organized agricultural system.
• To promote the healthy use of soil, water and air as well as minimize all forms of
pollution that may result from agricultural practices.
• To promote the careful processing methods of agricultural products in order to maintain
the organic integrity and vital qualities of the product at all stages.
Benefits of organic farming
• Organically produced food substances fetch high prices at the international market.
• The farmer can save significant sums of money since there is no buying of artificial
chemicals.
• Maintains the environment chemical pollution free i.e. does not pollute the environment.
• Organic fertilizers buffer soil pH.
• Organic materials used provide food for soil living organisms.
• Soil fertility is improved/maintained by recycling of crop and animal residues.
• The organic products are safer and healthier since they are chemical free.
• It cheaper for farmers since no buying of expensive chemicals.
• Promotes soil and water conservation and maintains soil fertility, improve soil structure
through the use of crop rotation.
• It creates employment especially in rural areas
• The demand for organic products creates new export opportunities.
• It diversify agriculture and improves adaptive management to increase farm
productivity.
• Promotes biological diversity through the use of natural pest controls.
• Organic farming requires traditional knowledge and use of local resources i.e. doesn’t
need high skills.
• It contributes to the socio-wellbeing by reducing the losses of arable soil, water
contamination, biodiversity erosion, food losses and pesticides poisoning.
Limitations of organic farming
• It may not be applicable in large scale farming due to lack of organic substances.
• The organic substances for making manure or pesticides may not be readily available
• In case of pest and disease outbreak, crops may not safe because organic methods are
slow.
• Accumulation of soil-borne pests and diseases may occur since they are inadequately
controlled by cultural and biological means.
• Organic materials such as animal wastes may contaminate water and air resources
leading to human disease outbreak e.g. typhoid.
Disadvantages of conventional agriculture (use of chemicals)
• Artificial fertilizers and herbicides are easily washed from the soil and pollute rivers,
lakes and water courses.
• Increases health hazard due to chemical residues in the food.
• The prolonged use of artificial fertilizers results in soils with a low organic matter
content which is easily eroded by wind and rain.
• Leads to rapid soil exhaustion and decline in yields.
• Loss of biodiversity due to killing of insects by pesticides and genetically modified
organisms.
• Dependency on fertilizers where by greater amounts are needed every year to produce
the same yields of crops.
• Increase cost of farming and agricultural production (i.e. buying of pesticides and
fertilizers)
• Artificial pesticides and other chemicals can stay in the soil for so longer and enter the
food chain where they build up in the bodies of animals and humans, causing health
problems.
• Artificial chemicals destroy soil micro-organisms resulting in poor soil structure and aeration
and decreasing nutrient availability.
• Pests and diseases become more difficult to control as they become resistant to artificial
 pesticides and natural enemies to pests decrease because of pesticides use and habitat loss.
Methods and practices used in organic farming
1. Keeping and building good soil structure and fertility
• Recycled and composted crop wastes and animal manures
• The right soil cultivation at the right time.
• Crop rotation
• Green manures and legumes
• Mulching on the soil surface.
2. Controlling weeds in organic farming
• Crop rotation
• Hoeing
• Mulching, mulches cover the soil and stop weed seeds from germinating.
• Hand weeding or the use of mechanical weeders.
• Planting crops close to each other to prevent space for weeds to emerge.
• Green manures or cover crops to outcompete weeds
• Using animals to graze on weeds.
3. Controlling pests and diseases in organic farming
• Planting health crops i.e. planting materials free from pests and diseases
• Planting resistant varieties e.g. local varieties are more resistant than introduced
varieties.
• Crop rotation to break pest cycle.
• Early/timely planting of crops
• Trapping/picking pests
• Identify the disease and pests correctly.
• Providing natural habitats to encourage natural predators that control pests.
HIGH VALUE CROPS
High value crops are crops of high economic value. They are grown mainly for commercial
purpose and provide more profit per unit land acreage than other crops. Such crops include
mushroom, garlic, vanilla, Aloe vera, onions, okra, Neem (wonder tree), ginger etc.
Advantages of high value crops
• Many of them provide food to man and farm animals. This increases food security in
homes.
• They have high productivity per area.
• They have a wide adaptation to various environment and wide acceptability by many
people which makes them highly marketable and are consumed throughout the entire
universe.
• Require relatively less space as compared to other traditional crops such as maize.
• They are easily processed into other products.
• They offer large scope for specialization.
• They grow and mature in a short period of time and many of them can be produced
twice or thrice in a year.
• They can be easily intergrated in home gardening.
Disadvantages of high value crops
• They require a lot of labour in production process, the labour is used in nursery
management and in the field.
• They are highly affected by pests and diseases necessitating constant spraying with
pesticides.
• Most of them require well prepared seedbed which is labour consuming and destroy the
soil structure exposing the soil to erosion hazards.
• They require a lot of soil managements such as fertilizer application, irrigation and
mulching.
• Most of them are highly perishable leading to high post-harvest losses.
• They require relatively more skills to cultivate e.g. mushrooms.
Constraints/problems in the production of high value crops.
• Lack of improved varieties for most of high value crops.
• Lack of good quality seed materials for planting.
• Poor unpredictable climate characterized by sudden droughts or very low or very high
rainfall intensities.
• Most high value crops require nursery and field management skills which are missing in
most of the growers
• Prevalence of many pests and diseases for high value crops.
• Lack of quality land for production.
 • Limited labour supply for managing the crops during production, harvesting, sorting,
packaging and marketing.
• High post-harvest losses due to increased perishability and poor handling during
harvesting and marketing.
• Lack of improved storage facilities in production areas leading to high post-harvest
losses.
• Lack of adequate markets to match the production and supply of high value crops.

MUSHROOM
Mushroom is an important crop of fungal origin that can be cultivated on several agricultural
residues. It belongs to the kingdom of fungi, a group very distinct from plants, animals and
bacteria. Fungi lack the most important feature of plants; the ability to use energy from the sun
directly through chlorophyll. Thus, fungi depend on other organisms for food, absorbing nutrients
from the organic material in which they live
Uses of mushroom
• Mushrooms provide a delicious food providing quality protein, vitamins and minerals.
They have low calorie with little fat and almost with no starch and cholesterol. They
are also rich in fibre which aid in digestion
• Mushroom extract are used for medicinal purposes and in manufacturing of many
pharmaceuticals.
• They are used in making of several cosmetic products and tonic beverages.
Benefits of growing mushroom than other crops
• Mushroom growing require less space as compared to other high value crops
• Mushrooms can be processed into different products such as medicines, beverages, and
cosmetics.
• Mushroom is a cheap source of good quality proteins, fibre and minerals with low
calorie and little fats.
• The gestation period of mushroom production is so short and many crops can be
harvested annually than any other crop. It grow faster
• Mushroom don’t require a lot of labour to manage indoors
• They have higher germination percentage
• Not much affected by pests and diseases.
• Mushroom cultivation can be made on cheap far wastes ensuring proper utilization of
resources on the farm.
• Mushrooms have ready market everywhere in the world, fetching high prices and
profits than most traditional crops.
• If well processed and preserved they can stay for long without losing quality thus
making them easy to transport to distant and better markets.
Growth requirements of mushrooms/necessary factors for mushrooms production
• Good temperature; some require low temperature of 10-250c ( e.g. button mushrooms,
shiitake mushroom, oyster mushroom etc.) while others require higher temperature
25-350c (e.g. milky mushroom, paddy straw mushroom) etc.
• Humidity/; high relative humidity of about 80-90% is favourable for growing of all
mushrooms. It also prevents the drying of compost and substrate surfaces.
• Moisture content of substrate; moderate moisture content of 70%. High moisture above
80% clogs air flow while too low water content below 60% prevents muhroom growth
• Light and darkness; exposure to light (artificial or sunlight) is important for initiation of
fruit bodies.
• Ventilation (carbondioxide and oxygen); low carbon dioxide/oxgyen concentration of
0.005-0.08% is critical for mycelial growth and fruit body initiation in most mushroom
species.
• Appropriate growth media (compost and substrate) should contain necessary nutrients.
E.g. cotton wool, saw dust, millet straw etc. with cattle, chicken, goat manure.
• pH of the substrate; e.g. oysters require a medium pH of between 6 and 7
Procedure of mushroom growing
• Farmers obtain agrowing media e.g. saw dust, cotton wool etc.
• Soak and compost the media.
• Sterilize the media
• Apply lime
• Introduce spores/seeds on the media.
• Encase the media in a black polythene bag
• Perforate the bag to create small holes for aeration and space for growing mushroom to
sprout out.
 • Hang the polythene bag in a dark room and incubate for two weeks.
• Begin to water when the mushrooms have started sprouting.
Challenges that face mushroom production
• Perishability of mushrooms that calls for cold storage and rapid processing or
marketing. This causes high losses to the mushroom farmers
• Low quality substrate due to inadequate skills in substrate preparation and preparation
of the growing houses.
• Pests and diseases that attack the spawn especially those grown out door.
• Inadequate supply of quality spawn (seeds) for raising quality organic mushrooms that
are highly demanded on the market.
• Low prices for mushrooms given to the farmers by middlemen. The farmers who sale
unprocessed mushrooms are given low prices and this discourages commercial oyster
production.
• Harsh climatic conditions characterized by dry and hot conditions that discourage
quality production of oysters.
• Indoor mushroom production requires a large supply of highly skilled labour and use of
specialized equipment that are expensive to most farmers.
• Inadequate research and extension on mushroom growing in Uganda. This is because
this is a new enterprise in Uganda and little has been about the species, diseases and
pests of mushrooms.
Factors considered when siting mushroom farms
• Distance to the market; the site should be near the market since mushrooms are highly
perishable and need to be delivered to the market immediately after harvest.
• Availability of good quality substrate material; the materials should be sterilized and
highly nutritious to provide necessary nutrients for spawn growth.
• Transportation of both product and substrate material; the farm should be located near
an accessible road for easy transportation of substrates and mushroom products to the
market.
• Availability of clean water for wetting the substrate for spawn germination since mushrooms
absorb whatever substance in the material they grow on.
Mushroom species
Commonly cultivated edible fungi include
Common name Scientific name

Button Mushrooms Agaricus spp

Oyster mushrooms Pleurotus spp

Shiitake Lentinnula edodes

Reishi or Ling Chi Ganoderma lucidum

Lion’s Mane Hericium Erinaceus

Nameko Pholiota nameko

Ears Uricularia spp

Chicken-of-the woods Polyporus sulphurus

Varieties of Oyster mushrooms grown

Common name Scientific name
Gray oyster mushroom Pleurotus sajor caju

Cherry oyster mushroom Pleurotus cystidiasus

King oyster mushroom Pleurotus eryngii

White oyster mushroom Pleurotus florida

Yellow oyster mushroom Pleurotus citrinopileatus

Pink oyster mushroom Pleurotus djamor

Factors considered when choosing the mushroom species to grow

• The waste materials readily available to use as a growth medium; oyster (Pleurotus) grows
best on rice straws, wheat straw, cotton wastes and coffee pulp while shiitake (Lentinus)
 grows best on logs).
• Available environment for growing the mushrooms; outdoor production of mushrooms
require limited knowledge and demand for limited monitoring of growth conditions for
shiitake (Lentinus) while indoor production of muhrooms require manipulation of the
growth conditions for species oyster (pleurotus)
• Cost of equipment needed; air cleaning equipment or respirators are necessary in order to
safely work in the production facility for oyster since some farmers are allergic to their
spores, mushroom driers and storage equipments.
• Skills required to manage the life cycle of the fungus; most shiitakes (Lintinus) and many
other mushroom species are raised on a sterilized sawdust substrate. Although this method
allows a much faster fruiting cycle and a high level of return, it demands more skillful
management than log production.
• Market demand for the species; organically grown button mushrooms (agaricus spp), oyster
mushrooms, shiitake (Lentinula edodes) are more marketable than other species.
Advantages of oyster mushroom production
• They require a small space to rise. This makes it possible to grow them in urban and peri-
urban areas.
• They grow and mature fast thus giving fast financial returns
• They have a high germination percentage thus high yields and profitability to the farers.
• They don’t require a lot of labour to manage indoors.
• They are not much affected by diseases and pests.
Precautions taken while raising mushrooms
• Incubate in a dark room to encourage spawn growth
• Do not introduce holes in polythene papers before white growth to avoid bacterial and
fungal infection.
• Maintain moisture content of substrate to avoid desiccation
• Moderate temperatures to avoid shrinkage and low quality
• Do not water directly but introduce a mist to avoid rotting and fungal infection of
substrate.
• Maintain favourable humidity to avoid desiccation
• Harvest immediately to avoid rotting and lose of quality.
Pest control
• Integrated pest management (IPM) is a non-toxic approach for managing any pest.
IPM views pests as a natural part of the farm environment.
Mushroom flies, a common pest among many cultivated mushrooms, are attracted to
the smell of decaying vegetation such as mushroom house ventilation system will kepp
adult flies out.
Double doors and positive atmospheric pressure within the structure also prevent flies from
entering
• Biological control e.g. the sciarid fly can be controlled by a predatory nematode in its
larval stage
Processing and marketing mushrooms
The available marketing strategies include;
• Market the fresh or dried product directly to your customers
• Add value to the mushroom by creating processed products (mushroom sauces, tea, extracts)
• Wholesale as fresh produce (on contract or by the batch)
NEEM (also known as wonder tree)
Uses
• It is used to purify the air by absorbing much carbon dioxide and releasing much
oxygen into the atmosphere.
• Neem seeds are used as organic pesticides which are eco-friendly to control most crop
pests.
• Neem tree extracts are used as contraceptive to control birth and human population.
• It is used in nutrient recycling to improve soil fertility and rehabilitated degraded lands.
• The leaves are harvested and used for browsing farm animals.
• Leaves can be decomposed to provide good quality manure for use in crop gardens.
• Neem oil is used in body lotions and for treatment of skin infections.
• It provides medicinal herb for treatment of human and animal diseases.
• At the end of the productive life, the trees can be harvested for timber and wood fuel.
• Neem trees provide shade on the farm to humans and animals during hot sunny days.
• The trees act as wind breaks.
• Neem products can be used to repel and control mosquitoes, ticks and other insects on
the farm.
 • Neem products are used in making of soap and perfumes.
Propagation; neem is propagated mainly from seeds and stumps
Growth requirement; neem grows best in dry areas since it is draught resistant. It grows almost
on all soils, even poor soils where other crops will not grow. It prefers low altitude.
Land preparation; proper land preparation increases yields from neem. The land should be
cleared by removing all the vegetation, trees and tree stumps. The soil is cultivated deeply to
encourage more water infiltration.
Planting; planting is carried out at the beginning of the rain season. Spacing between plants should
be about 20ft X 20ft. the polythene bag is removed and the intact soil bearing roots is placed in the
planting hole and then covered with the top soil mixed with phosphatic fertilizer and manure.
Other husbandry practices includes irrigation, mulching, weed control, pest and disease control,
pruning, fertilizer application and harvesting as timber, fuel wood or fodder for livestock.
GARLIC (Allium sativum)
It is a biennial erect bulb, 30-60 cm tall with superficial adventitious roots. The small bulbs/cloves
are enclosed by the dry outer scales.
Garlic is propagated vegetative from cloves/bulbs which may be planted at a spacing of about 30 X
15cm. seedbed is prepared thoroughly and secondary cultivation is needed to pulverize the soil.
Planting is done at the beginning of the rain season. Weed control is done often because garlic is
less competitive.
Irrigation is needed because garlic needs constant supply of moisture. And it responds well to
organic manures.
Pest and disease control; mites, thrips and bulb nematodes are most serious pests. And garlic rust is
the most serious disease. These can be controlled by crop rotation, field sanitation, spraying with
appropriate pesticides/fungicides.
Harvesting; it is done when garlic is 4-6 months after planting depending on the variety. At
maturity the tops droop, fall over and begin to die back. Bulbs are dug out using a hoe.
Uses
• It is used as a condiment for flavouring other foods.
• It has medicinal value and is used in the treatment of many ailments.
• Allicin produced by garlic is used as antibiotic.
Growth requirement
• Well drained fertile soil
• High altitude
• Good supply of water
• Long day
• Moderate temperature.

Research about mangoes, onions etc.

AGROFORESTRY
It is the land use system where trees and shrubs are included in the farming unit.
It is where trees and shrubs are grown on the same unit of land on which crops are grown or
animals are reared.
It is the intentional integration of trees and shrubs into crops and animal production land.
Types of agroforestry
Silvopastoralism/silvopasture (trees and pasture); this is the planting/mixing of trees with
pasture. It is where trees and pastures are grown on the same land system. It may be in form of
Protein banks; these are leguminous shrubs and fodder planted along edges of the grazing areas to
supply proteins to livestock.
Trees are planted in pastures to provide shade and forage for the animals.
Silvoarable/agrisilvo/agrosilvo culture (trees and crops); this is the planting of trees alongside
crops on the same land unit i.e. trees are grown together with the crops. They may be home
gardening where trees are planted around homestead to provide fruits, shade, medicine, fuel wood
or wild tree species left in the garden. It may be in form of Home gardens; where multipurpose
trees and shrubs are grown in association with crops and livestock within the compound around the
house. Taungya; where annual crops are planted during the young stage of trees. Or it may be
shifting cultivation where part of the forest is cleared and cropped for a few years and then left for
natural vegetation to generate.
Agrosilvopastoral system (crops+trees+pasture); this is the mixing of trees with both crops and
animal pasture. It is where trees, crops, pasture and animals are found on the same land use unit.
Characteristics of a good agroforestry tree species
• A good agroforestry tree species should have a narrow/ non spreading canopy to avoid
excessive shading of crops/pasture i.e. it should have light canopy to allow light to
penetration.
• It should be quick maturing to reach useful stage early.
• It should have a deep root and few surface roots to reduce on competition for nutrients
 with the crops.
• It should be multipurpose i.e. it should provide many valuable products e.g. medicine,
timber and food.
• It should be easy to establish.
• It should be easy to eradicate if needed.
• It should provide litter/leaves that decompose easily to provide nutrients for crops i.e.
have narrow carbon to nitrogen ratio for easy decomposition.
• It shouldn’t harbor pests and diseases that can damage other components of the system
i.e. crops and pasture.
• It should be not toxic to animals and man.
• It should be able to reprout easily and quickly after pruning or coppicing (easy to
regrow after cut)
• It shouldn’t be alleloparthic so as to enable crops to grow in association.
• It should be easy to multiply.
• It should be disease and pest resistant.
• It should be adopted to the environment and should be drought resistant.
Characteristics of trees and shrubs for soil fertility improvement
• Nitrogen fixing ability
• Deep rooting system with fewer lateral roots
• High biomass production
• Less canopy i.e. less shade thus increasing light penetration.
• High nutrient concentration in the foliage.
• Faster litter decomposition and mineralization thus C:N ratio should be low.
• Easy root decay.
• Absence of allelopathic chemicals.
Characteristics of trees and shrubs for fuel wood.
• Easy to establish and harvest
• Rapid growth
• High coppicing ability
• High adaptability to a wide range of sites.
• High calorific value
• Acceptable as fuel wood by users.
• Unpalatable to animals
Characteristics of trees and shrubs for fodder production
• High biomass production
• High crude protein content in leaves and shoots
• Palatable and digestible foliage.
• Good coppicing ability.
• Ability to produce pods or fruits in dry season.
• Ability to encourage pasture growth beneath them.
• Easy to establish and harvest foliage
• High resistance to pests and diseases
• High potential for genetic improvement through grafting or breeding
• Ability to grow faster.
Qn; Describe the characteristics of a good tree species to be used for agroforestry in a coffee fields.
Outline the characteristics of multipurpose trees and shrubs used in agroforestry.
Benefits of agroforestry
Qn; Explain the role of trees in an agroforestry system.
• When leguminous trees are planted, the soil get nitrogen compounds which are used by
crops next to them.
• Trees recycle nutrients that have been leached and make them available to crops.
• Trees protect animals and crops from extremes of temperature and wind.
• Trees act as live fence that enclose animals and protect crops and animal.
• Trees crown reduce the shattering effect of rain drops and hail stones and protect the
fruits from damages.
• Since trees are deeper rooted, they take longer to dry out and so provide food for
animals during drought.
• Trees protect the soil from erosion by wind, rain and so reduces loss of nutrients.
• Leguminous trees particularly calliandra and leuceana usually provide protein fodder to
animals.
• The litter/leaves add humus to the soil and so promote the growth of crops and pasture.
 (increase soil fertility)
• Trees provide fuel wood for heating farm houses and cooking.
• Fruit trees such as avocado, pawpaw, citrus, mangoes, jackfruits etc. offer a variety of
fruits for home consumption and the excess can be sold for income.
• Trees provide shade for livestock animal and crops like coffee, banana, tea and cocoa
plantations.
• Some trees provide medicine for animals and the farmer as well as repelling pests from
crops.
• Trees provide timber and poles for the construction of animal houses, crop store etc.
• Trees lower soil temperature and so reduce the rate of loss of organic matter by
oxidation.
• The farm gets double benefits from trees and crops or animals.
Negative effects of trees in agroforestry system
• Some trees are habitats for pests and diseases.
• Some are alleloparthic i.e. they don’t allow other plants to grow other plants to grow
around them e.g. eucalyptus.
• Trees accumulate large quantities of nutrients in their structure and so make them
temporarily unavailable to crops.
• They increase humidity thus increasing incidences of fungal diseases e.g. leaf spot of
maize.
• Trees compete with crops/pasture for space, nutrients, light and water
• Some use up too much water and so lower the water table e.g. eucalyptus trees.
• There may be tree/crop damage by livestock.
• Trees may make mechanization impossible/difficult as well as increasing damages to the
farmer during harvesting.
• Seed germination and plant growth can be inhibited by trees as a result of toxification.
Tree management practices in agroforestry system (husbandry practices)
Practices before plantings
Seed selection; seeds should be selected from trees that have good characteristics.
Choosing and preparing a nursery bed site; the following factors should be considered when
choosing a nursery bed
• Accessibility and availability of reliable water supply
• Easy supply of good fertile top soil
• Accessibility to planting site
• Gently sloping land
• Well drained site totally free from flooding
• Freedom to soil borne pests and diseases
• Freedom from excessive shading from trees building and antihills
Hardening off; this is the process of acclimatizing seedlings to harsh conditions as those in the
field. It is done by;-
• Gradually adjusting (decreasing) the frequency and amount of watering.
• Increasing the frequency of root pruning. This brings growth to almost a stand still.
• Gradually reducing the amount of shade until it is completely removed towards the planting.
Seedbed preparation; the seed bed should be well prepared. The vegetation should be cleared and
burnt, tree stumps should be operated and disposed off. Anthill should be destroyed to control
termite and to control an even terrain.
Digging holes/pitting; this should done at a right spacing depending on the tree species and the
level of mechanization. The holes should be 30cm in diameter and 30cm deep.
Planting; seedlings should be well watered a day before planting out and they should have reached
at least a height of 15-30cm in the nursery. Remove the bags or container using a razor blade or
knife. Place the seedling in the hole and then cover with top soil.

Care and management practices after planting

Irrigation; water may be supplied to trees to promote their growth if rainfall is inadequate.
Manure/fertilizer application; these are applied to improve on growth of trees and reduce
competition for nutrients.
Canopy Pruning; this is done to reduce the shading effect of trees and improve on light
penetration to crops/pasture. Objectives of pruning are;
• To reduce shading of associated crops.
• To improve quality of the stem (straight and knot free for timber/poles)
• To provide early harvest of branch wood for fuel, fodder etc.
• To remove the good environment for pests and rodents.
• To increase growth of trees.
Coppicing; the entire shoot may be cut off down to its stump such that a new more branched shoot
grows.
Advantages of coppicing
• It helps to reduce competition for growth factors
• Saves the costs and time of replanting new trees in the field
• It increases productivity since more than one tree may be produced on one stump.
• It can be used in repair or replacement of aged stem or branches.
Disadvantages of coppicing
• Not all trees have coppicing ability
• The practice requires a lot of labour
• The practice requires a lot of skills
Weed control; weeds increase competition for growth factors i.e. they compete with trees for
nutrients and light.
Pollarding; this involves cutting off of the tree crown (branches and top part of tree) to encourage
regeneration of new branches. It has the following advantages
• It promotes early harvesting of wood, timber and other products
• Provides fodder when branches are cut out of reach of livestock.
• It reduces shade near crops thus intercrops can easily tap sunlight.
• Can be sued to repair damaged tree branches.
Root pruning/trenching; the roots are cut or a trench is dug at a certain point away from the plant
to prevent tree roots from extending too much laterally and compete with crops/pasture for
nutrients/moisture.
Mulching; this reduces growth of weeds, slowing loss of water from the soil and supplying
nutrient after decomposition.
Pests and disease control; pesticide and other drugs may be sprayed on the trees to control pests
and diseases.
Tying up/ shaping the shoot so that it is forced to grow into a required shape.
Topping; the top of the tree/apical bud is cut off to encourage the spreading of the canopy.
Ring barking; the rings may be cut to the barks of the trees to kill some trees if they are too many
in the garden.
Thinning; this is a selective process of removing or killing some trees or extra shoots to improve
spacing of trees. It is done to reduce on competition due to overcrowding.
Gap filling/beating up; this is the replacement of dead or poorly performing trees after planting. It
should be done within 2-4 weeks after planting. This is done in order to have uniformity in the field
and to maintain the required plant density in the field. It also eliminates diseased or poorly
performing trees from the field.
Shading; other plants are allowed to excessively shade the trees and reduce their growth.
Qn; How can a farmer manage trees to reduce competition between them and crops and animals.
Factors limiting agroforestry/tree growing
• Trees are associated with pests that cause diseases e.g. tsetse flies.
• Farmers have small sizes of land holdings on which they mainly grow food crops.
• Trees take long to reach maturity yet most farmers prefer short term gains.
• Land tenure system where farmers have no rights over the land.
• Some tree species are taboos to some society.
• Women are affected by ownership of trees after planting them.
• No reliable seed/seedling centers.
CROP PROTECTION
This concerns with protecting the crop plants including pastures and agroforestry trees against the
impacts of weeds, pests and diseases.
WEEDS
A weed is a plant that grows out of place or it is a plant growing where it is not wanted.
Economic importance of weeds
Disadvantages /problems caused by weeds
• Weeds lower the quality of crops’ produce through contamination e.g. black jack seeds
in cotton, Mexican marigold may also introduce bad flavor into the milk of diary
animals.
• They lower the quality of pastures by reducing palatability and carrying capacity e.g.
rat tail grass (Sporobolus pyramidalis)
• Some are poisonous to animals and humans if eaten e.g. Sodom apple (Solanum
incanum).
• Weed control is laborious and expensive to control so the weeds increase production
costs.
• May habour pests and diseases that may later attack crops.
• Some may block drainage or irrigation and transport channels e.g. Nile cabbage,
 cyperus spp and commellina spp.
• They compete with crops for nutrients, space and sunlight and so reduce yield.
• Thorny weeds may inflict wounds to the farmer and his animals’ e.g. double thorn and
tick berry.
• They make cultivation difficult by sticking to the tillage implements and so wasting the
farmer’s time and effort.
• Some are parasitic and reduce crop growth e.g. witch weed (striga ssp)
• Some produce poisonous substances that reduce crop growth.
Advantages of weeds
• some are edible i.e. used as food for man e.g. amaranthus (pig weed/dodo)
• They prevent leaching of nutrients by retaining them in their bodies and release them
when they die and decay.
• They prevent and control soil erosion by covering the soil and acting as wind breaks.
• Some are sources of pasture for livestock.
• Some are used to provide beddings to animals especially grass leaves.
• Some are source of medicine (used for medicinal purposes)
• Some weeds provide mulching materials when they are dry.
• Some are used as materials for hand craft e.g. wild finger millet.
• Weeds provide support to some crops with tendrils such as climbing beans.
• They provide building materials e.g. spear grass.
• Some are leguminous and add nitrogen into the soil.
• They act as genetic banks for crop breeding.
• They help in formation of soil/ weathering.
• They purify the environment by removing carbon dioxide and adding oxygen.
Characteristics that have made weeds more successful than crops.
Qn; explain the factors that have made weeds hard to control
• Most weeds can grow in all types of soils and can easily survive on the few nutrients
available.
• Weeds are prolific i.e. they produce many seeds e.g. bidens pilosa, devils horsewhip and pig
weed which produces over 1000000 seeds per plant.
• Weed seeds remain viable for long period of time.
• Weeds have effective vegetative propagation e.g. wandering Jew.
• They grow faster than crops.
• Weed seeds have long dormancy period which make them survive unfavourable conditions
such as high temperatures in dry season.
• Weeds are aggressive feeders than crop plants therefore they take more nutrients than crops.
• Weeds are hardy and withstand harsh conditions than crops e.g. some have storage structures
to resist drought.
• Some weeds are not palatable to animals and hence are not used for grazing.
• Some weeds have protective structures e.g. thorns that protect them from damages caused by
animals.
• Weeds are tolerant/resistant to pests and diseases. They also have few pests and diseases that
attack them.
• Weeds have efficient rooting system that enable them to absorb nutrients.
• Some are parasitic e.g. witch weed (striga spp) obtain its nutrients from cereals.
• Some produce chemicals that prevent other plants from growing near them. This is called
alleloparthy.
• Some weeds produce seeds which germinate even when they are immature.
• Weeds have different dispersal mechanisms which are effective e.g. self-explosive
mechanism, ability to float.
• Some weeds have perenating organs that can sprout e.g. bulbils for oxalis, rhizomes for spear
grass, stolon for couch grass, cuttings for wandering Jew.
Qn; Give reasons to explain why farmer’s efforts to eradicate weeds have not been very successful.
Farming practices encouraging weed infestation
• Use of wide spacing; this leaves gaps in which weeds especially cereals grow.
• Use of improper mulching materials; use of fresh vegetative plant materials can grow
into weeds/use of contaminated manure with weed seeds.
• Shallow ploughing; this encourages existence of weeds with underground rhizomes.
• Improper weeding practices e.g. weeding and leaving materials in the garden.
• Frequent tilling of the land; this can expose buried weed seeds to favourable conditions
for germination.
• Use of contaminated planting materials e.g. planting crop seeds mixed with weed seeds.
 • Frequent irrigation/flooding; this can encourage the existence of water loving weeds.
• Frequent use of fertilizers, as these provide nutrients to the weeds.
• Late planting; weeds sprout before seeds germinate.
• Late weeding; this allows weeds to mature and produce seeds.
Classification of weeds
Weeds can be classified according to the following ways;-
According to their life span i.e.
Ephemerals; these appear at the beginning of the rainy season and die immediately after it. They
are found only in hot and cold deserts. They complete their life span in a few days. In those days,
they grow, produce flowers and die.
Annual weeds; these complete their life cycle within one year/season i.e. they germinate, grow,
reproduce and die within one year/season e.g. blackjack, macdonald eye etc.
Biennial weeds; these take two years/seasons to complete their life cycle. In the first year/season,
they produce leaves (vegetative stage) then in the second year/season, they produce flowers
(reproductive stage) e.g. double thorns (Oxygonum sinuatum)
Perennials weeds; these stay for many years i.e. more than two years e.g. spear grass, couch grass,
oxalis etc.
According to their structure (morphology) or growth habits
Sedges; these are mostly found in poorly drained areas e.g. nut grass and water weed. They have
triangular stems and reproduce by underground tubers. Underground tubers make them hard to
control.
Protrate (horizontal) on the ground such as wandering Jew, kidney weed (Dichondra repens), and
asthma weed (Euphorbia hirta).
Grasses; these are the most common weeds. They have weak stems and long narrow leaves.
Herbaceous weeds; have thick, water filled (succulent) stems e.g. pig weeds and wandering jew.
They are hard to control chemically because of their succulence.
Woody weeds; these have strong woody stems e.g. lantana camara. They are easy to control
mechanically by uprooting.
Classification based on botanical/biology; i.e. flowering plants e.g. thorn apple, macdonald eye
etc and non-flowering plants such as bracken fern (Pteridium aquilinum).
Classification based on seed type i.e. monocotyledonous weeds e.g. nut grass, love weed (Setaria
verticillata) and dicotyledonous weeds such as black jack and devils horse whip.
Classification based on leaf size and shape i.e. narrow leaved weeds and broad leaved weeds
Classification based on habitat; this is done basing on where the weeds are found e.g. aquatic
(water weed) e.g. water hyacinth and terrestrial e.g. couch grass, spear grass etc and wetland weeds
e.g. nut grass.
Group English name Botanical name Life span and Leaf shape Local name
propagation

Water Nile cabbage Pistia stratiotes Perennial (runner Broad

weeds roots leaves

Water hyacinth Eichornia Perennial (seeds Broad Amalebe

crassipes and runner roots) leaves

Sedges Nut grass Cyperus Perenial (seeds, Narrow Endwaghu

rotundus runners&bulbs) leaves
Muuka

Creeping Kyllinga erecta Creeping Narrow

sedge/water rhizomes leaves
weed

Grasses Wild finger Eluesina indica Annual (seeds) Narrow Esyongendi/esyabub

millet a/emberya

Love weed Setaria Annual (seeds) Narrow

vaticillata

Couch grass Digitaria Perennial (seeds, Narrow Olhutswamba

scalarum rhizomes, cutting leaved
Orumbugu

Elephant grass Penestum Perennial Narrow Ekibingo

perperum (seeds/cuttings)

Guinea grass Penicum Perennial Narrow Ekisusu/obusingolez

maximum (seeds/cuttings o

Lemon grass Cymbogon Perennial (seeds) Narrow Etete/kalifuha

afronadus
 Star grass Cynodon Perennial Narrow Ekihangambogho/or
dactylon (seeds/cuttings) ucwamba

Spear grass Imperata Perennial Narrow Olhunyatsi/

cylindrica (seeds/rhizomes)
Esojo

Manyata grass Eeusine jaegari Perennial (seeds) Narrow

Kikuyu grass Penisetum Perennial (seeds) Narrow

clandetinum

Woody Tick berry Lantana camara Perennial Broad Amakulumba/

(seeds/stem
Ehukya
cuttings

Mauritius thorn Caesse Perennial (seeds) Broad

decapetella

Phytolacca Phytolacca Perennial(seeds) broad Omuhoko

dedecandra

Wait-a bit- thorn Acacia Perennial (seeds) Broad

brevispica

Prickly pear Opuntia spp Perennial (seeds) Broad

Herbaceous Amaranthus/pig Amaranthus spp Annual (seeds) Broad&narr Dodo

weed ow

Wandering Jew Commelina Perennial (seeds, Broad Endethe

berghelensis stem suttings)
Ekiteza

Black jack Bidens pilosa Annual (seeds) Broad Obukoroghotso/omu

soni/ obukuura

Macdonald eye Galinsoga Annual (seeds) Broad A kalandalanda

(Gallant soldier) perviflora

Oxalis Oxalis latifolia Perennial (seeds, Broad Omunyuwambeni

(or corniculata bulbils, bulbs and
rhizomes)

Thorn apple Datura Annual (seeds) Broad Ekihayura

stramonium

Sodom apple Solanum Perennial (seeds) Broad Endughuda

incanum
Engusuuru

Black night Solanum nigrum annual (seeds) Broad Esisogho

shade
Enswiga

Witch weed Striga spp annual (seeds) Broad Akayugo

Goat weed Ageratum annual (seeds) Broad Omatalyambene

conyzoides
Akatoma
Milk weed Euphorbia annual (seeds) Broad Ekinyamathi
heterophylla

Spider flower Gynandropsis annual (seeds) Broad

gynandra

Mexican Tegates minuta annual (seeds) Broad mukazimurofu

marigold

Tridax Tridax annual (seeds) Broad

procumbens
Purslane Partulaca
oleracea
 Cleavers Gallium
spurium

Lions ear Leonotis

nepetifolia

Abutilon Abutilon spp

Black bind weed Polygonum

convolvulus

Double thorn Oxygenum Biennial (seeds)

sinuatum

Flaebane Conyza sp

Devils horse Achyranthes annual (seeds)

whip aspera

Cat’s tail Sporobolus Perennial

pyramidalis

mistletoe Phorandeudron Perennial (seeds)

spp

WEED CONTROL METHODS

(i) Cultural weed control
(ii) Mechanical weed control
(iii) Biological weed control
(iv) Chemical weed control
(v) Legislative weed control
(vi) Integrated weed control
CULTURAL WEED CONTROL METHODS
These are farming practices that also control weeds. They include
Crop rotation; this prevent weeds that follow certain crops e.g. striga in cereals.
Proper spacing; this gives proper planting population that adequately cover the ground to cut
off weeds from light.
Timely planting; this enables crops to establish and grow enough so as to cut compete weeds.
Flooding; this kills weeds that cannot resist water logging. It is good in controlling weeds in rice
field.
Use of trap crops; the weeds grows on the host plant which is then ploughed when weeds have not
yet reached seedling stage.
Planting weed free seeds; before seeds are planted, they should be cleaned off foreign materials
especially weed seeds.
Controlled burning; this helps in destroying both weeds and their seeds.
Intercropping; this provides a dense cover to smother or prevent weeds.
Fertilizer application; this facilitates rapid crop growth.
Advantages of cultural weed control
• It is a cheap method compared with other methods of weed control.
• No danger of poisoning plants and animals.
• No environmental pollution.
• It requires no technical skills compared to chemical method
Disadvantages of cultural weed control
• The farmer is not always sure of the results like in chemical method
• It is a very slow process.
• Some cultural methods like fertilizer application can be beneficial to weeds.
MECHANICAL WEED CONTROL METHOD
The main aim of this control measure is to encourage the germination of many weeds. Weeds are
killed before seedling stage and require force. It is mostly useful in controlling annual weeds e.g.
• Hand pulling of individual weeds
• Hand hoeing/using garden tools
• Slashing using cutlasses on steep slopes
• Tillage i.e. deep ploughing buries weeds.
Advantages
• Doesn’t pollute the environment.
• It is not toxic to the crops and animals.
• Requires little skills
 • Creates many job opportunities
Disadvantages
• Destroys the soil structure.
• Not easily done in plants with thorns e.g. sisal and pineapples.
• Causes soil erosion.
• May lead to oxidation of the plant nutrients.
• Very laborious
• It is comparatively slow method.
BIOLOGICAL WEED CONTROL
This involves the use of living organisms e.g. insect pests to control weeds. Certain moth species
were successful used on prickly pear weeds in Australia, Neochetina weevils against water
hyacinth on Lake Victoria.
Advantages
• Very easy method
• It is comparatively cheap.
Disadvantages
• It requires a lot of research
• Appropriate biological agents may not be locally available.
• The biological agents introduced to control weeds may later become crop pests.
• It is difficult to integrate it with chemical weed control.
LEGISLATIVE WEED CONTROL
The legally enforced prevention of the movement of weeds and implements from a region known
to have a notorious weed. It enables the control of weed in a localized region.
Advantages
• It controls/prevents the spread of the weed to other areas.
Disadvantages
• Not easy to enforce/supervise
• Can only control the spread of weeds but cannot kill the weeds.
• It has serious economic consequences i.e. it disrupts trade and commerce.
CHEMICAL WEED CONTROL
This involve the use of chemicals known as herbicides which are used to kill the weeds.
Classification of herbicides.
These herbicides may be classified basing on the time of application i.e.
Pre-emergence; these are applied before the weeds germinate and before planting e.g. paraquat,
diquat and a trazine.
Post-emergence; these are applied after germination of weeds i.e. when weed’s leaves are above
the ground e.g. Glyphosphate, 2,4-D, MCPA, simazine.
Herbicides can be classified according to the way they work i.e.
Contact non-selective herbicides; these kill the plants with which they come into contact with.
They don’t select and their effective depends on how thoroughly the weed is wetted e.g. paraquat
(gramaxone), reglone (diquat) and glyphosate.
Translocated selective herbicide; these are also called systemic herbicides or growth modifiers.
They are absorbed by roots or leaves and then transported susceptible plant parts. It is selective i.e.
it kills only certain plants e.g. round up (glyphosphate), glufosinate, dicamba, picloram, 2,4-D,
MCPA, MCPP and atrazine.
Selective herbicides kill a particular kind of plant. They are meant to kill broad leaved plants and
donot affect those with narrow leaves e.g. simazine which controls weeds in maize gardens and
MCPA for broad leaved weeds.
Soil sterilants; these herbicides are applied to the soil to prevent the germination of weeds e.g.
Bromacil and Diuron.
Some herbicides in common use in east Africa
Common or trade name Main characteristics and common use

2,4-D (frenesta, fernimine, phordester) Selective translocated hormone type. Control

broad leaved weeds in wheat applied as post
emergence

MCPA (Agroxone, phenoxylene plus, empal It is translocated selective herbicides

It is used for control of broad leaved weeds and
applied as post emergency

Dalapon (dowpon) Translocated selective herbicide. Usually

applied against grasses. Used in the control of
couch grass e.g. in coffee. Sprayed on couch
grass when it is actively growing. It is applied
 as post-emergence

Paraquat (gramoxone) Contact-non-selective herbicide applied as pre-

emergence mainly for the control of broad
leaved weeds and young grass seedling

Diquat (Reglone) Contact-non-selective herbicide applied as pre-

emergence mainly for the control of broad
leaved weeds and young grass seedling

Atrazine (gesaprim, basagram) Control of weeds in maize, applied as post or

pre-emergence. Very persistent in soil

Simazine It is a soil sterilant herbicide which is applied

during seedbed preparation to destroy weeds
and their seeds underground. Can be applied
before planting the maize.

MCPP (mecoprop, cleavertox, methoxone Selective, translocated hormone type. Used

mainly in wheat along with MCPA or 2, 4-D for
the control of cleavers which is resistant to the
latter two chemicals.

2, 4-5T (trioxone, phortox) Translocated selective hormone type. Used for

killing trees and shrubs without affecting grass.

Roundup This is translocated selective herbicides applied

as post emergency to control couch grass

Factors that influence effectiveness and selectivity of herbicides

Size of leaves; the large the leaves the more the plant will be affected
The degree to which the leaf is wetted during herbicide spraying. Leaves which are narrow with a
more erect growth habit such as grasses, tend to be less wetted than those that are broad with a
horizontal growth habit.
In-built physiological resistance (the physiology/metabolic factors). Some plants are able to
detoxify particular herbicides through their own physiogical process.
The nature of the leaf surface/structure of the plant. Some plants have natural protection because
of waxy cuticle and tough scale.
Growth stage of the plant; herbicides applied at the correct stage of plant growth are able to exert
their herbicidal effect level.
The leaf angle of weeds; weeds with inclined leaf angles retain less herbicides than those with
horizontal leaf angles.
The plant height; selectivity is achieved when weeds are shorter or taller than crops.
Location of the growing plant plants; when the growth plants are open like in monocots, plants
are more susceptible to herbicide.
Specialized structures e.g. rhizomes and bulbs are not easily killed by the herbicides.
Concentration of the herbicides; if the concentration of the herbicide is too high, it will kill all
the plants.
The mode of action of the herbicide e.g. in case the contact herbicide get into contact with
targeted tissues, it will exert its effect on the tissue.
Environmental factors e.g. rain, wind, light, temperature and soil structure. Rain washes away
herbicides if it falls immediately.
Time of application; older plants are affected less by herbicides than younger ones.
Plant succulence; succulent plants are affected less by herbicides than non-succulent ones.

Factors that influence selectivity of herbicides

• Concentration of the herbicide; the concentration of the herbicide affects its selectivity
that if too high, it may kill all vegetation/plants.
• Environmental conditions e.g. rain, wind, light, temperature, soil factors. Rainfall
instance washes away herbicides if it falls immediately after application, high
temperature increases the rate of translocation of herbicides, wind may blow away
herbicides if it blows during or immediately after application.
• Height of the plant; selectivity is achieved when weeds are shorter than the main crop or
taller than the crop.
• Herbicide formulation; this is the physical form of herbicide in which it is applied. Oil
herbicide formulations are more toxic to plants than others.
• Inbuilt physiological resistance; some wees have the ability to use their own
physiological ability to detoxify particular herbicides, nullify their effects and remain
 unaffected.
• Location of growth points; the terminal buds and growing points in dicots are exposed
while those of monocots are enclosed. This makes dicots more susceptible to herbicides
than monocots.
• Structure of the plant; some plants have natural protection because of waxy covering
and tough scale leaves. These prevent entry of herbicides so that the plant is not
affected by the herbicides.
• The mode of action of the herbicide; e.g. contact herbicides have to be placed in direct
contact with the vegetative tissue of the weed so as to destroy it.
• Root depth; shallow-rooted weeds are much susceptible to herbicides than deep rooted
ones.
• Timing of application; anon-selective contact herbicide applied before the crop emerges
will control the weeds on the surface and spare the crop.
Effectiveness of herbicides
In order to achieve the maximum effect from herbicides, the following conditions must be met;-
• Mix the herbicides according to the manufacturer’s instructions. Only the recommended rate
of application and concentration should be used.
• Use correct herbicide for weed in question
• Spraying should not be done in wet weather or when it is likely to rain because the rain water
may wash away the herbicide.
• Apply at the correct stage of the growth of crop plants. Some crops may be killed by
herbicides if applied at the wrong stage of growth.
• Avoid spraying in windy weather to prevent drift.
• Do not use expired chemicals
• Apply at the correct stage of growth of the weeds e.g. older weeds tend to resist herbicides
and require a high dosage.
• Apply the herbicides at right intervals.
• Apply the herbicides in the afternoon to avoid dilution by the dew.
• Ensure proper wetting of the weeds with the herbicides.
• Do not apply herbicides if it is likely to rain.
• Ensure proper timing for pre-emergence herbicides.
• Use spraying equipment in good working conditions
• Use clean water when mixing the herbicides.
Precautions to take while handling herbicides (agricultural chemicals)
• Users should read and follow the manufacturer’s instructions.
• Avoid wind conditions when spraying or spray following the direction of the wind.
• Wear protective gears like clothes, gumboots, gloves, gaggles, overalls when applying
chemicals.
• Avoid blowing blocked nozzles or inhaling/swallowing herbicides.
• Dispose off the empty containers safely by burying in deep pit.
• Wash yourself thoroughly after spraying the herbicides.
• Store all herbicides/chemical in a safe place out of reach of children.
• Avoid turn up trousers which keep granules or dust particles containing herbicides.
• Do not keep herbicides in unlabeled container because people may be mistaken for other
chemicals such as medicine or even food.
• If a farmer feels unwell after applying herbicides, she should see a medical personnel.
• After spraying, the sprayer should be washed thoroughly with soap and water and dried when
facing upside down.
• In case the herbicides/chemicals goes into the eyes, they should be flushed immediately with
clean water.
• Unused chemicals must be kept in a cool, dry place and out of reach of children and the
operator should shower after spraying.

Factors which influence the selection of aherbicide to apply.

• Nature/type of the weed to be controlled; weeds with rhizomes or bulbs require systemic
herbicides to be controlled.
• Effectiveness of the herbicides; select very effective or recommended herbicides to use on
weeds.
• Cost of the herbicide; use cheap but effective herbicide on weeds.
• Stage of weed growth; select pre-emergency/post emergency herbicides and right herbicide
for the stage of the weed growth.
 • Nature of the herbicide; select contact or selective herbicide according to the type of weeds in
the field.
• Availability of the herbicides; elect/use easily available herbicides.
• Nature/type of the crop; select the herbicide that does not destroy/affect the crop in question
but kill the weed.
• Effect of the herbicide on the environment; use environmentally friendly herbicides.
• Economic returns from the use of herbicides; select herbicides that will not reduce the farm
profits/use herbicides on crops with higher returns.
Advantages of using herbicides
• They are highly effective as total weed killers.
• Herbicides eliminate the drudgery of hand weeding.
• They control weeds in crop rows where tillage would be difficult.
• They save time as large area of land can be effectively covered within a short time i.e. it
is quick.
• Herbicides do not disturb the soil structure.
• They can be used to control weeds in closely spaced crops like millet where mechanical
means would be difficult.
• Weeds usually re-appear more slowly than other methods
• Harvesting is usually easy because there is less interference with weeds since they are
effectively controlled.
• Good quality produce can be obtained as there are less weed seeds in crop produce.
• Chemicals control weeds easily which grow in extremely wet conditions e.g. water
weeds.
• It eliminates the destruction of crop roots through mechanical methods.
• Herbicides are cheaper than hand/mechanical methods for high value crops.
• They are convenient where crop morphology like thorns makes hand weeding
unpleasant e.g. in sisal and sugar cane plantations.
• Translocated herbicides are more effective against perennial or rhizomatous weeds.
• Chemicals can be used where topography affects mechanical weed control e.g. steepy
slopes.
Disadvantages of using herbicides
• Can destroy crops if not properly used.
• Some persist in the soil and pollute water and environment.
• They require technical knowledge and skills to use them.
• They are poisonous to humans and livestock.
• They require special equipment for application e.g. a knapsack sprayer.
• Can kill useful organisms such as pollinators, predators etc.
• Herbicides can alter/change soil pH.
• Continuous use of herbicides can lead to development of resistance.
• Chemical residues may be found in the crop products.
• They are expensive to buy.
• They are often difficult to obtain.
Qn; explain why most farmers have adapted chemical weed control in production of their crops.
Ways through which a farmer can effectively control couch grass in crop field.
• Spray systemic herbicides/recommended herbicides to be absorbed into plant systems
and will kill even rhizomes e.g. dalaphon, round up etc.
• Use a forked hoe to dig out underground stems/rhizomes.
• Beat and shake off the soil particles and expose rhizomes on the surface.
• Allow the rhizomes to dry completely.
• Regularly pick and gather the rhizomes from the field for burning.
INTEGRATED WEED MANAGEMENT (IWM)
This is where two or more of the above control measures are combined to control weeds. The
selected combination depends on costs, suitability of method, availability of labour and other
factors.

CROP PESTS
A pest is any organism that is destructive to crop plants either directly by damaging the plant or
indirectly through the introduction of toxins or disease causing organisms e.g. viruses into the
plant.
Economic importance of pests.
• They increase the costs of production since they have to be controlled.
• They lower the quantity of crop yields since the plant may not grow to its full potential.
 • They encourage the spread of diseases. Some are vectors of diseases while others cause
wounds that encourage entry of pathogens.
• They lower the quality of produce i.e. some drill holes in the fruits and seeds while others
reduce the rate of plant growth hence reducing the quality of produce.
• Some pests may cause the closure of the entire markets when the products are condemned
hence causing total loss to the farmers.
• Pests may introduce toxins into the products making them inedible e.g. Aspergillus flavus,
afungus which introduces a flatoxin in groundnuts.
• Pests may damage plant seeds reducing their germinability.
• Pests may discourage people from producing a certain commodity or utilizing a certain
portion of land hence reducing the output of certain product e.g. production of sunflower
may be discouraged by bird’s damage.
• Some pests change the growth habits of the plant e.g. Earias biplaga may change the structure
of cotton and encourage spreading which makes spraying and harvesting difficult. Also the
sorghum shoot fly may cause excessive tillering in sorghum.
• Plant pests may introduce substances/ wastes in the plant products that may cause human
diseases e.g. aflatoxins in groundnuts are thought to be carcinogenic.
EXAMPLES OF PESTS
(I) INSECTS
Why the majority of plant pests are insects.
• Insects are small in size and so can hide in small space, require less food and easily
escape predation.
• Insects have stayed on the earth for longest time and have now adapted themselves very
well to it.
• Some insects can camouflage very well while others have strong kicking legs while
others can fly to find food and escape predation i.e. they have wings.
• They lay very many eggs which makes them out compete predators in number.
• Some can produce without fertilization i.e. carryout parthenogenesis e.g. in bees and
some mealy bugs.
• The air filled bags inside their bodies give them buoyancy and enable them to live in
water.
• Some are hermaphrodites which make them to reproduce easily e.g. some scale insects.
• Others are oviviporous i.e. They produce their young ones a live e.g. aphids. This
reduces the chances of being killed as eggs or pupae.
• They are widespread in all ecological zones which increases their chances of surviving in
case of adverse weather in one zone.
• They have a high rate of multiplication because of large number of young ones.
• Most of them have the ability to transform into dormant stages when there is shortage
of food or when there is extreme environmental conditions.
• Some modern agro-system like mono-cropping increase the food reserves for the insect
population.
NB; oviparous is egg laying e.g. in birds, viviparous is live birth like in mammals. Oviviporous is
where eggs are kept inside the mother in an egg shell until they are hatched inside e.g. aphids.
(II) NEMATODES
These are legless, tubular organisms with roundish in segmented bodies. Parasitic nematodes have
a stylet for piercing and sucking plant juices.
Nematodes are aquatic and cannot survive without water. They therefore live in the soil pores plant
tissues filled with water. Nematodes live in aquiescent stage if there is no water and their eggs may
last for several years in the soil without hatching. In most nematode, the females lay eggs which
may hatch without fertilization.
Nematodes live in the soil at one stage of their life cycle. In the soil, they live in the film of water
surrounding the soil particles.
The lesser the space between the soil particles, the fewer the nematodes present because nematodes
are too weak to move in the soil particles. Damage is therefore more serious in light oils e.g. sand.
Nematodes also stay where the oxygen concentration is high. Poorly drained soils therefore have a
low nematode population.
Symptoms of plant attacked by nematodes
• Root knot
• Root lesions
• Galls
• Excessive branching of roots.
• Swelling of root tips.
• Retarded growth
• Necrotic lesions
 • Blind buds
• Twisting of stems
• Wilting and withering of leaves.
How nematodes spread
• Through infected planting materials
• Through soil transfers
• Through transfers by animals
• Through irrigation water
• Through rain splash
• Through sewage disposal

(III) MITES
These lack wings and possess four pairs of legs instead of three in insects. They are very small in
size. They have piercing and sucking mouth parts. They breed very rapidly and therefore build
large numbers on the host in a very short time. Mites are moved from one plant to another by wind
or by other insects since they are very light. Mites usually pierce the underside of the leaves. The
leaves then turn to yellow or brown and fall off. Mites attack tea, pyrethrum, cotton and citrus. The
population of mites is normally kept down by natural enemies but quickly increases when spraying
with persistent pesticides e.g. DDT. DDT kills natural enemies and it is known to stimulate the
mites the mites to lay eggs more heavily.
(IV) RODENTS
These include rats, field mice, squirrels and rabbits. Rodents have specialized teeth for gnawing as
well as crushing or grinding hard materials e.g. grain. Rats cause serious damages to stored crops.
They may also attack crops in the field e.g. lodged maize.
(V) BIRDS
Birds eat grain e.g. maize, sorghum, millet, rice and sunflower. Serious bird pests include Sudan
dioch (quelea quelea aethiopica)
Other crop pests include micro-organisms like fungi, bacteria and viruses.
Origin of pests
• Most agricultural products are of high nutritive value which are of the same qualities pests
want.
• As a result of monoculture, the diversity of food supply is eliminated as people clear forests
to grow crops for any organism to survive, it must turn to what is available.
• When predators of same pests die, they increase in numbers.
• Introducing new organisms in an area may make them serious pests especially if there no
predators in the new area.
• Introduction of new crops may lead to a previously harmless organism become a pest.

DAMAGES CAUSED BY PESTS

Direct damages
• Through their feeding habits, pests reduce the assimilative organs of the plant e.g.
caterpillers which interfere with the crop transport system.
• They may destroy buds and growing parts.
• They attack flowers thus reducing seed production.
• Some may destroy buds and growing parts.
• They attack flowers thus reducing seed production.
• Some may destroy seeds making them unable to germinate i.e. storage pests reduce
viability of seeds.
• Some pests attack plant roots leading to death of the whole plant by affecting nutrients
and water absorption.
• Some are sucking pests thus they remove plant sap containing nutrients hence
deficiency e.g. sucking bugs.
• Pests cause wounds on plants which can be entry points to other organisms e.g. bacteria,
viruses that cause diseases.
• As they suck plant juices, they introduce toxic saliva which injures crops e.g. nematodes do
this to root crops or leaves which later become deformed (curled) and sometimes develop
abnormal swellings (galls).
• Tattering of leaves e.g. by the cotton lygus.
• Scarification of leaves and fruits due to damage to their epidermal cells e.g. thrips and
spiders.
• They cause premature falling of leaves.
• Leaf miners (defoliaters) reduces leaf surfaces causing reduced rate of photosynthesis.
• Some pests remove stored foods from plants or tubers e.g. sweet potato weevils.
 • They reduce the quantity of crop produce when they start eat them e.g. maize weevils.
Indirect damages
• Pests attack may make crops very difficult to harvest, process and use e.g. webbing
grains.
• Pests suck plant juices and introduce disease causing organisms like viruses e.g. maize
leaf hoppers which transmite maize streak disease. Other diseases transmitted in the
same way are cassava mosaic and groundnut rosette.
• They change the crop’s growth habit e.g. excessive tillering by sorghum shoot fly.
• They reduce the quality of crop produce by contamination.
• Wet heating of grains which encourages growth of fungi and moulds.
• Weakening of sacks which results into spilling of stored produce.

Damages caused by storage pests.

• They eat up the produce, reduce weight and quantity e.g. rats.
• They bore holes into the seeds reducing their weight and viability
• Pests in the store cause bad smell/odour in the produce.
• They deposit excretas in the produce reducing the quality
• Promote rotting of the produce in the store.
• They weaken fibres of the containers thus causing spoilage of produce.
• They cause descolouration/tainting of the produce.
• Lumping up of produce with webs making processing difficult.
• Loss in nutrient valve of the produce.
• Mix up with produce thus lowering quality.
• Encourage growth of mould that produce toxic substances in the product.
CLASSIFICATION OF PESTS
Classification according to how important the pest is to the host plant.
• Major pests; these are pests which occurs in great numbers and cause a great damage to
the crops.
• Minor pests; this occurs in small numbers and may not cause a great damage to the
crops.
• Irregular pests; these are pests which are not often (not regular) e.g. army worms, red
locust etc. they come once in a given period.
Classification according to plant species that the pest can feed on;
• Polyphagus pests; this feed on many species of plants and it is difficult to control e.g.
American boll worm which feeds on cotton, tomatoes, maize, sunflower, citrus,
sorghum, tomatoes and beans.
• Oligophagus pests; these feed on few species of plants either one or two plants e.g. spiny
bollworms which attack cotton and hibiscus, antestia bugs which feeds on coffee and
other coffee family crops.
• Monophagus pests; these feeds only on one crop. Such pests are few in nature e.g.
banana weevil, maize weevil.
Classification according to where the pests attack the crops.
Field pests; these attack the crops in the field or garden e.g. stalk borers, locusts, white flies, cotton
strainers, banana weevils, leaf worms, aphids, scale insects.
Storage pests; these attack the crop produce in the store e.g. maize weevil, bean weevil (bruchids),
large grain borer, red flour beetle, Angoumois grain moth.
Classification according to the part of the plant attacked by the pests.
• External feeders; these are subdivided into
(i) Leaf eaters (defoliators) these eat leaves whorly or partially or cause perforations
hence interference with photosynthesis e.g. butterflies and moth larvae, weevil,
grass hoppers and locusts.
(ii) Flower eaters; these destroy flower of crops e.g. American bollworm, flower beetles
etc.
(iii) Root feeders e.g. sugar can grub
(iv) Stem eaters; these eat the sides of the stem causing what is called girdling e.g.
termites which eat maize and cassava stems.
• Internal feeders; these are subdivided into
(i) Stem borer; these bore into the stem and eat inside tissues e.g. maize stalk borer,
banana weevils etc. they interfere with the strength of the stem and transport of
the materials in the stem.
(ii) Leaf minor; these enter and eat between the layers of the leaf causing a blotch on
the leaves e.g. coffee leaf minors.
(iii) Fruit borers; these bore inside the fruits e.g. bollworms, coffee berry borer, maize
weevil, bean bruchids etc.
 (iv) Root feeders; these destroy roots and cause the roots to rot e.g. banana root
nematodes (eel worms)
Classification according to the mode of feeding (mouth parts)
• Insects with biting and chewing mouth parts e.g. locusts, grasshoppers, larval stages of
butterflies and moth (caterpillers) e.g. maize stalk borers, cut worms, bull worms etc. these
damage leaves, fruits etc. by chewing and cutting those parts.
• Insects with piercing and sucking mouth parts. These pierce the plant tissues using a
needle like stylet and suck plant sap. They introduce disease causing organisms into the
plant and leave wounds that ease the entry of disease causing organisms into the plant.
Some also secrete toxins into the plant tissues. Examples of sucking insects include aphids,
scale insects, adult stages of houseflies and moth, leafhoppers, mealy bugs, cotton strainers.
• Rasping/scratching and sucking; these scratch and suck the sap e.g. thrips.
Classification according to the stage of crop attacked
There are pests that attack crops at a seedling stage and when such crops mature, they are free from
the same pests. E.g. cutworm (agrotis spp) which attacks all cereals at the young stage.
Some pests, however they attack crops at all stages of crop growth. The maize stalk borer
(Busseola fusca) and sugar cane stalk borer (Eldana saccarina) attack both young and grown crops.
Reasons for increase in crop pest population
• Plant breeding; increase in plant productivity lowers its resistance to pests and diseases.
• Minimum tillage technique; this enables the pests to pupate in the soil.
• Use of chemicals; this leads to death of predators to the pest and some pests have
become resistant to some chemicals.
• Improved transport means; this has enabled importation of infested crops from
elsewhere into formally clean environment.
• Monoculture; growing one crop year after year has enabled the pest to multiply.
• Introduction of new crops into an area has made previously harmless insects to become
pests.
• Changes in climate; phenomenon like global warming may favour some pests by killing
their predators.
• Irrigation; this makes area that were formerly arid and inhabitable by certain pests
more humid and so more conducive for their existence.
• Reduction in biodiversity; this makes organisms which used to depend on wild plant
species to resort to planted look alike crop plants.
• Change in demand pattern for the crop. Crops which are not demanded are neglected
and their pests are left to multiply.
• Drainage; this reduces the amount of water thus creating a favourable condition for the
pest which thrive well in areas of relatively low moisture content.
Common insect pests and their effects on crop plants
Name Order Mode of feeding Nature of damages Crops attacked
Locust Orthoptera Biting and chewing Adults and nymphs Yams, cassava, cereal,
defoliate the plants vegetable

Termites Isoptera Biting&chewing Workers eat up timber, Maize

yams growing plants

Weevils Coleopteran Boring adults & Maize, rice, sorghum,

larva cowpeas, yams,
cassava

Maize stalk Lepidoptera Boring & chewing

borers larva

Leaf worms Lepidoptera Biting & chewing

larvae

Arm worms Lepidoptera Biting & chewing

larvae

Cotton stainer Hemiptera Piercing & sucking

White flies Hemiptera Piercing & sucking

Hemiptera Piercing & sucking
Scale insects

Aphids Hemiptera Piercing & sucking

 PEST CONTROL
Pest control aims at eliminating pests or keeping their numbers as low as possible. The objectives
of pest control include;-
• To prevent a pest from entering into a new area where it has not been before e.g. by use of
quarantines.
• To prevent the establishment of a new plant pest that has just come into an area despite the
efforts to prevent its entry.
• To control and eradicate as far as possible those pests that are already established in the area.
Pillars of pest management
For any control measures to be effective, it is important to have a thorough knowledge on a number
of factors that affect the pest. These are called the pillars of pest management.
Taxonomy; it is important to identify the insect which is the pest because this affects the methods
of control.
Biology; have a thorough knowledge of the biology of the pest i.e. how it reproduces, how
many eggs it lays, which one is the effective stage , how it relates to the environment, the hosts
it has, feed preference, non-preferences etc.
One should be able to estimate the pest population or the extent of infection in case of viruses and
bacteria. Not all insects are pests all the time. Even those that are pests, unless they are in their pest
status control is not necessary. Pest status occurs when the pest can cause substantial damage loss
to the farmer’s crops.
Understand the effect of weather and seasons on the pest. Where the outbreak of certain pest
appear to be associated with specific weather conditions, the farmer can use the weather as an early
warning system and take the necessary action. Some pests e.g. aphids and Acraea acerata butterfly
on potatoes are controlled by rain i.e. washed off the leaves and killed by rain.
Predators and parasites; these help to control the pest. They may be adequate to control the pest
or may be enhanced to be able to do so.
NB; economic pest; it is a term used to describe a pest that causes damages leading to the yield
loss of about 4-10%.
Economic injury level; this is the lowest level of the pest population density that can cause
economic damage to the crop.
Economic thresh hold of the pest; this is the number of pests that must be present before a control
measure is instituted or put in place.

PEST DAMAGE ASSESSMENT

Before instituting control measures, the pest damage should be assessed before deciding whether to
control it or not. Pest damage can assessed by considering the following.
The parts of the plant attacked; pests that attack vital parts of the plant e.g. flowers, buds and
roots should be quickly controlled. Those which attack other parts e.g. old leaves and a few
branches can be ignored.
Population of the pest; high numbers of the pests may require immediate control.
Feeding habits and physiology of the pest; some pests have wasteful digestive systems. They eat
a lot of food from which they benefit very little. They may also cause wounds that encourage entry
of the pathogens.
Presence of predators and parasites; the population of these should be considered to see whether
they are adequate to control the pest before being supplemented by other control measures.
Climate/weather; some pests only cause serious damage in certain types of weather e.g. aphid and
acreae acerata which lays its eggs on potato leaves and the larva eat the leaves, this is serious in dry
weather. Rain cause fungal diseases that affect aphids and also it washes both pests off the leaves
and so control them.
Stage of development of the pest seen in the field; those pests with incomplete metamorphosis
may have various nymph stages all feeding at the same time and so have to be controlled quickly.
For others, the only dangerous stage may be the larval stage.
Mobility of the pest; sedentary pests e.g. scale insects, mealy bugs and caterpillers may be
controlled by spot application of pesticides. Pests with wings e.g. desert locusts are very mobile
and require immediate and wider spread control.
Cost-benefit analysis; control measures should only be instituted if the benefits are greater than
the losses that would have been incurred if the pests ahd not been controlled.
Plant resistance; certain plants will not suffer serious damage from the pest because of certain
heritable characteristics and so pest control for the pests in such plants may be irrelevant.
PEST CONTROL METHODS
These include
(i) Cultural methods
(ii) Biological method
(iii) Chemical method
(iv) Mechanical method
(v) Legislative method
 (vi) IPM (integrated pest management)
Cultural methods
These are farming practices that also control pests and diseases. Cultural control involves the
manipulation of agricultural practices normally applied in the growing of the crops to make the
environment less favourable for the pest.
Cultural control methods are usually preventive and so need to be applied long before the pest
appears. They are also indirect in that they are not applied to the pest.
Good cultural control requires a complete knowledge of the life cycle of the pest and a good
knowledge of the habits and general ecology of the pest.
Advantages of cultural control
• They have very few side effects. They are friendly to the environment.
• They are not poisonous to humans and livestock.
• They can easily be combined with other methods of pest control.
• They are relatively cheap.
Disadvantages of cultural control methods
• They is need to apply them long before the pest appear. This may not be easily
appreciated by the farmers.
• The farmer is not always sure of the results.
• They do not provide complete economic control of the pest. The measures have to be
maintained or repeated throughout the growing of the crop.
• They are generally specific, one control method being directed towards a specific pest.
Examples of cultural pest and disease control include;-
Manuring and fertilizer application; this increases the plant’s growth rate and their ability to
overcome the effects of the pests. Manuring also changes the soil micro climate e.g. it increases the
water holding capacity of the soil making them unfavourable for nematodes. Manuring also
encourages the presence of predatory nematodes which feed on the parasitic ones.
Timely planting; this enables the plants to reach a resistant stage before the pest population
increases to the levels that cause significant damage.
Planting crops suited to the soil and climate; this enables the crops to grow vigorously and fight
off pests and diseases.
Use of fertile well-drained soil; this enables the crops to grow vigorously and fight off pests and
diseases.
Weed control; this removes the weeds which may be alternate hosts for pests and diseases. Many
cotton pests e.g. cotton strainers thrive on various shrubs, weeds and trees.
Using clean planting materials; this prevents the introduction of pests and diseases into the
garden. It is very effective against less mobile or sedentary pests e.g. mealy bags, banana weevils
etc.
Clean and early harvesting; this denies the pests and diseases food and breaks their life cycles.
Crops harvested before or long after maturity are attacked more by pests either in the field or the
store.
Growing resistant/tolerant varieties; some plant materials are able to resist or tolerate pests and
diseases e.g. the NASE varieties of cassava are resistant to cassava mosaic. Resistant varieties are
preferred to tolerant varieties because the tolerant ones increase the pest population. Resistance
may be due to circumstances in the host environment that make it hard for the pest to attack the
host. Resistance may also be due to genetic factors that make the host unstable for use by the pest
as food or as a habitat.
Drying harvested crops to the correct moisture content; this creates unfavourable microclimate
for the pests and diseases agents since most of them require water.
Destroying crop residues soon after harvesting preferably by burning; this destroys the source
of the pests and diseases and so protects future crops e.g. cotton stems are cut and burnt to control
cotton strainers and other cotton pests. It may also be used in maize against stalk borers.
Use of trap crops; crops are planted to attract the pests and diseases and then destroyed before
maturity to destroy the pests and diseases with them. Such crops should be more attractive to the
pest than the main crop e.g. maize can trap American bollworm near cotton garden.
Mulching; this controls pests like thrips in coffee by increasing the humidity in the gardens.
Mulching also encourages the presence of organisms that parasitize or predate certain pests. It
encourages organisms that are predators of aphids and mealy bugs.
Proper pruning; this removes infected plants parts and reduces the source of secondary infection.
It also improves sunning and aeration and so control pests e.g. antestia bugs in coffee.
Removal and destruction of infected fruits e.g. against the borer beetles in coffee, fruit flies in
mangoes and citrus etc.
Using clean stores against pests e.g. maize, weevils flour beetles
Use strict crop rotation; this breaks the life cycles of the pests and diseases crops that are not
susceptible to the pest in question are grown in the rotation. It is however most efficient on
monophagus pests or pests that have a narrow feeding range. Also, the pest should have low
powers of migration.
Uprooting and burning affected plants (rogueing); this removes the sources of infection and
reduces the spread of the pests and diseases.
Using recommended spacing; this allows the plants to be properly aerated and sunned and also
reduces the spread of pests from one plant to another.
Tillage; this changes the soil conditions and makes the conditions unfavourable for soil living
pests.
• Tillage may also bring pest eggs to the surface and so expose them to the sun for desiccation.
• It may also expose pests, their eggs to their predators.
• Deep cultivation may also burry the pest too deep that it may be killed by suffocation.
• Good tillage also encourages vigorous growth by the crop and so making it able to tolerate
the pest.
• Tillage also kills weeds thus removing the alternate hosts for pests and diseases causing
organisms.
• Tillage also destroys breeding places of soil living pests e.g. rodents forcing them to migrate.
The physical impact of the tillage implements may kill some pests.
• It buries the crop residues denying pests food for some time.
Flooding; this helps to kill a number of pests that live in the soil or have their resisting phase in the
soil e.g. the mole crickets, army worms and stalk borers. It is however very expensive and may not
be used for the sole purpose of controlling pests.
Using closed season; a closed season is a period of the year when a specific crop is not
grown. This denies the pests and diseases food since no crop will be growing in the closed season.

BIOLOGICAL METHOD
This involves the use of a living organism to control the pest. The biological agent may be a
predator, parasite or pathogen. Biological control suppresses rather than controlling the pest e.g. the
use of a cat to control rats. It may also involve the use of the sterile male technique where male
insects are captured, sterilized and allowed back into the wild to mate. Certain gene combinations
which result into hybrid sterility may also be induced in males and such males are used for mating
females which then lay infertile eggs.
Characteristics of an effective biological agent
• It must have a high searching ability to search and find the pest.
• It must preferably be host specific.
• It must have a high potential to increase in numbers i.e. high reproductive rate so that it
keeps pace with any increase in population.
• The populations of both the pest and the biological agent must synchronise i.e. peak at the
same time.
• Ease of multiplication; it must be easy to multiply especially in laboratory conditions.
• Stage of attack; the biological agent must be in position to attack the pest before it causes
significant damage to the crop e.g. those agents that destroy the eggs and larva are the best.
• Should have high night vision.
• It should be mobile i.e. it should be able to move faster.
Advantages of biological pest control
• They are not toxic to the plant as may be the case with chemical.
• They do not leave residues that can pollute the environment.
• From the ecological point of view they are self-adjusting i.e. the population of the
biological agent increases as pest population increases and vice-versa.
• They pose no harm to the consumer since they leave no dangerous residues in the final
product.
• It is a cheap method of pest control.
• It often requires very little attention from the former.
• Resistance cannot easily be developed by pest against the biological agent.
• Parasites, predators, pollinators and other useful organisms are not destroyed.
• There are no danger of pest resurgence as a result of interference with the ecosystem
which is common with chemical control. Biological control is therefore almost a
permanent solution to the pest problem.
Disadvantages
• The biological agent used may later become a crop pest especially if introduced in an
area without a proper study of its ecology.
• The most appropriate agents may not be locally available.
• It requires a lot of research to identify the appropriate biological agent.
• They just reduce the number of pests instead of eliminating them.
• In case of outbreaks, panic usually occurs and the method becomes useless in that. It
cannot save the crop fast enough.
CHEMICAL METHOD
It involves spraying the plants with chemicals or poisons that kill the pest or interfere with the life
cycle of the pest.
Classification of pesticides
Pesticides may be classified according to
• The mode of action i.e.
Stomach poisons i.e. the insects eat it before they can be killed.
Contact poisons that kill the pests on contact.
Fumigants (these are fumes in the air) that kill the insects when they enter into it.
Attractants; these attracts insects to the point where they will be killed. Usually sex
hormones (pheromone) are used.
• The group of pests that they control i.e.
Insecticides control insects
Acaricides that control ticks and mites.
Nematicides that control nematodes
Rodenticides for rats and squirrels
Mulluscides for snail and slogs.
However most of the chemicals in use today are multipurpose.
• Whither they are systemic or not. Systemic pesticides enter into the plant and move within it.
While not-systemic pesticides do not enter into the plant. Systemic pesticides should be
applied at the lower sites and allowed to move upwards by themselves. The chemicals move
up due to transpiration pull etc.
Advantages of systemic pesticides
➢ They tend to cover the plant more thoroughly such that the whle plant becomes poisonous to
the pest.
➢ The chemical remains protected within the plant against the weather hence having a longer
period of effect.
Characteristics of a good chemical
• It must be toxic to the pest.
• It must not be toxic to parasites, predators and pollinators.
• It must be harmless to man and other mammals.
• It must be reasonably persistent to avoid too frequent application.
• It must be harmless to the crops.
• It must not leave taints or residues on the crop.
• It should be suitable for practice formulation e.g. concentrates, powders or granules.
• It must be ozone friendly.
Terms used in relation to pesticides
Lethal dosage (L.D) is the dose of the chemical that kill the pest. (L.D50 is the dose of the pesticide
that can kill 50% of pest population)
Tolerance limit; this is the maximum amount of the chemical or pesticide that is legally allowed to
remain on the products.
Pre-harvest period; this is the period that must elapse before a crop that has been sprayed with a
particular chemical can be consumed.

Advantages of chemical pest control

• It saves labour since less labour is required to spray pests than to kill them
mechanically.
• It is a very quick method since it is not necessary to physically handle and kill the
individual pests as in some chemical methods.
• One chemical can be broad spectrum and kill many pests at ago.
• It enables more localized action than other methods to control pests e.g. one farmer may
take individual action and effectively control the pest unlike in cultural methods like
closed seasons that have to cover wide areas to be effective.
• There are many specialized equipment for application of the chemicals. It is therefore
easy to make accurate measurements of the quantities to be used and ensure the
correct intensity of coverage.
• It is a very cheap method since most of the chemicals are developed for low cost.
Disadvantages of chemical pest control
• The chemicals may be toxic to the plants.
• The chemicals pollute the environment since some are persistent and non-
biodegradable.
• The chemicals may kill non-target and useful organisms e.g. predators and pollinators.
 • The chemicals require skill and some illiteracy to apply correctly.
• Most chemicals may be poisonous to man and his animals and must be handled
carefully
• The pests acquire resistance to some chemicals if the pesticides are used persistently.
• Some chemicals are persistent and may leave residues on the products and so affect the
consumer.
• It just suppresses the pest populations and there may build up later when the pests
develop resistance.
Pesticide resurgence and resistance
Pesticide resurgence is where pests killed by pesticides return in larger numbers. It is the rapid re-
appearance of pest population in injuries numbers, usually brought about after the application of a
broad spectrum pesticide has killed the natural enemies which normally keep a pest in check.
Broad spectrum pesticides are pesticides are pesticides that can kill many types of insects
(organisms) even the untargeted ones e.g. oxamyl and methylbromide can kill insects, mites, ticks
and round worms.
Narrow spectrum pesticide kills only one targeted type of organisms (pests)
Pesticide resistance;
This is a situation where pests acquire characteristics/traits that enable them to survive despite
application of recommended levels of pesticides.
This is a condition where pests can no longer be killed by certain types of pesticides.
It is a condition where certain pests are no longer susceptible to certain types of pesticides.
Causes of pesticide resistance
• Spraying the same type of pesticides on the same type of pests for long time. i.e. over
dependence on one type of pesticide
• Spraying using low concentrated pesticides which makes others pests survive.
• Over dependence on pesticide application alone without varying the methods of pest control
e.g. cultural, physical, biological etc.
• Spraying of wrong pesticides
• Using improperly mixed/stirred pesticides
• Spraying in wrong weather.
• Some pest species are too mobile and these have higher chances of escaping pesticide
treatment hence develop resistance quickly.
• Allowing unspread survivors to thrive and multiply.
• Improper wetting of pests with pesticides.
Control and prevention of pesticide resistance
• Using recommended pesticides only
• Alternate some types of pesticides
• Use the right concentration of pesticides and uniform mixing
• Insure proper wetting of pests with pesticides
• Spray in cool and dry time of the day to avoid dilution by rain.
• Use integrated pest management (IPM) approach to provide a balanced approach to minimize
resistance.
MECHANICAL METHOD
Involves the use of force to kill the pest or disease vector. Examples include
• Using traps.
• Using physical barrier nets
• Using sticks
• Hand picking and killing of pests.
• Using sound; very loud sound helps to repel the insects and other pests e.g. birds. Recorded
sounds may also be used to attract or repel insects to where they can be destroyed or a way
from the garden respectively.
• Drying (dehydration); this is mostly used for controlling pests in stored products since most
insects require water to survive. Insects have a waxy cuticle to help them reduce water loss
but insects may be desiccated easily if this waxy cuticle is removed. This may be done with
the help of dusts that absorb the cuticle of the insect exposing the insect to desiccation. Ash
may also be used to the same effect.
• Using radiation e.g. X-rays this may be used to kill the pests to sterilize them so that their
reproduction is curtailed. These radiations may also be used to attract the insects to places
where they can be destroyed. Radiation is commonly used to control storage pests and in
seeds not to be planted because it may induce mutation.
Advantages
• It does not pollute the environment
• It is not toxic to the plants.
 • It is not dangerous to the final consumer.
Disadvantages
• It is very labourous
• It is very inefficient
• Some mechanical methods may be applicable in certain plants e.g. in sisal and
pineapples which are spiked.
• May not be economical on a large scale.

LEGAL CONTROL
Regulation of movement in areas or movement of commodities to exclude potential pests, prevent
further spread of these pests already present and to supplement eradication programmes.
Types of legal control methods
Eradication; complete elimination of a pest from an area or region. It may not be very easy.
Containment; this is applied before the pest has fully established itself in a new area. Containment
centres may be established along the edges of the infested area to prevent penetration into pest free
areas.
Suppressions; this is applied to pests capable of periodic outbreak e.g. army worms and desert
locusts. Their numbers are periodically monitored and controlled to help prevent attack.
International bodies are often involved in the suppression of programme e.g. anh locusts research
centre.
Before instituting legal control, the following conditions should be fulfilled.
• The pest much offer actual threat to large interests.
• Less disruptive substitute action (to trade) should) be available.
• The objective of the quarantine should be reasonably possible to attain.
• The economic gains from the legal control must outweigh the costs of administration and the
interference with the normal trade activities.
INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT (IPM)
This is a common sense approach that involves the use of many methods to bring down the pest
population low enough only to provide food to the predators.
It involves; - use of predators and pathogens, use of behavior modifying chemicals e.g.
pheromones, chemi-starilants and other hormones, exploitation of host resistance and developing
plant configurations and structures that will make the plant less susceptible to pest attack.
Characteristics of IPM
• It emphasizes natural regulating mechanisms with only minimal use of artificial
chemicals.
• It allows for existence of pests within a balanced system and the balanced system
imposes control.
• It is based on the promise that each control method synergizes the other but chemical
control is added only as a last resort.
• There are no specific guidelines on what to do when but each farmer has to devise those
means most appropriate to his environment.
Advantages of IPM
• It is cheap compared to conventional method of pest control.

• It is environmentally friendly since it leads to a reduction in pesticides use.

• It is easy for the farmers to adopt since it involves the use of both modern and
traditional techniques.
• Because of reduced use of pesticides, it does not pose a health hazard to the agricultural
labourers.
• It provides permanent solutions to pest problems and reduces the chances of failure
since all systems employed reinforce one another.
• IPM cultivates a sense of self-reliance since the decision making on pest management is
localized.
• There is little dependence on outside solutions as would be the case in legal control of
pests.
Constraints/limitations to the use of IPM
 • It demands a detailed understanding of the pest ecology and the present agro-ecosystem. Such
data is not easy to collect by the farmers.
• It is difficult to develop standard packages for use since environments differ and so the
solutions have to differ.
• Farmers are reluctant to adopt a solution whose outcomes they are not sure of.

• It demands an understanding of the pest that doesn’t go beyond killing the pest and yet
farmer’s interests in pests only goes as far as killing the pest.
• Farmers are not always equipped with the knowledge to carry out IPM.

• Farmers are not interested in preserving the pests.

PLANT DISEASES
A plant is healthy when it can carry out its physiological functions to the best of its genetic
potential.
These functions include;
• Normal cell division, differentiation and development.

• Absorption of water and mineral salts from the soil.

• Transport of these materials through the plant.

• Photosynthesis and translocation of photosynthetic products to areas of utilization and

storage.
• Metabolism of synthesized products

• Reproduction

• Storage of food supplies for reproduction or cover wintering.

A disease can be defined as the malfunction of host cells and tissues due to continuous irritation by
a pathogenic agent or environmental factor that leads to development of symptoms. Disease is a
condition involving abnormal changes in the form, physiology, integrity or behavior of the plant.
Such changes may result in the partial impairment or death of the plant or its parts.
Definition of terms
Pathogen; this is an agent that cause damage to the living tissues i.e. they are fungi, bacteria,
viruses i.e. disease causing agents.
Pathogenicity; this is the ability of a pathogen to cause disease. It is the ability of a
parasite/pathogen to interfere with one or more of the essential functions of the plant. Virulence is
the ability of a virus to cause a viral disease.
Pathogenesis; processes that lead to disease development and chain of events leading to that
disease.
Incubation period; it is time lapse which takes place before the plant develops symptoms of the
disease.
Symptoms; these are the outward signs of the disease on the plant.
Host; this is one which gives a parasite accommodation.
Symptoms of diseases in plants
Necrosis; this is the death of tissues as a result of attack of the pathogens. When it is general death
it is called a rot. Rots may be described as dry rots or wet rots. Dry rot is when there is no
something oozing out the wounds are dry most rots in plants are caused by fungi and bacteria.
Lesions; this is when there are small spot of dead tissues i.e. it is a collection of dead tissues/spots
on plant parts.
Blight; when the lesion spread very fast and may cause the whole part of the plant to die off then
then we call it a blight.
Blast; when lesions are slightly elongated we call it blast.
Hyperplasia; this is when the disease organism enter the plant and cause it to produce very many
cells because of this, the part of the plant tends to increase in size. This incidence which swells is
called a gall e.g. root nodules.
Hypoplasia; this is when the disease organism enters the plant and cause it to produce very few
cells e.g. stunting of growth points caused by many aphids.
Hypertrophy; this is when the pathogen enters the plant and causes the cells to grow bigger.
Hypotrophy; this is when the pathogen enters the plant and causes the cells to grow smaller.
Mildews, Wilts, Anthracnose, Smuts, Phyllody, Rosette and Mosaic;
How pathogens cause diseases in plants
Weakening the host by continuously absorbing food from the host cells for its own use.
Killing or disturbing the metabolism of host cells through toxins, enzymes or growth regulating
substances that they secrete.
Blocking the transportation of substances e.g. food, mineral nutrients and water through the
conducting tissues.
Consuming the contents of the host cell upon contact.
Classification of diseases
Diseases can be classified according to;-
• The symptoms they cause hence root rots, cankers, wilts, leafspot, scab, blights, anthracnose,
rust, smuts, mosaics, yellow etc.
• The plant organ they affect e.g. root diseases, vegetable diseases, stem diseases, foliage
diseases and fruit diseases.
• According to the cause of the disease i.e. whether the disease is infectious or not. The disease
may then be further classified according to the type of pathogen that causes it or the type of
environment factor that cause it.
• According to the type of pathogen that causes the disease i.e. fungal, bacterial, viral and
protozoan.
Non-infectious diseases may be caused by temperature effects, soil moisture effects, light,
pollution, nutrient deficiencies, mineral toxicities and toxicity of pesticides/herbicides or improper
cultural practices.
Parasitism and disease development.
Infectious diseases result from infections or a plant by a living organism (pathogen) pathogens
grow and multiply on diseased plants and spread from the diseased plants to the normal ones to
cause additional disease.
Development of diseases in plants
For a disease to occur, the plant and pathogen must come into contact and interact. Also the
environmental conditions should be favourable and the plant must be susceptible to the parasite in
question. The pathogen must also be present in adequate amounts and should be of a virulent strain.
The disease cycle
For a disease and pathogen to establish and perpetuate in an area, several events must occur.
(i) Inoculation; the pathogen must come into contact with the plant. Inoculum is any part
of the pathogen that can be with infection e.g. spores, scelerotia or fragments of
fungi, whole individual of bacteria, viruses, viroids and mycoplasmas, eggs e.g. of
nematodes or seeds of parasitic high plants. One unit of inoculum is called a
propagule. Inoculum that causes a primary infection is called primary inoculum
while inoculum derived from the primary infections is called secondary inoculum
and in turn causes secondary infection. Sources of inoculum include plant debris,
soil, seeds transplants, tubers and other propagative organs or outside sources
brought in by wind or water.
(ii) Penetration; entry of the pathogen into the plant either through natural openings or
wounds. Bacteria mostly enter through wounds and natural openings e.g. stoma,
lenticels, hydathodes on leaf margins and nectarthodes on ovaries. Viroids and
mycoplasma enter through wounds made by vectors, tools or other means.
Parasitic higher plants penetrate their hosts directly by the use of a pointed
appresonum that piece the cuticle through mechanical force and enzymatic
softening of the cell wall surfaces.
 (iii) Infections; refers to the establishment of contact between the pathogens and the
susceptible cells and tissues of the host plant to get nutrients from them. Successful
infection often leads to the development of symptoms. Some may be latent for some
time before the symptoms appear. The time interval between inoculation and
appearance of the disease symptoms is called incubation period. Infection triggers
the defense mechanisms of the host and may result in varying degrees of
protection.
Conditions for successful infection
• Pathogen-host contact

• The plant variety must be susceptible to the particular race of the pathogen

• The host plant must be in the susceptible stage.

• The pathogen must be in the pathogenic stage i.e. it should be capable of causing disease
without requiring a dormancy period.
• Temperature and moisture conditions in the environment of the plant be favourable to
the pathogen.
(iv) Invasion and colonization; this is the establishment of the pathogen to the pathogen to
the right extent in the host tissue. Some pathogens attack the host intercellularly
while others attack intracellularly. Pathogens then spread to new tissues from the
initial point pathogens then grow and produce large a mounts of effective materials
e.g. seeds of higher plants, eggs of nematodes etc.’
(v) Dissemination of the pathogens; this is the spread of the pathogen to other hosts that
leads to spread of the disease. Dissemination of pathogens is done by;
• Wind, air currents carry the pathogens. Wind also causes adjacent plants or
plant parts to get the pathogens by rubbing.
• Water, surface run off carries pathogens. Irrigation water and rain also wash
down pathogens produced in plant exudates or splashes them enabling them
to get into other plants. Water dissemination is very efficient as the
pathogens lend on already wet tissue and so can germinate immediately.
• Insect vectors, aphids and leafhoppers transmit viruses, leaf hoppers also
transmit mycoplasmas mites and nematodes can also transmit viruses.
• Some plant pathogens; zoospores of some fungi can transmit pathogens as
they move from one plant to another.
• Humans; success handling off diseased and normal plants spread the disease
from the diseased to the normal plant. They can transmite diseases the soil
through their feet, contaminated containers etc.
(vi) Over wintering or over summering of the pathogen; pathogens must find a means to
survive unfavourable conditions or the absence of the host. Some survive as seeds
e.g. the parasitc higher plants while others may survive as eggs e.g. the nematodes,
bacteria survive by hiding inside infected plants, seeds, tubers, soil and the bodies
of vectors. Fungi form resistant spores called sclerotia.
NB; plant diseases are spread through the following ways
• Through air like wind currents

• Through contact between health and unhealthy plants

• Through the soil in case of soil borne diseases

• Through planting affected material like cuttings or seeds

• Through farm tools e.g. Hoes, pangas etc.

• Through the farmer and his animals as they move from one farm to another.

• Through irrigation and rain water.

• Through vectors/insects as they move from plant to plant.
Environment factors that cause disease.
Lack of excess of something that can support life may cause disease in plants. Such diseases
 cannot however be transmitted from one plant to another.
Temperature; plants grow best in a given temperature range and extremes cause diseases e.g.
sun scald on exposed sites of fleshy fruits and vegetables, discoloration, over sweetening of
potatoes due to very low temperatures, frost bands and discoloured corky tissue on fruit
surfaces caused by low temperatures.
Moisture; low moisture causes wilting of plants, stunting and yellowing and falling of leaves.
Too much moisture also causes the same disease in addition to rotting of the roots.
Oxygen; too little oxygen causes death of the roots.
Lack of light causes etiolation while excessive light causes scalding.
Air pollutants; these cause necrosis and weaken the plants predisposing them to attack by
insects and other pathogens. Excessive herbicides causes distortion and yellowing of leaves and
hence shedding of leaves.
EXAMPLES OF PLANT DISEASES
Rusts; these are caused by fungi. They attack the stems and leaves of the plants and cause rusty
red, orange or white coloured spots that result in rupturing of the epidermis and formation of
swellings. Examples include the rusts of cereals caused by puccinia species, rusts of coffee caused
by hemileria species and rusts of legumes caused by uremia species. Rusts are spread by wind,
insects, rains and animals.
Mildews; a mildew is a massive production of spores and mycellial growth that rapidly covers the
leaf surface producing a powdery appearance. If the mildew appears on the upper surface of the
leaf, it is referred to as a powdery mildew while if it appears predominantly on the lower surface, it
is called a downy mildew. Powdery mildews attack cabbage, cauliflower, beans, peas, tobacco,
mangoes and grapes. Downy mildews may induce phyllody i.e. the conversion of the floral parts of
the plant into leaf e.g. the crazy top of maize, the green ear disease of bulrush millet and the
tobacco blue mould.
Leaf spots and blight; leaf spots are limited and non-expanding necrotic patches on the leaves. If
the spots are fast spreading and may kill all or part of the plant, then it is blight. Leaf spots are the
most common fungal diseases in plants e.g. th sigatoka disease of bananas, rice and millet blask,
cercospora leaf spot of ground nuts and leaf spots of tomatoes, beans and peas.
Damping off (fungal), foot rot and wire stem; these attack the plant either in the soil or at the soil
surface and are seedling diseases. They may cause poor emergence of the seedlings or seedling
collapse.
Damping off; this may attack plants before or after emergence, pre-emergence damping off is
caused by seed borne fungi e.g. Pythium species that attacks grasses. Post-emergence damping off
is caused by bacteria that attack the seedlings at ground level e.g. the damping off of beans,
tomatoes and pepper and cotton.
Environmental conditions predisposing seedlings to damping off
• Heavy soils, there tend to be poorly drained and the damp conditions they create encourage
fungal growth.
• Very high plant population; this encourage damp conditions around the plants hence leading
to damping off.
• Heavy weed population; weeds produce damp conditions that just like the heavy plant
population.
• Excessive moisture; this encourages excessive vegetative growth giving very bushy plants.
The damp macro-climate so created encourages damping off.
Wire stem; this results from the break-down of the cortex and epidermis of older seedlings leaving
a central cylinder like part, which can be bent like a wire. It is common in cabbages where it is
caused by a bacterium, rhizoctonia solani
Foot rot; this starts as a small lesion just below the ground which may develop and completely
girdle the stem resulting into clorosis and or rapid wilting e.g the root rot of legumes and
vegetables and the blight of tomatoes.
Wilts; plant tissues become flaccid and drop and collapse as a result of dehydration. Wilts may be
caused by blockage of the vessels by the pathogens reproduced in vessels, increased viscosity of
the vascular fluids as a result of the metabilities produced by the pathogens. Examples of wilts
include the fusarium wilt of tomatoes and cotton, panama disease of bananas, vascular wilt of
beans and vascular wilts of cocoa.
Cankers; these are localized lesions found mostly in woody plant with a corrosion and sloughing
away of the tissues that produces wounds and exposes the wood e.g. the citrus canker
Anthracnose; this attack leaves, stems and fruits. It causes small sunken lesions with a slightly
raised on the infected parts, branch die back, fruit drop and fruit rot and death of emerging
seedlings. Examples of anthracnose disease include coffee berry disease, beans, cow peas, ground
nuts, banana, and cotton anthracnose.
Growth malformations; these may be due to crop reaction to pest attack and may be hypertrophy,
hypotrophy, hyperplasia, hypoplasia, rosette, galls, foliar chlorosis, mottling, leaf rugosity,
phyllody, leaf curls etc.
Smuts; these are caused by fungi. The fungi enters the plant tissues and change features of the host
plant. Smuts attack the grain pellets or the seeds and replace contents with black dusty spore
masses that resemble soot.
Phyllody; the floral structures assume the appearance of vegetative leaf. There is then no seed
formed e.g. the crazy top of the maize, the green ear disease of bulrush millet.
Rosette; occurs if the leaves are grouped so closely that there appears to be no internodes such
plants are often stunted and the leaves show other symptoms e.g. decrease in size, curling or
chlorosis. Rosettes are caused by viruses and transmitted by insects e.g. the groundnut rosette
transmitted by an aphid.
Mosaic; yellow and green mottled patches occur alternatively on a leaf forming a pattern e.g.
cassava mosaic caused by a virus transmitted by whitefly and sugar cane mosaic transmitted by an
aphid.
Galls; these are swellings along the structure of the plant that may interfere with transport of
nutrients and water in the plant causing stunting and deficiency symptoms e.g. club root rot of
cabbages caused by fungi and the root knots of tomatoes, sugar cane, coffee and grasses caused by
nematodes.
Foliar chlorosis; this is general yellowing of leaves often caused by a number of factors e.g. lack
of nitrogen in the soil.
Mottle; mottles are similar to mosaic in that there are yellows and greens but there is no patterns.
Leaf curl; this is also caused by viruses. The leaf margin curls inwards. The leaves become brittle
and generally reduced in size e.g. the leaf curl of tomatoes and pawpaws caused by the tobacco
virus. It is spread by the whitefly (Bemisla tabaa). It causes stunting of plants and the fruits may
not be produced at all or very small in size. The bunchy top of bananas is caused by the banana
virus and transmitted by an aphids.
NB; symptoms caused by fungi in plants include blights, leaf spots, cankers, die backs, root rots,
damping off, rots, anthracnose, stunting galls, wilts, mildews, chlorosis, premature fall of fruits etc.
Viruses; these cause symptoms that include mosaic and leaf mottle, rosettes and leaf rolls.
General consideration of disease control
• Any method used must be economical i.e. the added revenue must be more than the cost of
the applied control.
• The method used must be safe to apply

• The method used should be simple to apply.

• The method must be inexpensive in application.

Principles of plant disease control

Exclusion of the pathogen, this comprises of the methods that prevent the spread of pathogens e.g.
quarantine may be used in control of witches’ broom of cocoa and the coffee leaf spot.
Eradication of the pathogen; this involves direct physical removal of the pathogen. Removal of
diseased parts or plants (rogueing) may be done especially with viral diseases. Eradication may
also be by pruning the affected parts, deep ploughing to burry diseased crop remains etc. it is
mostly through cultural control but may also include physical and biological methods.
Protection of the plants by the application of chemicals onto the host plant surface, soil, seeds and
vegetative planting parts. Protection can also be by modifying the
Breeding for disease resistance by altering the genotype of the host.
Characteristics that have made fungi successful plant pathogen
 • They exhibit greater diversity in form/function and life history.

• They have perenating structure e.g. spores, chlamy dospores etc which are capable of existing
in the soil for a long time.
• They have a wide host range.

• They are capable of spreading in various ways i.e. through infected plant material, water, air,
soil, agricultural implements etc.
• They are found almost throughout the world in adverse habitats.

• They are saprophytic.

• They can undergo mutation and some of them exist in many races.

• Chemicals used in controlling fungi diseases are expensive for ordinary farmers.

• Low levels of education of the majority of farmers in the developing countries to apply the
recommended control measures to fungal diseases.

Economic importance of fungi

• Fungi are agents responsible for much of the disintegration of organic matter including
food, fabric, leather etc.
• They can cause the majority of known diseases

• They cause some diseases of man e.g. ring worm.

• They are the basis of a number of industrial process involving fermentation such as the
making of bread, wines, beers etc.
• They are employed in the commercial production of many organic acids.

• It is employed in the commercial preparations of some vitamins.

• They are responsible for the manufacture of anti-biotic drugs notably penicillin.

• They act as food for human beings e.g. cultivated mushroom (agricus compestic
bisperus)
• Some of them are very poisonous e.g. Amanita spp which causes irreversible loss of
hepatic and renal function
• They increase soil fertility by including various changed which eventually results in the
release of plant nutrients in a form available to plants.

Summary of some plant diseases and their control

Name of the Causative Method of Symptoms of Control measures
disease agents transmission infection

Cassava moisac virus Piercing and sucking Distortion of Growing resistant

insects (white flies) leaves/curling mottled varieties.
leaves, yellowing of
Using the
leaves, no/
recommended
small/deformed tuber
pesticides to kill the
and stunted growth
white flies
Uproot and burn
infected plants.
Use clean planting
materials

Rice blast fungus Deposit on the leaves Dead areas on the leaf Treating/dresssing
of air-borne spores. surface seeds with
fungicides
 PLANT PROPAGATION
This refers to the ways in which plants are obtained. It is the method of raising new plants or
multiplication of new plants from one generation to another.
There are two methods of plant propagation i.e.
• Propagation by seeds. (Sexual)
• Vegetative propagation. (Asexual)
VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION
These are categories into natural and artificial vegetative propagation
Natural vegetative propagation includes; grafting, cutting and layering
This is where new plants are produced without the use of seeds but from vegetative parts of the
plant like roots, stems, buds and leaves.
Vegetative parts that contain or develop new buds are used to give rise to new individual.
Plants a raising from the same parent through vegetative propagation are known as clones
METHODS OF VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION
Natural vegetative propagation
1. GRAFTING
This involves the joining of portions taken from one plant onto another plant and allowing them to
grow as a scion (upper part) and the lower part as a stock.
The scion must have one or more buds to give rise to future fruiting plants. To ensure success in
grafting, the cambium of the scion must be in contact with the stock cambium.
The union of the stock and the scion cambium is made possible by cell division of mainly cambium
tissues of vascular bundles.
Only dicotyledonous plants are grafted because monocots don’t undergo secondary thickening and
are hence not grafted.

Benefits of grafting
• It facilitates the changing of the top of a tree to a more desirable species i.e. by top working.
This enables the changing of a variety of the tree e.g. from lemons to oranges.
• It makes the growing of more than one type of a flower of fruit on one tree or plant possible
by grafting several types of scions on the root stock.
• The stock with desirable qualities such as disease resistance, vigorous and tolerance to
drought, water logging or tolerance to nematodes may be exploited to produce products but
susceptible crops.
• It enables the development of quick maturing plants.
• It helps to propagate clones that can’t be propagated by other means.
• Grafting is occasionally used in testing for tolerance resistance to viral diseases. The variety
being tested is grafted onto the susceptible plant/stock and the reaction is observed.
• It enables one to obtain special plant forms such as tree roses.
• Grafting e.g. bridge grafting may be used to repair a damaged tree. The damaged portion of
the shoot is cut off and the normal part is grafted back onto the stock
Advantages of grafting
• It help to propagate clones that cannot be propagated by other means.
• It allows changing variety of a plant/top of a plant. It can be used to repair damaged trees e.g.
bridge grafting.
• It allows the production of more than one type of fruits on the same tree.
• Faster establishment of crop products.
• It is used to test disease resistance in crops.
• It helps to obtain better quality products.
• It is used to control disease e.g. in citrus and passion fruits.
Disadvantages grafting
• Absence of genetic variation
• Plants should be of the same family
• It is expensive.
• Grafting is complex and requires skilled man power to perform it.
 • Certain undesirable characteristics carried by stock are easily transferred to the
offspring scion.
• There is premature ageing.
• It is labour intensive and time consuming.
Factors affecting the success of grafting
• Compatibility; this is the ability of the stock and scion to form a union and it only
occurs when the scion and stock are from the botanically related plants.
• The cambium layer of the scion and the stock must touch each other
• Both the scion and the stock should be woody
• The scion should have buds
• Use sharp tools when cutting the plants
• The kind of plants; some plants are easier to graft than others.
• Temperature and moisture condition; high humidity and warm temperature (18-280C)
• Technique used; the quality of the cut, the way the joints are made i.e. scion connected
to the stock, the care given after grafting affect the success of grafting.
• Incidence of pests and diseases after grafting. The newly grafted plants are a bit
susceptible and may be affected by pests and diseases.
Conditions necessary for grafting
• The cambial portion of the scion must be in intimate contact (touch) with that of the stock
• Ensure proper care after grafting by removing shoots developing from the root stock which
might choke out desired growth from the scion.
• Use sterilized equipment.
• Obtain scion from good quality parent plant.
• Use disease free scion and stock
How to graft a crop like a mango
• Select suitable scion and stock
• Make slanting/wedge/V-cut with a sharp knife
• Fit the two together with the cambium touching each other
• Wrap the joint with grafting tape
• Apply wax on the tape
• Cover the grafted plant with transparent polythene.
Methods of grafting
Budding
This is a special form of grafting in which a vegetative bud of one plant is grafted or used on to the
stock of another plant. This is common with tree crops especially citrus.
The bud must be taken from a high yielding tree of good quality while the stock must be hardy and
vigorous.
After the bud (scion) has set or started to grow, the part of the stock above the bud must be cut off.
Procedure for bud grafting in oranges
• Prepare the medium in which to grow the plants.
• Sterilize the medium to kill the pathogens and inert seeds using steam heating, solarisation
and fumigation.
• Make pots or nurseries for seeds
• Seeds for the root stocks are selected from vigorous nursery trees.
• The seeds are not sun dried before sowing.
• The shade and mulches are applied to the nursery.
• The seedlings are then transplanted into a well prepared seed plots and most of the leaves
may be removed to reduce on the rate of transpiration.
• Seedlings will be ready for budding when their stems are pencil thick.
• A young vertical shoot is chosen from a health high yielding mother tree for a bud wood.
• The weak upper part of the wood is removed and the leaves are removed by cutting through
the periotic using a sharp knife. This is now called a bud stick.
• The bud stick is held with its upper part towards the body and the bud is removed with a razor
blade or sharp knife.
• All side shoots and thorns are then removed from the seedlings that are to be used as shoot
stock.
• A T-cut is made on the root stock and the bark is gently separated from the wood. This is only
possible when the soil has enough moisture.
• The bud is then pushed down into the T-cut.
• The upper part of the bud stick is cut off at the level of the top of the T-cut.
• The bud is firmly bound to the stock with plastic or polythene and tape to prevent water from
entering.
 • Vaseline or wax may also be applied on the outside of wrapping to reduce on the entry
bacteria and fungi.
• After 2 weeks, the wrapping should be removed to inspect the bud i.e. if they are green, it
means they have taken up and if they are brown, it means that they are dead and should be
repeated.
• If the green product produces shoot, the stub of the root stock should be cut off.
• Some of the branches of the new shoot should also be cut off to leave only few strong ones.
• The buddings are then transplanted to the main field.
NB: the commonest method used in propagating a citrus or orange trees is T-budding.
Tangue budding;
This is used for material in which the stock and scion are of similar diameter. A slanting cut is
made with a sharp knife at the base of the scion and the base of the stock.
The two pieces are then fitted together and wrapped with the grafting tape.
Splice/whip grafting
A straight slanting cut is made on both the scion and the stock.
Wedge/cleft grafting
This is used when the scion is of smaller diameter than the stock. Sometimes it is used to graft a
new variety to already established tree.
The root stock is cut and splint in the middle while the scion is tapered and inserted in such way
that it ensures contact of the cambium.
The wax is put over the cut surface to prevent the drying and the joint is sealed. Both the scion and
the stock must be of similar diameter
Side grafting
It is used in grafting stock with a longer diameter than the scion. It is mostly used for top working
e.g. grafting scion of a small diameter onto already growing tree (stock)
The cut is chiseled into the stock at an angle of 20-30o and the scion is inserted to ensure contact
between the cambium of the scion and stock.
2. Use of cutting
Cuttings are portions of plants that may be cut and used for multiplying the plant. They may be
stem, leaves or root cutting. Plants whose cuttings root easily are the one mostly propagated using
cuttings.
Factors affecting the rooting of the cutting
• Temperature; cool aerial temperature and warm temperature around root promote
rooting. The cool aerial temperature prevent excessive transpiration.
• Relative humidity; high relative humidity inhibit desiccation by lowering transpiration
rate and maintaining leaf turgidity and so promotes rooting of the cuttings.
• Light intensity; in most cases lack of light encourages rooting except in herbaceous
plants and soft wood cuttings in which high light intensity encourages rooting by
facilitating photosynthesis. Hard wood cuttings have abundant carbohydrates reserves
and their rooting is favoured by darkness.
• Oxygen supply; the root forming process require good oxygen supply.
• Chemical treatment; rooting hormones applied to the basal ends of the cuttings quicken
the rooting process. The common hormones include I.A.A (indole acetic acid), I.B.A
(iodole Butyric Acid) and N.A.A (Nephathetine acetic acid)
• Leaf area; some cuttings require leaves in order to root while others do not.
Advantages of propagating coffee by cuttings
• There is early maturity/short gestation period
• True characteristics of parents are inherited
• There is quick establishment/sprouting
• Seedlings diseases are avoided.
• Delicate seedling stage is eliminated
Qualities of a good cutting material
• The parent plant should be healthy and vigorous in growth
• The stem cutting should not be obtained from extremely tall plants with long internodes as
these tend to have poor establishment.
• The wood should be of moderate size and vigour
3. Layering
This involves inducing part of the stem to produce roots before the stems are cut off from the plant
to be planted elsewhere.
Part of the stem is wounded to expose the stem cambium which when buried in a medium which is
favoured for rooting gives rise to roots.
Wounding or bonding of the stem blocks the down ward movement of photosynthesis products
which then accumulate in the wounded part promoting rooting.
Specialized forms of layering
Air layering; this is used if the plants cannot be bent to the ground. Air layering can also be called
mar cotting.
Serpentine layering; this is done to induce the plant to provide roots at several parts.
Mound/stool layering; this is used when the plant produces many shoots on being covered with
soil.

Natural vegetative propagation;

Plant roots or stems have been modified naturally for food storage e.g.
Use of rhizomes; a rhizome is an underground stem with nodes and internodes that runs
horizontally in the ground e.g. in spear grass, couch grass.
Use of corms; a corm is an underground scaly stem which stores food e.g. in coco yams.
Splits; these are individual shoots that develop in tillering plants especially grasses e.g. guinea
grass, pyrethrum, sorghum.
Using suckers; a sucker is a plant that develops from the mother plant below the ground levels e.g.
banana and in pineapples.
Using stem tubers; these are swollen underground stems that have buds or eyes that develop new
plants e.g. Irish potatoes, root tubers.
Using crown; the crown is a vegetative structure found on top of a pineapple.
Setts; up part of sugarcane
Using slips; a slip is a plant that grows from the stem/fruit of an older plant e.g. in ratoon crop of
pineapple.
Bulbils; these are tiny plants produced in the inflorescence at the end of the plant’s life cycle e.g.
sisal, nut grass.
Runners; these are horizontal succulent stems growing above the ground surface producing
adventitious roots and new plants at their nodes e.g. wandering jew, sweet potatoes, straw berry,
pumpkins
Using bulbs; a bulb is a plant that stores its food in the leaves. In between the leaves are the
axillary bud that grow into a new plant e.g. in onions, garlic,
Root tubers; these are swollen underground roots that can also be used for planting e.g. sweet
potatoes.
Stolons; these are horizontal creeping stems above the ground modified to store food e.g. star grass
Merits of vegetative propagation
• Some plants don’t produce viable seeds or produce seeds with very low germinability and can
only be propagated vegetatively. Such plants include cassava, bananas and seedless
oranges.
• The land requires little preparation for the majority of the vegetative methods.
• The off springs are genetically uniform and similar to the parent i.e. off springs breed true
type to the parents.
• The plants mature faster than when the seeds are used.
• There is less risk of seedling diseases.
• It helps to overcome the problem of prolonged dormancy of some seeds.
• Plants propagated vegetatively are hardy i.e. they are resistant to harsh climatic conditions.
• Some vegetatively propagated plants have better habits than those produced from seeds e.g.
oranges have fewer thorns and produce more branches if vegetatively propagated.
Demerits of vegetative propagation
• There is little chance of variation since there is no crossing over and no fertilization.
• It spreads parent’s diseases to the offspring
• The planting material are bulky and difficult to transport.
• It is generally more expensive than the use of seeds.
• The planting material have poor keeping quality i.e. they can’t stay longer when stored for
planting because they have high moisture content.
• Planting material for vegetative propagation are generally hard to store and handle because
they are bulky.
NB; cloning is the production of many genetically identical copies of an individual by a sexual
reproduction. This is mainly done by tissue culture or micro-propagation
Tissue culture
This is the aseptic culture of plant and animal cells, tissues, protoplasts or organs under
conditions which lead to cell multiplication or regeneration of organs or a whole organism.
Micro-propagation or tissue culture is the propagation or cloning of plants by tissue culture.
It is done usually from isolated cells or small pieces of tissue. The material is grown in special
culture solutions. The plant tissues removed from plants could be stimulated to grow in
solution by the addition of nutrients and certain plant hormones, particularly auxins and
cytokinins.
Conditions for success of tissue culture
• Appropriate tissue
 • A suitable growth medium containing energy sources and inorganic salts to supply cell
growth needs
• Aseptic (sterile) conditions, where microorganisms cannot grow.
Constituents of culture media use in tissue culture
• Inorganic salt formulations
• Sources of carbohydrates
• Vitamins
• Water
• Plant hormones i.e. auxins (for root development), cytokinins for shoot development)
• Solidifying agent
Steps in raising tissue culture plantlets
• Sterilize all the equipment to use
• Prepare the culture media by mixing agar with all the chemical substances needed for plant
growth.
• Put the growth media in a sterilized petridish.
• Select the plant tissue from either the meristematic region or leaves or roots
• Sterilize the plant tissue
• Put the sterilized plant tissue on the surface of the agar and cover it well.
• Put the culture in special growth rooms to control the temperature, light quality, day light
length and humidty
• Transfer the cells to a growth media containing auxins and cytokinins to develop into
embriods.
• Transfer the embriods in a culture medium without auxins to allow the embryo develop into
plantlets.
• Transfer the plantlets to the test tube to allow the shoot and the roots to develop fully.
• Transfer the fully developed plantlet from the test tube to a medium like vermiculite or later
into the garden.
Reasons for tissue culture
• Plants with desirable characteristics can sometimes be multiplied rapidly, producing many
identical copies of the same plant.
• Cells can be genetically modified (transformed) and grown into whole plants (transgenic
plants)
• Tissue cultures take up little space
• The techniques may prove an efficient way of producing useful chemicals, such as
pharmaceutical products from plants.
• Tissue culture can be carried out independently of seasonal changes in climate.
• Plant development is more closely controlled, guaranteeing product uniformity for customers.
• Some plants such as banana are sterile and have to be propagated a sexually through tissue
culture.
• The cultured plants are not bulky.
• It overcomes seasonal restrictions for seed germination
• Plantlets are raised in disease free conditions hence no transfer of diseases to new plants
• Can be used in producing useful chemicals such as pharmaceutical products from plants.
Disadvantages of tissue culture
• It is labour intensive and not as convenient as sowing seed.
• Sterile conditions must be maintained. This adds to the cost and makes operations much
more demanding.
• Plants obtained from cultures sometimes undergo genetic changes. A small proportion
of these changes may be commercially useful but most are undesirable.
• Since the clones are genetically identical, crops are very susceptible to new diseases or
changes in environmental conditions.
• The materials needed in tissue culture are expensive to purchase
• The technique requires a lot of skills
• The plantlets need a lot of care
Factors affecting success of tissue culture
• Growth media; conditions like growth factors, carbon sources, hormones.
• Environmental factors e,g, light, temperature, photoperiod, sterility, media
• Explants sources usually the younger less differentiated extract, the better for the tissue
culture.
• Genetics; different species show differences in amenability to tissue culture

Application of tissue culture technology

 • Micro propagation
• Germplasm preservation
• Somcional variation and mutation selection
• Embryo culture
• Haploid and diploid production
• In vitro hybridization, protoplasm fusion
• Industrial products from cell cultures
PROPAGATION BY SEEDS
A seed is a fertilized ovule. It consist of miniature plant (embryo) enclosed in a wrapper (the testa).
Sometimes a quantity of nutritive materials (the endosperm) which may also be enclosed in the
wrapper. The embryo represents the new generation of the plant and it is the most essential part of
the seed. It consists of shoot axis (the plumule), a root axis (the radicle) and one or more seed
leaves (the cotyledons). In seeds where the endosperm is absent, much of the food material of the
seed is stored in the cotyledons. The testa is the out covering of the seed. It is usually encloses the
seed entirely except for a minute pore, the micropyle. Seeds contain stored food in the cotyledons
to provide energy and materials for growth. This is usually in the form of starch-a large, insoluble
molecule (long chain of glucose), that keeps the food immobile. The starch needsto be changed into
a soluble molecule sugar (maltose and later glucose) with help of enzymes mainly alpha-amylase.
Advantages of using seeds in propagation
• Seeds can be stored longer than vegetative materials because many seeds germinate even after
drying excessively
• Seeds are easy to handle, transport because they are not bulky.
• It controls the spread of diseases that would spread through using affected vegetative plant
parts.
• It ensures variation among plants since it involves crossing over and fertilization.
• Some plants e.g. maize are difficult to propagate vegetatively. They are only easily managed
through seed propagation.
• It’s generally cheaper than vegetative propagation
• Plants established through seeds have long life span than those established vegetatively.
Demerits of using seeds
• There is spread of undesirable genes through genetic variation
• Seeds have a low germinability and cause wastage of time
• There is no uniformity among the offspring i.e. offspring are not exactly like the
parents.
• It requires proper land preparation.
• It spreads seed borne diseases
• There is a risk of seedling diseases
• Plants take long time to mature than in vegetative propagation
• Seeds may be affected by dormancy.
Adaptations of seeds for survival and reproduction
• Each posseses an embryo which grows into a new plant when suitable conditions are
availed.
• Presence of cotyledons and a hard testa which protects the delicate embryo from
mechanical damage.
• Possession of food reserves in the cotyledons which provide energy and nutreints for
germination. The sugar content enables imbibition of water into the seed for
germination.
• Ability to remain dormant for a reasonable time to avoid or survive adverse conditions.
• Possession of essential enzymes and coenzymes which catalyze metabolic activities for
the growth and development of the embryo when conditions are favourable.
• Some seeds have special structures for dispersal e.g. hooks, wings etc. which enable
them to colonize new areas and avoid competition for growth factor.
Seed purity
This refers to the process of determining whether the purchased or processed seeds have got any
contamination e.g. weed seeds, inert materials or other crop seeds. It can be determined by the
formular
Percentage seed purity =
Question; a farmer cleared land for raising tomatoes. Given that he bought 25% of packed tomato
seeds rated 80% seed purity and 100% seed viability and average seed weight is 0,02g;
Calculate
(a) Weight packed impurity
(b) Show whether the seeds will be enough or not
Seed selection
This is the identifying and isolation or choosing of good seeds for planting.
The following are the factors the farmer should consider when selecting the seeds for planting.
• Freedom from pests and diseases i.e. the seeds selected should be free from pests and
diseases.
• Evidence of pest and disease attack (damage free); it shouldn’t possess any deformities as
result of disease and pest attack.
• Desirable genetic makeup; the parent plant should have been high yielding, resistant to pest
and diseases as well as harsh climatic conditions.
• Seed maturity; the seeds selected should be fully mature and from early maturing variety.
• Moisture content; the seeds should have been dried to a correct moisture content i.e. 12-15%
and stored.
• Viability or germinability; should be able to germinate under normal conditions.
• Plumpness i.e. it should be plumped and well filled not wrinkled to ensure that it has the
necessary food reserves.
• Size; seeds should be of normal size properly large enough to have large embryo and large
food reserves.
• Dormancy period; the selected seeds should have passed the dormancy period
• Uniformity; the selected seeds should have uniform size to obtain uniform products.
• Resistance to pests and diseases; the seeds should be selected from parent plants that show
resistance.
• Seed longevity; it should have a long shelf life
• Seed vigour; it should be able to germinate readily over a wide range of environmental
conditions.
• Freedom from mechanical damage
• It should be from a variety that is easy to cook.
• It should be from a variety that is resistant to harsh environment conditions.
Seed dormancy and seed viability (germinability)
Seed dormancy refers to the condition in which seeds fail to germinate under normal favourable
conditions. Or it is the inability of the seeds or condition during which seeds that are capable of
germinating fail to germinate.
Causes of seed dormancy
• Hard seed coat (testa) that is impermeable to water and oxygen.
• Presence of seed coat hairs which interfere with oxygen absorption e.g. in abarley and
oats.
• Physical factors such as temperature and light; some seeds are negatively photoblastic
and germination is inhibited by light e.g. onions while others are positively
photoblastic and therefore favoured by presence of light e.g. Tobacco.
• Presence of germination inhibitors such as abscissic acid.
• Shortage of growth stimulating hormone e.g. gibberellins that help in the conservation
of stored food into usable forms.
What happens when an organism enters a state of dormancy?
During dormancy. Growth and development cease/stop and the metabolic rate may fall to a point
that is only sufficient to keep the cell a live. In this way, the organism can survive for many months
and even years without exhausting its food reserves.
Merits of seed dormancy
• It enables seeds to withstand unfavourable conditions such as drought, food shortage
and winter cold.
• It allows time for distribution by natural agents such as wind and water currents while
at the same time allowing any necessary internal changes to take place. It occurs in
seeds, buds, eggs, tubers, bulbs etc.
• It allows storage of food in the seeds and their preservation.
• It prevents death of the entire population during bad times.
• It allows seeds to germinate when favourable conditions are available (i.e. survival
mechanism)
• It allows seeds to germinate when the embryo is fully mature.
• It ensures colonization of new habitats i.e. it allows for seed dispersal or distribution by
natural agents.
• It prevents pre-harvest germination of cereals
Disadvantages of seed dormancy
• Prolonged storage tends to decrease food reserves.
• It delays the transfer of genes to the following generation.
• It increases chances of seed destruction by pests.
NB; primary dormancy: is when seeds are shade when they are dormant while secondary
dormancy is when seeds become dormant after shading from their parent plant.
Methods of breaking seed dormancy
• Using suitable chemical reagents such as concentrated sulphuric acid, HCL and
potassium nitrate to soften the seed coats. Seeds are washed with water after soaking
with acids.
• Soaking the seeds in cold water; the seeds are soaked in cold water overnight for a day
to soften the seed coat.
• Passing the seeds with a hard seed coat through the gut of an animal.
• Pre-chilling; the seeds can be exposed to very low temperatures for a short period of
time before planting in normal conditions. This stimulates the seeds.
• Heat treatment; the seeds are soaked in hot water at about 800 C for about 4 seconds.
This may induce enzyme action or put to fire for a short time.
• Mechanical breaking of the seed coat (mechanical scarification) to ease entry of water
into the seeds. It may be done by breaking the seed coat with pins or using sun paper
or rolling the seeds between metal drums.
• Passing the seeds through the digestive system of the animals if the seed coat is hard.
• Exposing the seeds to microbial attack
Seed viability (germinability)
This is the ability of the seeds to germinate under normal conditions.
The following are the conditions necessary for seed germination;
• Moisture
• Warmth/temperature
• Air i.e. oxygen
• Light in some seeds
• Seeds should be viable
• Internal conditions both physical and chemical
Ways of ensuring high viability of seeds for planting
• Dressing seeds to reduce pest damage to the embryo
• Harvesting and storing only mature seeds
• Controlling oxygen supply to the seeds to delay/reduce respiration of seeds.
• Keeping seeds in a moisture free environment to prevent fungal attacks and seed germination
during storage.
• Keeping seeds at low temperatures
• Proper drying of seeds to the right moisture level.
Testing for seed viability
1. The germination test
• Get a sample of seeds from the seed lot at random
• Determine/count the number of seeds picked at random from the seed lot
• Select a suitable germination medium such as wet cotton or wet newspapers.
• Place the seeds in the medium and water them, provide all the conditions necessary for
germination.
• Continue watering and monitoring the seeds
• After a number of days depending on the species in question, count the number of seeds that
have germinated.
• Express the number of seeds that have germinated as a percentage of the total planted
• If the germinability is above 60-80%, the seeds are good for planting.
2. The lakon technique
Seeds to be tested are soaked into a 0.1% tetrazolium salt. When viable seeds respire, the colourless
tetrazolium salt is converted into a reddish or pinkish dye. All seeds with pinkish dye are
considered viable.
• Get a sample of seeds from the seed lot at random
• Determine/count the number of seeds picked (in the sample) at random from the seed lot.
• Soak the seeds in 0.1% tretrazolium salt overnight in a beaker.
• Provide all the necessary conditions for germination on the seeds for some days.
• Open the testa of the soaked seeds to expose the embryos
• Count the seeds that have pink/red embryos because they will be viable.
• Express the proportion of the seeds that have pink embryos as a percentage of the total
number of seeds soaked in the salt.
• If the percentage of seeds with pink embryos is above 60%, the seeds are suitable for
planting.
3. Using potassium permanganate (KMnO4) = purple in colour
It involves heating seeds for some time to break the testa
• Select/obtain like 20 seeds from the seed lot randomly
 • Put the 20 seeds selected in a beaker containing potassium permanganate.
• Heat the seeds for some time on the a barsen burner to break the testa
• The liquid from the testa reacts with potassium permanganate and decolourises it if the seeds
are still alive.
• Remove the seeds and cut them open
• The seeds that have purple colour on the embryo are capable of germinating while those
without are considered dead seeds
• The germination percentage is then calculated as

• If the percentage is above 60-80% then the seeds are recommended for planting
4. Seed soaking method (Not common and accurate)
• A known number of seeds is completely immersed in water (water should be excess)
• The arrangement is left for about 3 hours. Seeds that remain floating after 3 hours are
collected and counted.
• There after the number of seeds that sunk is determined. Viable seeds sink in water and the
viability of the seed lot is calculated as the number of seeds that sunk over number of seeds
immersed multiplied by 100
• If the percentage is above 60%, the seeds are good for planted.
NB; Testing for seed germinability is advisable because it saves the farmers’ money, time and effort
that would be wasted on planting unviable seeds.
Seed germination
Germination is the emergence and development of an embryo into a new young plant (seedling)
which is capable of independent existence.

Conditions necessary for germination

i. Water is used to activate the enzymes, soften the seed coat and
solute transport.
ii. Warmth provides optimum temperature for maximum enzyme
activity
iii. Oxygen is necessary in germination for the aerobic respiration which provides energy for
growth and development of the seed into a seedling.

How germination occurs in seeds

Seed germination can be divided into two stages
There is first imbibition i.e. seeds take in water through the micropyle and testa. This is due to
absorption of water by colloidal mixture substances with in the soil.
Rapid chemical changes take place in seeds to transport the nutrient reserves e.g. carbohydrates,
lipids and proteins in the endosperm into substances usable by embryo.
The imbibition of water by the seeds causes expansion of the proteins, starch and cell wall
materials and causes rapture of the seed coat and this encourages gaseous exchange. Water also
activates the enzyme alpha amylase which changes starch to maltose and finally ATP via glucose
needed by the embryo for growth.
The soluble product of digestion are translocated to the growth region of the embryo where glucose
is then used for synthesis of the cell wall materials, amino acids for making enzymes and structural
components of the protoplasm.
The radicle grows out to the seed coat and develop into the primary root.
The plumule emerges and grows into a shoot.
The shoot emerges above the ground when exposed to light, the growing region begins to produce
leaf imodial i.e. leaf buds that eventually develop into leaves.
summery
The process of germination starts off by the seed taking in water through the micropyle in the
process known as imbibition. This causes the seed to swell, and the testa eventually breaks.
The enzymes in the seed become activated and they hydrolyse (breakdown) the stored food.

The main food storage material in seeds is starch, which is stored either in the cotyledons or in
the endosperm. This starch store is hydrolysed to sugars by the action of diastase enzyme. In
some seeds the enzyme lipase hydrolyses the stored fats and oils to fatty acids and glycerol.
Proteolytic enzymes present in the seeds catalyse the hydrolysis of proteins to amino acids.

As the seed germinates, its weight decreases as the stored food is used to provide the energy
needed during germination. After a few days foliage leaves emerge and start carrying out
photosynthesis, which becomes the source of organic material used in the growth of a young
plant
Growth curve of a broad bean
36

From the graph above it must be noted that initially there’s

negative growth due to respiration of food reserves in the seed.
After a few days green leaves open and appear above the
ground, the photosynthetic rate becomes greater than the rate of
respiration hence positive growth. There is senescence at the end
because of the dispersal of seeds and fruits.
Note:
Endospermic seeds store their food in the endosperm e.g.
maize
Non-endospermic seeds store their food in the seed leaves
(cotyledons) e.g. beans.
If the wet weight is considered, the growth curve below is
obtained

Relative changes in dry mass of endosperm and embryo

during germination of barley
From A to B, the seed is dormant From B to C, germination
begins due to imbibition, increases in weight as it absorbs water
Form C to D, the seed loses weight, as it uses up food stores to
provide energy for growth From D to E, the plant is
photosynthesizing and building up new cells
From E to F, the plant loses weight rapidly, as it flowers and
produces seeds and fruits which are dispersed and the plant
gradually dies
When germination starts, food reserves (starch and protein) are
mobilized. Starch is mobilized to sugars and proteins to amino
 acids. The products are then translocated to the embryo for use
in growth. Therefore the endospermic dry mass increases.
36

At the same time, there’s an overall loss in dry mass during the
first week. This is due to aerobic respiration which consumes
sugar, in both the endosperm and the embryo. After 7 days, the
first leaf emerges and starts to photosynthesize. The resulting
increase in dry mass is observed. At the same time, the rate of
growth of the embryo, now seedling increases.
Changes in lipid and sugar content of castor oil seeds
during germination in the dark.
The dominant food store is lipid, which comprises about 70%
dry mass. By day 4, the mass of lipids is starting to decrease
and the mass of the sugar is beginning to rise. Lipid is
therefore converted to sugar and translocated to the embryo.
The conversion of lipid to sugar leads to increase in the total dry
mass, so the total dry mass of the seedling increases after day 6.
Beyond day 6, the lipid reserves are running low, so that the
sugar starts to exceed the rate of production.

36

Germination efficiency
Germination efficiency refers to the proportion of seeds planted that actually germinate.
The following factors affect the germination efficiency
• Planting depth; the deeper the depth, the lower the germination efficiency.

• The size of the seed; the larger the seed the higher the germination efficiency.
• Soil temperature; the higher the temperature, the higher the germination efficiency.

• Soil moisture; optimum moisture gives the higher efficiency.

 • Soil type; heavy soil give more resistance to the roots and shoots and so lower the
germination efficiency.
• Pests and diseases; these lower the germination efficiency.

• Soil aeration; the better aeration, the higher the germination efficiency.

• Physical damage to the seed lowers the germination efficiency because broken seeds have
high chance of developing moulds which affect seed viability.
• Seedbed preparation; rough tilth may hinder germination through obstruction.

Factors that affect seed emergence

• Planting depth

• Type of seed dropping mechanism

• Type of furrow opener

• Degree of pressing and firming of soil around the seed

• Type of covering device used

• Uniformity of seed distribution

• Level of seed viability

• Uniformity of seed size

• Cleanliness of the seed bed

• Type of soil drainage/ moisture content of the soil.

• Judgment, skill and attention of the operator

Ways of ensuring increase in emergence of seeds during planting

• Planting at the right depth

• Covering with little soil

• Ensuring optimal pressing and firming of soil around the seed

• Ensuring proper seed dressing to reduce attack by pests

• Ensuring proper scarification to reduce hard testa hence increasing germination

• Soaking the seeds in water before planting.

Seed dressing
This is the mixing of the seeds with chemicals before planting or storage. It is important because of
the following
• It protects the seeds from attack by storage or soil borne pests and diseases.

• It ensures uniform germination

• It is commonly done to cereals and legumes

Dry weight and fresh weight (wet weight) of seeds

Fresh weight is the whole mass (weight of the seeds) including water that has been absorbed.
During germination, there is a steady increase in the fresh weight of the seedlings
Dry weight is the mass of the dry material mainly the food reserves contained by the dry seed. Or
it is the weight of a substance after all the water in it has been removed.
As germination starts, there is a reduction in dry weight because the food reserves are being used
up for respiration of the seedling in order to obtain the required energy.
This dry weight will continue decreasing up to when the seedlings starts to manufacture its own
food by photosynthesis.
The graph showing changes in the dry weigh of germinating seedlings
Dry
weight
C D
 E

Time/days

This is called sigmoid curve (S-shaped) which is true for the growth of most organism
Description of the graph
The graph shows that growth is slow at first then increases exponentially then it becomes constant
for sometimes after which it decreases gradually.
Explanation
A-B Lag phase (Germination phase). During this period, there is little or no growth. The seed is
respiring and preparing for germination i.e. imbibition of water, enzymes activation and breaking
of food which are used for cell growth and respiration hence decrease in weight. The food reserves
(carbohydrates) are being oxidized to provide energy and water and carbon dioxide are given out.
B-C Exponential phase (Vegetative phase); there is increase in dry weight because the seedling has
developed leaves and has started making its own food.
C-D Stationary phase (Flowers and Fruit phase); as the size of the plant approaches its full size.
Some of the cells differentiate and lose their power of division. The region of new cells is no longer
directly proportion to the number already present. The plant has attained its maximum size i.e. no
more growth.
D-E (Dry off/senescence); senescence has reached. The number of cells drying off are greater than
the number of cells dividing. This leads to death of the plant hence total decrease in dry weight.
The action of auxins and gibberellins in growth of higher plants
• Both promote cell division in stem growth
• Both promote cell elongation in stem growth
• Both promote fruit growth
• Both promote parthenocarpy
• Auxins promote root growth at low concentration and stem growth at high concentrations.
• Auxins delay leaf senescence in some plants
• Gibberellins promote rapid root growth
• Auxins promote flowering while gibberellins do so only in long day plants.
• Auxins promote root initiation from stem/leaf cutting while gibberellins have no effect.
• Auxins promote femaleness in flowers while gibberellins may have no effect.
• Gibberellins promote production of auxins while the reverse does not occur.
• Gibberellins break seed dormancy while auxins may do the same only in a few cases.
FIELD PRACTICES USED IN GROWING OF CROPS
1. Planting (early or timely planting)
Early or timely planting is the planting of crops at the beginning of the rain season. There are
generally two methods of planting i.e. broad casting and row planting.
Broad casting; this is where the seeds are scattered all over the seed bed without any order.
Advantages of broad casting
• It is easy/saves labour
• It is quick
• It is good for small seeds e.g. millet
• It gives good ground cover which controls soil erosion.
Disadvantages of broad casting
• It waste seeds
• There is lack of uniformity in depth of planting and in germination
• Machines cannot be used easily after planting
 • Some places may be overcrowded while others may be bare
• Some seeds may be lost to the birds and surface runoff.
• It is hard to establish the optimum plant population.
Row cropping/row planting; this is the planting materials are placed in rows or lines in the
garden.
Advantages of row planting
• Uniform spacing is achieved.
• It gives optimum plant population.
• There is uniform depth of seed placement and hence germination.
• It enables use of machinery even after planting.
• It saves seeds
• It controls soil erosion if the seeds are planted on contours or ridges.
Disadvantages of row planting
• It requires a lot of labour
• It takes a lot of time
• It is not feasible for small seeds.
Advantages of early/timely planting
• Early planted crops utilize all the season’s rainfall and nutrients hence result into higher
yields.
• Early planted crops a void natural hazards such as pest and disease outbreak like army
worms, maize stalk borer.
• Timely planted crops establish faster than weeds and hence yield higher in the absence of
weed competition.
• It is possible to secure higher price for crops produced when crops are planted early because
of selling an early crop.
• It makes it easy to do other farm operations without congestion.
• Crops get a nitrate (Nitrogen) supply in the soil due to nitrogen flush during the rains.
• It utilizes labour well throughout the season.
• It enables proper aeration in the early stages since the pores will only be partially filled with
water.
• It ensures proper timing of the flowering and consequently harvest to fall within the desired
periods e.g. flowering and fruit filling in the rains and harvesting in the dry periods.
Advantages of planting crops on ridges
This involves growing crops on raised mounds of earth rather than on a flat surface.
• The depressions between the ridges may be ridges may be used to supply irrigation water to
plants.
• It controls soil erosion as the ridges reduce the speed of runoff.
• It makes harvesting easy e.g. for potatoes and cassava.
• It conserves soil moisture since it reduces runoff and increases infiltration.
• It may enable growing of crops in poorly drained soils since the depressions between the
ridges carry a way excess water.
Reasons why farmers dig around plants
• To improve aeration a round plant roots
• To improve water percolation and penetration around plants.
• To cover plant roots that have been exposed to sunshine
• To encourage anchorage of plants
• To remove weeds
• To loosen the soil so that underground stems may grow e.g. Irish potatoes, onions etc.
• To incorporate fertilizer.
Characteristics considered when selecting crop varieties to grow
• The crops should be fast maturing
• Should be palatable/good taste
• It should be high yielding
• They should be able to grow even in poor soils/wide range of soils.
• Should be pest/disease resistant
• Should be drought resistant/harsh weather condition
• Should be of suitable or convenient height
• Should be of high nutritive value
• It should be easy to mechanize or easy to process
2. Timely preparation of land (seed bed preparation0
This is to allow the break-down of organic matter/crops planted at the onset of rains and give good
yield.
Advantages of proper/deep seedbed preparation
• It kills weeds by burying or cutting them
• It breaks the soil and improve water infiltration
• It improves the aeration of the soil.
• It clears bushes/uproot tree stumps to facilitate secondary cultivation.
• Deep ploughing breaks the hard pan under the soil to facilitate root growth.
• Deep plough burry residues from previous crops.
• Deep ploughing kills pests and their eggs
• It exposes pests, their larvae, eggs to predators as well as bringing them to the surface for
desiccation by the sun heat.
3. Recommended spacing
This is the distance between plants. The main purpose of correct spacing is to get maximum plant
population per hectare leading to a maximum yield per hectare without sacrificing yield quality.
Advantages of using proper spacing
• Weeds are smothered i.e. not allowed to grow large enough to cause damage.
• It provides optimum plant population per unit area leading to better yields
• Each crop plant gets adequate nutrients/reduces competition among plants for nutrients.
• Farm operations are made easier e.g. weeding, spraying, harvesting etc.
• Reduces incidences of diseases e.g. in groundnuts close spacing reduces incidences of
groundnut rosette.
• There is correct seed rate/planting material is used.
Factors to consider when determining the spacing of crops
• The moisture available in the soil or the amount of rainfall i.e. closer spacing is possible in
areas with high moisture content and vice versa.
• The fertility level of the soil i.e. closer spacing is recommended in more fertile areas where
the plants have access to more nutrient and vice versa.
• The types of machinery to be used for other operation like weeding. Some machinery will get
entangled by closely spaced crops.
• The growth patterns of the crop i.e. crops with widely spreading branches may have to be
spaced widely.
• Whether the crop is pure stand or intercropped
• Disease control measures e.g. close spacing in groundnuts to prevent the rosette virus disease.
4. Depth of planting
This depend on;
• The size of the seeds i.e. seeds should be planted at a depth of 3-5 times their diameter
• The amount of moisture in the soil i.e. in areas of low rainfall, seeds should be planted deeper
than in areas with high rainfall. However, avoid planting too deeply as this might affect the
rate of germination.
5. Application of fertilizer/manure
This help to improve on the soil fertility/nutrients which help the plants to grow vigorously and put
on better products.
6. Weeding;
This should be done early to reduce competition between weeds and crops hence good yields.
Weeds harbour pests and diseases that attack crops.
7. Thinning/de-sucking;
This is the removal of excess, diseased or damaged seedlings. It has the following advantages
• It is done to reduce competition among plants hence better yields.
• It ensures the correct plant population in the field/ prevents overcrowding
• Ensures maximum utilization of nutrients by minimizing competition.
• It eliminates diseased seedlings early enough.
• It eliminates weak seedlings early enough to avoid poor yield
8. Pruning;
This is the removal of excess, diseased or injured parts (branches) of the plant without harming it.
It aims at directing the growth of the crop to the desired directions by concentrating food sap
materials on the specific parts of the plant necessary for the desired products like fruits.
In some crops such as tea, formative pruning is used to restrict upward growth and encourage
lateral growth, this makes plucking of tea leaves easier.
Pinching out; this is where the terminal bud is removed while topping is where flower buds
(inflorescence) and the top leaves are broken off by hand and removed to encourage the production
of larger leaves in tobacco.
Advantages of pruning
• It reduces wastage of food nutrients/reduces competition of nutrients within the plants.
• It improves quality of the fruits.
 • It improves the size/yield of fruits
• It eases farm operations e.g. spraying, weeding
• It allows adequate light penetration.
• It removes the micro-climate that favours pests and diseases or control pests and
diseases
• It reduces wastage of chemical sprays/ensures efficient use of the chemicals.
• It a voids over-bearing or regulates bearing.
• It allow/increase air circulation in plants
• It keeps plants healthy and vigorous
• It keeps plants in convenient shape/height to ease field operations e.g. harvesting.
9. Irrigation especially during dry periods to maintain adequate moisture supply in the soil hence
better yields.
10. Mulching; to reduce water loss in the soil to control weeds, add organic matter into the soil
hence better yields
11. Staking; this is the giving of extra support to plants e.g. in tomatoes, bananas to reduce
lodging, diseases, pests hence better yields. It has the following advantages
• It reduces the spread of soil borne diseases especially in tomatoes
• It allows production of good quality fruits
• It keep fruits off the ground to reduce rotting
• It eases movements during farm operations e.g. spraying. Weeding, harvesting
• It prevents lodging or breaking of the plants
• It reduces damages by rodents and some soil pests.
• All parts of the plants are effectively covered by chemical sprays
• It keeps the plants upright allowing free air circulation
12. Drainage
It is done to remove excess water and create favourable conditions for crop growth
13. Gap filling and pricking out
This is the filling of spaces occupied by planted seedlings that dried or where diseased or failed to
germinate. It maintains the optimum plant population
Picking out is a practice of moving seedlings (thinning seedlings) from where they germinated and
spacing them in another nursery bed, pots, bags, boxes etc. It ensures enough space between
seedlings especially in the nursery bed
14. Pests and disease control; to reduce losses from damages caused by pests and diseases.
15. Harvesting
The crop is considered mature when the product part has accumulated maximum dry matter,
change in colour or loss of vegetative parts.
Too early harvesting may lead to;
• Inadequate drying of produce due to a high moisture content which may result in produce
heating up during storage (wet heating) hence encouraging moulds to grow
• Seeds harvested prematurely are sunken, small and of poor appearance and result into poor
quality produce.
• Processing of too early harvested produce may be difficult e.g. shelling and threshing.
• The germination capacity of too early harvested produce is low because either the embryo is
immature or much of the food material remained in stem and stalk.
• Maize and other cereals harvested early goes weevily too quickly.
Delayed harvesting may lead to;
• Loss of produce due to splitting of pods, rotting of fruits and vegetables, shaking of grain
heads etc.
• Increased number of volunteer plants or self-sown plants which harbor pests and diseases and
help in carrying them over to the next season.
• Encouragement of pests e.g. birds
Factors that determine when to harvest crops
• Maturity stage of the crop
• Season i.e. mostly in dry season
• Price of the crop
• Time of planting
• Pest situation
• Future expectation of weather
• Poverty and famine
• Thefty/security
Precautions taken during harvesting
• Harvest only ripe fruits to maintain quality
• Do not drop fruits
 • A void breaking branches of trees when harvesting
• Pick only the ripe berries especially in coffee
• Pick fruits in suitable containers
• Transport produce using appropriate means
• A void packing many fruits in a small space
Pre-harvest practices
• Threshing/shelling
• Cleaning
• Drying
• Sorting and grading
• Dusting/seed dressing
• Pest control
NB; hardening off is the practice of exposing young seedlings in the nursery beds to beds to hard
external conditions one week before final transplanting. This practice helps the tissue of the
seedlings to become firm and strong to avoid/check back or complete failure after transplanting i.e.
it makes seedlings to get acclimatize/used to real field conditions. It is achieved in the following
ways
• Reducing water supply to the seedlings in both quantity and frequency
• Removing gradually the shelter so that the seedlings are slightly exposed to sun heat

STORAGE
Crop storage aims at minimizing loss of crops in store caused mainly by insect damage and
moulding
Characteristics of a good store
• It must be of good construction and leak/rain proof
• It should be easy to clean especially floor and walls
• It should be vermin proof
• It should be securely located to prevent thieves
• It should be treated against pests such as weevils
• The stores should be raised off the ground to avoid dampness.
• It should be easy to clean
• It should have rat guards and smooth out surface to prevent climbing of rats
• All pillars and posts should have smooth surface to avoid injuring farmers
• The floor and wall should be smooth with no cracks to avoid hiding of pest
• The ventilators should be vermin proof
Importance of drying seeds before storage
• It reduces insect damage
• It reduces rotting and decay caused by fungi
• It preserves seed viability
• It prevents or a voids seed germination in the stores
• It maintains the quality of seeds
Measures that can minimize crop losses during storage
• Drying the seeds properly
• Stores should be vermin and leak/rain proof
• Treat seeds with chemicals (seed dressing) during or before storage
• Stores should be raised to a void dampness
• Stores should be well ventilated
• Regular checking of the stores and a void mixing new seeds with old ones.
• Clean the store before putting in new crops and dusting cracks with lindane dust or smear
cracks with cow dung or mortar.
Storage problems faced by Ugandan farmers
• Problems of vermin, insects and fungi
• Problems of dampness in the stores that cause rotting of the grain crops
• Lack of proper storage facilities e.g. granaries, bags etc.
• Inadequate technical skills on seed dressing and storing
• Lack of enough capital to build storage structures and buy storage chemicals e.g.
lindane dust, malthion etc.
PATURE MANAGEMENT
Pasture; this is a crop/plant consisting of grass and legumes grown singly or in a mixture and used
for feeding animals.
Forage; this is a plant grown primarily for feeding livestock
Fodder; this is a legume or grass that is cut and carried to the stall for indoor feeding.
Herbage; this refers the parts of forage plant that can be eaten by livestock i.e. leaves, young stems
and other succulent parts.
Therefore, herbage, fodder, forage are sometimes used to refer to pasture.
Rangeland; this refers to a naturally vegetated area of low productivity that is grazed by livestock
and wild game.
Palatability; this refers to relative attractiveness of a feed/pasture i.e. it is pleasantness to the taste.
Grassland; this refers to any plant community that is dominated by members of grass family.
Importance of pastures
• They provide feeds for livestock especially roughages.
• Pastures provide a cover to the soil hence protecting it from erosion and sun’s heat that
would lead to loss of moisture and organic matter oxidation.
• Leguminous forages improves soil fertility through nitrogen fixation.
• Forage grasses improves soil structure due to having a fibrous root system.
• Pastures serve as a source of income when sold as fodder, silage or hay.
• Source of organic matter to the soil.
• Some act as medicinal herbs.
• They act as habitat for many plant species.
• Deep rooted pasture plants recycle nutrients from the deeper layers of the soil to the
surface.
• They help to utilize land which have remained idle during fallowing.
Classification of pasture
1. Permanent and temporary pastures
Permanent pastures pasture species of plants of combination of grasses and legumes and
they are not ploughed for crop growing.
Temporary pastures/leys: leys are pastures grown in a rotation with arable crops.
Ley farming; this refers to the practice of growing pastures in a rotation with arable crops.
Merits of ley farming
• Provides herbage for the animals
• Legumes add nitrogen to the soil.
• Controls soil erosion
• The grasses add humus to the soil
• Helps in nutrient recycling i.e. grasses and legumes bring up nutrients from the deeper
layers of the soil to the surface.
• Improves on soil structure
• Leys break pests and disease life cycles.
2. Natural and sown/established pastures
Natural pastures are pastures that have evolved in area without man’s influence. They are
open areas with a dense cover of indigenous grasses and few associated herbaceous plants.
Sown/planted pastures; these comprises of improved and established forages thus provide
high quality herbages. They are used for intensive farming especially dairy farming.
They may be improved or established.
Improved pasture (natural but improved) are pastures that were originally on a piece of
land but modified by man through weeding, fertilization and mixing with other grasses.
Established pastures; these are pastures that have been purely planted by man.
Advantages of natural pastures
• Forage plants in natural pastures are well adapted thus can persist under poor
management.
• Natural pastures contain a wide variety of forage plants which can be eaten by livestock
as compared to planted pasture.
• They are found in areas that are difficult to cultivate. Such areas can be used for
grazing as another alternative.
• They can withstand injuries caused by trampling by livestock.
• They support a large population of local livestock species e.g. cattle, sheep, goats, camel.
• They are cheap to maintain since they do not require a lot of care.
• It needs few inputs for improvement e.g. fertilizers and seeds.
Disadvantages of natural pastures
• Amount of herbage/pasture produced is low
• Herbage produced is of poor quality due to low nutrient content and high fibre content.
• Forages in natural pastures do not retain their nutritive value for long since they
become coarse and less indigestible easily.
• They are communally grazed and nobody cares whether they are overgrazed or not.
• Due to poor management, livestock diseases and parasites spread very fast from herd to
herd.
Reasons why sown/planted pasture are scarce in Uganda
• High costs of establishment of sown pasture.
• Lack of viable seeds for some pasture species.
• Poor quality of animals (indigenous breeds) whose productivity is low.
• Farmers lack managerial skills and knowledge to manage sown pastures.
• Soil infertility which gives farmers priority for food crops on fertile soils instead of pasture.
• Inadequate or unreliable rainfall.
Factors that influence the choice of pasture species to be planted.
Qn; Outline the factors to consider when choosing pasture species to plant.
• Height from the ground i.e. should be of suitable height.
• Availability of planting materials
• Compatibility in case of a mixture of grasses and legumes
• Ease of establishment i.e. ability to germinate and grow fast.
• Adaptability of species to the climate.
• Intended use of the pasture
• Grazing system to be used
• Life span of the pasture i.e. permanent or temporary.
• Ability to resist grazing/trampling by animals
• Nutritive value of the pasture species
• Soil type
• Topography of the area
• Ability to resist pests and diseases.
• Palatability of the pasture species
• Drought resistance
• Ease of management i.e. planting, weed and harvest
Characteristics of a good pasture plant
• A good pasture plant should be leafy i.e. it should have many leaves since the feeding value
lies within the leaves.
• A good pasture plant should be easy to establish and eradicate i.e. it should be easy to
manage.
• It should be tolerant to drought i.e. it should have a high water use efficiency.
• It should be persistent i.e. it should be able to provide fodder all over the year
• It should be able to regrow quickly after grazing i.e. it should be ease to recover from hard
grazing and trampling.
• It should be long lasting
• It should be palatable i.e. it should be liked by the animals.
• It should be nutritive i.e. it should have a high nutritive value and therefore rich in nutrients
like proteins, fats, carbohydrates etc.
• It should have a good competitive ability/ it should be aggressive i.e. it should out compete
plants/weeds growing in association.
• It should be resistant to pests and diseases.
• Legumes should be able to fix nitrogen in a wide range of conditions.
• Should have suitable height
• Should have high yielding capacity or high dry matter production.
• It should be easy to multiply i.e. it should be able to produce viable seeds.
GRASS-LEGUME PASTURE MIXTURES
Advantages of grass-legume mixture pasture (mixed stand)
• There is faster coverage of the land surface
• Water and nutrients are evenly removed from the land
• They have different maturity time hence provide ample pasture at different times.
• There is increased production because animals prefer mixed stands and they have more
crude fibre.
• The animals obtain balanced diet
• There is proper nutrient recycling
• There is proper utilization of soil resources e.g. nutrients, water etc.
• The grazing period may be extended because legumes remain green in dry period.
• They ensure stability of production.
• There is increased energy value of the pasture i.e. increased dry matter.
• It is easy to suppress the invasion of weeds
• There is improvement of soil structure because of different rooting systems.
• Legumes in the mixture fixes nitrogen for grasses to utilize.
Advantages of legumes in a mixed pasture
• Legumes increase the amount of crude protein available for grazing animals.
• Legumes extend the grazing period into the dry season because they remain green
during drought/dry period and their nutritive value remain higher than that of grass.
• Legumes fix atmospheric nitrogen into the soil which benefits the grasses.
• Legumes recycles plant nutrients because of having a deep tap root system than grasses.
• Legumes are highly digestible and palatable through all growth stages.
• They conserve soil moisture and control erosion by covering the soil easily.
Disadvantages of legumes in a mixed pasture
• Total yield of mixture is lowered because the energy content is lower.
• Legumes are susceptible to many diseases and pest attack because of high protein
content needed by these organisms.
• Legumes are sensitive to nutrient difficiencies (lack of nutruients) e.g. iron,
phosphorous, potassium and sulphur.
• Legumes are more susceptible to over grazing and with under grazing they are
suppressed by grasses.
• It is difficult to maintain the two species (grasses and legumes) in the ratio of 1:2 or 2:3
Advantages of grasses in grass-legume mixture
• Grasses increase herbage production.
• They ensure stability of production i.e. grasses usually respond faster to moisture
availability than legumes after dry period.
• It increases the energy content of the pasture i.e. it provides the bulk of the energy
ration.
• Grasses suppress weeds than legumes.
• It improves soil structure due to fibrous root system
Reasons why grasses are dominant than legumes in grass-legume mixture
• Grasses produce very many seeds with high chances of germination.
• Seeds of grasses are light in weight and thus can be easily dispersed over a wide area
especially by wind.
• They are highly adapted to defoliation and trampling by livestock thus they don’t take
long to recover after grazing or burning.
• They are hardy in nutrient requirements and they can survive on less fertile soil than
legumes.
• Grasses are ecologically adapted to a wide range of environmental conditions.
• Grasses have short life cycles i.e. they germinate, flower and set seeds in one season.
• Some grasses have under-ground structures which are able to sprout when vegetative
parts have been destroyed.
• Because of their aggressiveness, they are able to out compete legumes or nutrients,
space, light and moisture.
Signs of pasture which need improvement
• Presence of a layer of undecayed plant residues which prevent movement of air, water
and plant food in the soil.
• The presence of poor unproductive grasses.
• A low proportion of productive grasses.
• Wet areas containing marsh plants.
• Poor conditions of livestock
• Livestock hunting for palatable grasses
Methods of improving natural pasture
• Controlled burning to reduce on the layer of dead materials and facilitate regrowth.
• Distribute watering points evenly in the pasture.
• Perimeter fencing and division of the area into paddocks should be done to allow
controlled grazing.
• Closer and uniform grazing but not overgrazing.
• Slashing to encourage tillering and regrowth of new shoots should be done.
• Irrigation to encourage plant growth especially when the land is dry.
• Spraying of urea or molasses to the unpalatable grasses to make them palatable.
• There should be removal of unpalatable or poisonous weeds.
• Carrying out topping to remove the stemy fibrous materials on the pasture and to
encourage fresh regrowth.
• Ensure proper stocking rate to avoid overgrazing.
• There should be conservation of some areas of grasses in form of standing hay for
drying seasons and to allow setting and dispersal of seeds to enable self-reseeding.
 • There should be application of lime to reduce acidity of the soil and application of
phosphate to encourage establishment of new plants improve soil fertility.
• Over sow with legumes by spot sowing
• Establishment of fodder banks.
Management of already established pasture
• Control weeds from the pasture.
• Practice, correct grazing man management e.g. rotational grazing, and zero grazing to
allow pastures to recover.
• Maintain correct stocking rates
• Broad cast fertilizers especially nitrogenous fertilizer to enhance growth and nutritive
quality.
• Over sow with legumes to maintain balance between species.
• Irrigate where necessary.
• Carryout topping to ensure fresh growth.
• Drainage should be done on water logged areas.
• Young pasture must not be grazed too soon after sowing.
• Topping.
Terms used in pasture improvement
Over sowing; this is the introduction of a pasture legume in an existing grass pasture.
Under sowing; this refers to the establishment of pastures under crop cover usually maize.
Seed inoculation; this is the addition of effective rhizobia bacteria to leguminous seeds prior to
planting to promote nitrogen fixation.
Topping; this is the removal of stemy fibrous material left over after a period of pasture
grazing.
Procedure of establishing sown/planted pasture
Land clearing; this involves cutting down trees, uprooting stumbs, slashing bushes and leveling
antihills.
Seed bed preparation; it should be fine to bring small seed into contact with the soil. It should be
firm enough to conserve moisture. It should be weed free to avoid competition.
Fertilizer application; incorporate a phosphate fertilizer into the soil to encourage root
development.
Seed treatment i.e. breaking seed dormancy, inoculation dressing, pelleting etc.
Planting by considering time, methods, seeding rate and seeding depth.
Common pasture grasses
Common name Botanical name Local name

Guinea grass Panicum maximum obusingolezo

Kikuyu grass Pennisetum clandestinum

Rhodes grass Chloris gayana

Red oat grass Themeda Triandra

Thatching grass Hyperrhenia rufa

Congo signal grass Brachiaria ruziziensis (brizantha)

Nandi grass Setaria anceps

Fodder grasses (can be used for stall feeding)

Common name Botanical name Local name

Elephant grass Pennisetum purpureum

Guatamala grass Tripsacum laxum

Giant Setaria Setaria sphacelata

Common pasture legumes

Common name Botanical name Local name

Centro Centrosema pubescens

Siratro Macroptilium atrapurpurem

Stylo Stylosanthes gracilis(guianensis)
Glysine Neonotonia wightii

Green leaf desmodium Desmodium intortum

Silver leaf desmodium Desmodium uncinatum

Clovers Trifolium species

Fodder legumes (trees/shrubs)

Common name Botanical name Local name

Lablab Lablab purpureus

Calliandra Calliandra calothyrsus

Gliricidia Gliricidia sepium

Leucaenia Leucaenia leucocephala

Sesbania Sesbania grandiflora

GRAZING SYSTEMS
Zero grazing/stall feeding/indoor feeding/dry lot farming
This is a system of grazing where pasture is cut and carried to the livestock in the
yards/building/stalls.
Advantages of zero grazing
• Animals do not waste energy walking out in the field for grazing.
• Chances of exposing animals to some diseases and parasites are minimized.
• There is efficient utilization of pastures.
• It is easy to collect or conserve farm yard manure.
• Costs of fencing are avoided
• It is easy to estimate how much pasture each animal require a day.
• Zero grazed animals are more docile.
• There is closer observation of animals i.e. easy to identify sick animals.
• It is possible to utilize pastureland in difficult areas e.g. on very steep slope or distant
fields.
• Reduces wastage of pasture due to trampling and defecation.
• A great measure of bloat control is possible especially if the pasture is allowed to wilt.
• Animals are protected from adverse climatic conditions (bad weather) like rainfall, hot
sunshine, hailstones etc.
• Animals are protected by parasites and disease spread by other animals.
• Animals utilize herbage better than in other methods of grazing.
• There is no destruction of neighbours crops, soil or farm structures.
• Animal’s energy is conserved for production since excessive movements are reduced.
• Controls soil erosion because there is no overgrazing.
• It allows a very intensive stocking density.
Disadvanatages of zero grazing
• It requires a lot of labour (very laborious) because pastures need to be collected from
distant places.
• It requires a lot of capital. Therefore it is expensive in terms of constructing shelter,
maintaining fodder, labour etc.
• It may lead to soil fertility depletion if manure an animal excrete is not returned back to
the field.
• Animals lack physical exercise since they are confined
• The method is method is viable where market of milk is readily available.
• Animals are denied chance to have selective grazing.
• Animals may not fully synthesize vitamin D since they are not exposed to sunshine.
Rotational grazing
This is a system of grazing where the pastureland is divided into small plots called paddocks. The
animals are allowed to graze in one paddock at some time, after which they are moved to another
paddock and the grazed paddock is left to rest.
The paddocks are separated by a fence
Advantages of rotational grazing
 • The animals get fresh grass each day
• It helps in controlling parasites and worms by breaking their life cycles.
• The pastures are eaten at their highest food value or quality.
• The pastures are given time to recover or regrow
• The manure (dungs and urine) is well distributed throughout the field. This improve on
soil fertility.
• The system controls soil erosion since there is no overgrazing.
• It gives the farmer time to re-seed or renovate and fertilize parts of the pasture which
are not in use.
• There is proper use of pasture as there is no wastage
• Since overgrazing is avoided, high palatable, slow growing grass and legume species are
not suppressed or smothered by others which grow faster.
Disadvantages of rotational grazing
• High cost of fencing
• It is labour intensive e.g. to move water trough and install them.
• The ground is lost and damaged in the passage ways.
• The animals selectivity of feeds is restricted
• The chances of bloat are high since the young fresh grass can’t be wilted before
consumption.
• This method requires a high level of managerial skills.
• This method is best to use on pasture whose yield is higher.
Strip grazing
This grazing system confines animals in a small section of pasture which is separated from the rest
by a movable electric fence.
Limited area of fresh pasture is made available each day by moving the electric fence forward and
encircle another portion of pasture to be grazed next. Surplus pasture can be cut and conserved.
Advantages of strip grazing
• Forage is eaten when its nutritive value is high.
• It allows quick recovery of forage plants.
• It allows intensive grazing
• It is the most efficient method because of its flexibility.
• It provides fresh grass each day.
• Only requires electric fence equipment.
• It controls soil erosion
• The excess pasture can be conserved.
• Manure (dung and urine) are evenly distributed in the area.
Disadvantages of strip grazing
• Very laborious in the movement of fences.
• Requires a source of electricity which is very expensive.
• Animal pasture selectivity is restricted, therefore animals may lose conditions if the
pastures are poor.
• Electricity is dangerous to man and animals especially during lightning.
• Chances of bloat are high as the animals are exposed to fresh every day.

Tethering
This is the system of grazing where an animal is tied with a rope and pegged into the ground.
It is the common method of grazing goats and sheep, to a small extent cattle. It is commonly
practiced in urban, peri-urban and intensively cultivated areas where the herd size is small (1-5
animals). Animal feed on forage within the limits of the rope.
Advantages of tethering
• It protects crops from destruction by animals
• Forage is efficiently utilized since animals are moved to the next location when they
have consumed most of the available herbage.
• It is cheap since there is no need of fencing the grazing land.
• Less labour is required since the farmer does not have to keep watching over animals as
they graze.
Disadvantages of tethering
• Animals are exposed to bad weather e.g. high temperature and rain.
• Animals become hostile because sometimes they are neglected e.g. not given water.
• Animals can easily be stolen or attacked by wild beasts e.g. hyenas.
• Chances of animals contracting diseases are high.
• A small number of animals can be reared.
 • If animals are not properly tethered they will escape and roam where they can cause
accidents.
Deferred grazing (buffer grazing)
In this method, some pastures especially grasses are left to over grow and dry to form standing hay
to be fed on later.
Advantages of deferred grazing
• It provides fodder for livestock in the dry season
• There is no risk of bloat
• It enables seeds to be dispersed for regrow.
• It enables pasture to attain maturity.
Disadvantages of deferred grazing
• The nutritive value of grass becomes low (low quality)
• Grass palatability is low.
• It is expensive because the grazing land has to be fenced.

Continuous/communal grazing
This system allows livestock to have unrestricted and uninterrupted access to a specific grazing
area for specific time.
Herds belonging to different farmers or people are allowed to graze together.
Advantages
• It is a cheap grazing method.
• Manure is uniformly distributed.
• The animals are free to choose what to eat to meet their dietary requirements.
• Requires no skills
• There is uniform regrow of pasture.
Disadvantages/problems of communal grazing
• It may cause soil erosion due to over stocking that leads to overgrazing.
• Disease control is difficult as farmers are uncorperative.
• There is increase in the spread of parasites (worms and ticks) since animals mix freely.
• Poor quality of pasture since no farmer is willing to improve on the pasture.
• Low productivity of both land or pasture and animals.
• It is difficult to control breeding programmes because animals from different herds mix and
mate randomly.
• No possibility of conservation of excess pasture.
Solution to the above problems
• Acquisition of personal grazing land.
• Fencing of the grazing land to improve disease and parasite control.
• Planting improved pasture species.
• Control stocking rate.
• Apply fertilizers to improve productivity of land and pasture.
Night paddocking
This is a system of grazing where animals are grazed on an extensive area during day and confined
into small paddocks where they can graze during the night.
Terms used in grazing
Carrying capacity; this is the number of animals a given pasture unit is able to support for a given
period of time. Or it is the number of animals that will give the highest amount of output on the
pasture without diversely affecting the pasture.
Factors that influence the carrying capacity of a pasture
• Level of weed infestation in the pasture, the higher the weed population, the less the
carrying capacity.
• Pest population affecting pasture growth, the more the pests the less the carrying
capacity.
• Level of soil fertility; fertile soils increase the soil carrying capacity of pastures.
• Species diversity in the pasture; the more diverse, the higher the carrying capacity.
• Season of the year; rainy seasons increase carrying capacity anddry season is the
opposite.
• Type of the animal; usually a given piece of paddock will sustain fewer of big sized
animals than small size of paddock. Obviously smaller sized paddock have smaller
carrying capacity.
Qn; out the measures to improve the carrying capacity of a natural grassland.

Grazing pressure; this refers to the number of animals per unit of the available herbage/pasture.
Set stocking; this is a practice where animals are added or taken away from a unit area of pasture
in order to match animal numbers with the available herbage/pasture.
Stocking rate; this is the number of animals grazed in a unit area of pastureland. It refers to the
number of animals per unit area of pastureland.
Importance of stocking rate.
• It determines the output of the animals grazed on the pasture if the pasture is the only
source of food for the animals.
• It determines the stability and persistence of pastures and the period for which the
pasture will remain productive.
• It determines the financial returns the farmer will obtain from his animals and the
pastures.
Factors that determine the stocking rate to be used
• Type of animals; small animals like goats and sheep require small of food compared to
big animals like cattle. They therefore allow a high stocking rate.
• Class/breed of animals kept; exotic animals allow a low stocking rate than indigenous
ones because they are more productive and require high amount of nutrients than
indigenous animal.
• Nutritive value of the pasture; where the pastures have high nutritive plant species, high
stocking rate can be used than where the pasture species are low in nutritive content.
• Rate of growth of pasture; where the rate of growth is high, high stocking density can be
used.
• Seasonal variation; stocking rate can be varied seasonally increasing it in times of plenty
and reducing it in times of scarcity.
• Botanical composition of the pasture; mixed stand allow a high stocking rate than a
single stand because a mixed stand offer a balanced diet, higher palatability and
denser vegetation growth than single stand.
• Pasture management practices; practices such as irrigation, drainage, fertilizer
application can increase the rate of growth and nutritive value of the pastures and so
increase the possible stocking rate.
• Accessibility of the forage; not all parts of the pasture may be accessible to the animal.
Inaccessibility of the part of pastures lowers the stocking rate.
• Type of animal product to be produced by the farm. Beef animals require a high
stocking rate than dairy animals.

PASTURE/HERBAGE CONSERVATION
This is the practice of preserving the pasture that is abundant in wet/rainy season so that it can be
used at a time when green herbage for grazing is scarce (e.g. during dry season)
Objectives/importance of herbage conservation
• To reserve excess forage for use during time of shortage.
• To avoid unnecessary wastage of forage.
• Conserved herbage/pasture can be sold
• To have sustained supply of feeds for livestock throughout the year.
• To provide feeds for dry season.
Pasture can be conserved as
(i) Hay
(ii) Silage
HAY
Hay is a pasture conserved in dry form. It is a partially dried grass i.e. a feed produced by
dehydrating green forage.
Procedure of making hay
• Select a suitable plant species.
• The pasture is cut before or at the onset of flowering stage and left in the field for 1-2
days to wilt. The fodder should be cut when the sun is shinning
• Take them into an open shade and keep turning them to allow uniform drying
• Tie the hay into bundles/bales for proper storage a waiting to be sold or fed to the
animals.
Factors affecting and determining the quality of hay
• Stage at which pasture is cut; cutting should be done just before flowering.
• Leaf content of the forage material.
• Form in which the material is fed to livestock
• Methods of handling and curing the material.
• Species of pasture/forage used i.e. type of grass or legume used.
• Amount of foreign materials in forage.
• Degree of turning; it should be properly turned to ensure uniform drying.
 • Exposure to sunshine; the hay should be dried under shade or low temperature to prevent it
from becoming fibrous. Over drying lowers the quality because of decrease in carotene
content and deterioration in taste.
Signs/qualities of a good hay
• It should not be too dry or wet
• It should have some green colour
• It should be mouldy
• It should be leafy/vegetative.
SILAGE
This is a green fodder preserved in succulent form it is a conserved/preserved fodder in succulent
form by partial fermentation.
It is done in a silo container or heaped or put in a pit.
Procedure of making silage
• Select mature crop with high carbohydrate or sugar content and low or little moisture
• Cut the crop from the field.
• Wilt the crop after cutting
• Chop the crop/pasture fodder into small pieces.
• Crush the material with a roller to ease the packing
• Pack the material into the silo.
• Add additives like sugar, molasses and mineral salts. Consolidate the material to reduce
oxidation.
• Seal the silo immediately or rapidly.
• Provide the shelter over the silo to avoid seepage of rain or water (a polthene paper can be
used to cover the silo)
• Dig a trench around the silo to drain away rain water.
• Check the temperature, if high add water.
Inside the silo, bacteria acts on fodder in absence of oxygen (anaerobic respiration) and lactic acid
is released. When lactic acid accumulates bacteria are killed and the fodder stays fresh for long
period of time.
Factors that affect the quality of silage
• Precautions taken against rain i.e. rain causes leaching of nutrients from the silage.
• Moisture content of the material.
• Types of crop (grass and legumes)
• Maturity stage of the crop when cut; materials cut after flowering give low quality silage.
• Amount of additives added e.g. molasses to increase nutritive value and palatability.
• Degree of compaction, poor compaction causes rotting due to oxygen.
• Size of the spices ensiled.
• Amount of leaf of the ensiled material
• Inoculation wit lactic acid bacteria. This increases the speed and efficiency of fermentation.
• Degree of chopping; chopping makes materials easier to compact.
• Wilting before ensiling. This reduces leaching of nutrients thus increasing the quality of
silage.
• Temperature of the silo during silage making. Very high temperature reduces the quality of
silage due to break down of proteins.
Advantages of hay over silage
• No chances of animals suffering from bloat because of high fibre content
• It doesn’t need expensive containers to make like silos in silage making
Problems encountered in silage making and use
• High capital costs of the machinery and equipment i.e. silage is expensive than hay.
• There is loss of nutrients.
• Additional expenses are involved in buying preservatives or additives.
• Smell from poorly fermented silage is not good
• Need larger quantities of material for rapid fermentation.
• When fed before milking, the smell may contaminate the milk.
• It requires a lot of labour.
• It may be difficult to compact the material properly.
• It requires technical skill/knowledge
• It can’t be fed to animals as a source of roughages like hay.
Advantages of silage over hay
• It provides forage in a green and succulent state.
• Silage improves appetite and feed intake by animals.
 • There is very little wastage of pasture as animals tend to consume everything due to
palatability.
• Silage can be made from many crops and plants.
• Silage require a small space for storage as compared to hay.
• Silage can’t be burnt by fire like hay.
• The losses of nutrients due to ensiling are much lower compared with losses in hay.
• If silage has been properly prepared and stored, it can be kept for several years
How to reduce losses during silage making
• Careful harvesting of the materials to reduce losses of leaves, contamination by soil etc.
• Proper sealing of the silo to prevent re-entry of air into the silo.
• Proper compaction of the material to remove or exclude oxygen and aid fermentation.
• Proper chopping of the material to ensure proper fermentation
• Wilting of the material before wilting ensiling to reduce the moisture content and reduce
the possibility of rotting.
• Addition of additives e.g. molasses to increase the energy supply for the bacteria and
preservatives such as sodium bi sulphate to increase the storage life of the silage.
• Quick use of the material once the silo has been opened to reduce the chances of spoilage
due to exposure to the environment.
Explain the measures to take in dry season to ensure that animals have adequate feeds.

LAND RECLAMATION
This refers to the practice of bringing or regaining back the wasted land so that it can be used for
agricultural purposes once again. Such land could be under swamps, forests, unproductive land,
hilly areas, areas infested with tsetse flies and dry areas (desert/arids)
Methods of land reclamation
Deforestation; this is the cutting down of trees in order to leave open land for cultivation and
rearing of animals. Care must be taken when carrying out deforestation because trees play
important roles to crops and animals.
Draining swampy areas; this is the removal of excess water from water logged areas to create
land for cultivation. Draining land improves the soil temperature which favours germination of
crops.
Irrigating dry areas; dry areas are brought under cultivation by providing water artificially which
makes it possible to plant crops at any time of the year without waiting for the rain.
Terracing hilly areas; this is done by reducing the slope of the hill where the land is very steep
and cultivation is practically impossible. Terracing also helps to conserve soil by reducing the
speed of running water over the soil surface.
Tsetse fly control; this is done by cleaning the bushes to expose their hiding places or by spraying
with chemicals to kill them or by trapping them.
Afforestation/re-afforestation; trees are planted on unproductive area that can support plant
growth. The leaves of trees drop them decomposes to form organic matter, the roots bind the soil
particles together and trees act as wind breaks against erosion.

Drainage
This is the removal of excess water from water logged areas to create land for agricultural purpose.
Advantages of draining land.
• It creates more land for agricultural purpose.

• It improves aeration in the soil for proper seed germination.

• It raises the soil temperature which favours health growth of the crops.
• It lowers the water-table to a level which can allow the growth of crops.

• It improves on the soil structure that allow easy penetration of the roots of most crops.

• It helps to get rid of breeding places disease causing organisms e.g. mosquitoes.
 • It helps to get rid of water loving weeds such as water hyacinth and nile cabbage.

• It creates good conditions for the soil micro-organisms to increase their activities in the soil.

• The roots of crops will not be damaged or destroyed by root decaying fungi.

• It allows the use of tractors and other machines to move easily over the soil.

Disadvantages of draining land

• It may lead to environmental problems like drought.

• It may lead to disappearance of some plants and animal species that are favoured by water
logging e.g. fish.
• It may lead to soil erosion and loss of nutrients in the area.

• The water table may go too low for some crops which will affect their growth.

Methods of draining land

Surface drainage/open drainage; this is the removal of excess water from the soil surface by
means of open ditches constructed on the soil surface. The surface drainage is easy to construct and
any blockage can be seen and put right.
Underground/subsurface drainage; this is the removal of excess water from within the soil by
means of underground drain pipes which allow water to flow through them. This method needs the
land free from surface run-off.

Irrigation
This is the artificial method of providing water to crops in arid or semi-arid areas where the rainfall
is inadequate and unreliable.
Importance of irrigation
• Irrigation water softens the soil for easy cultivation and penetration of roots of crops.

• It makes growing of crops possible at any time of the year without waiting for the rain.

• Irrigation water cools the soil and atmosphere making it favourable for the growth of crops.
• Irrigation water can be used to mix agro-chemicals like fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides
which can be applied uniformily.
• The irrigation water helps in washing and dissolving the mineral nutrients in the soil so that it
can be absorbed easily by the roots of crops.
• More land can be brought under cultivation by use of irrigation.

• Pests and diseases that like living in dry areas are controlled.

Factors that influence the choice of irrigation method to be used.

• Topography; this is the general appearance of the land e.g. flat, steep, gentle sloping etc.
sprinkler irrigation can work in hilly areas while flood area work on flat land.
• The type of soil in an area to be irrigated e.g. sand soil can’t work on furrow irrigation.

• The type of crop to be irrigated; this is because some crops need large amount of water,
others need moderate while others need very little for their growth.
• The availability of water to be used.
• The distance of the water source to the garden where the crops are to be irrigated.

• The technology of the system to be used.

• Climate of the area; e.g. drip irrigation is suitable in arid areas than sprinkler.

• The man power available to manage the system.

• The capital needed to install the system
Methods of irrigation
Sprinkler/overhead irrigation
This is the type of irrigation where water is provided through pipes and pumped under high
pressure through nozzles in form of rain. Water is provided to crops from above and it involves
using watering cans and sprinklers.
Advantages of using sprinkler irrigations
• It can be used in any type of topography.

• It can be used in any type of soil.

• Soil erosion is minimized

• There is uniform distribution of water to the crops.

• The amount of water supplied can be controlled.

• Fertilizers and herbicides can be mixed in the irrigation water and applied uniformly.

• There is no damage of roots of crops since the field irrigated does not get flooded.

Disadvantages of using sprinkler irrigation

• It may be ineffective in areas with a lot of wind.

• The nozzles may get blocked making poor coverage of soil with water.

• The system requires close supervision to monitor how water is being applied.

• It is expensive to buy some of the equipment required.

• The top soil may harden due to constant application of water.

Drip/trickle irrigation
Pipes are laid near the crops with nozzles at specific areas where water drips out from. Water is
supplied at the root zone of the crops.
Advantages of drip irrigation
• Water is supplied near the roots of crops.

• Weeds do not benefit and therefore they don’t encroach on the areas between the rows of
crops where water is not supplied.
• It is suitable in areas where there is water shortage e.g. deserts

• The land irrigated never gets water logged.

• It can be used in any weather condition.

• There is no evaporation and accumulation of mineral salts around the roots of crops.

Disadvantages of drip irrigation

• It is an expensive method of irrigating land.

• The area around the roots may harden through the constant drop of water.

Surface/flood irrigation
This is where water is allowed to flow over the whole field. Channels are made to supply water
from the main source, the water is allowed to flow along the channels and spreads over the entire
garden then it is controlled.
It is mainly used in irrigating crops such as rice, sugarcanes, yams etc.
Advantages of flood irrigation
• It require less labour and skill to use

• It is cheap to construct since water flows by gravity

• It reduces leaching since the amount of water is controlled.

• It ensures uniform distribution of water.

 • It may control weeds in rice fields e.g. borny yard weeds

Disadvantages of flood irrigation

• It may lead to water logging if the water does not sink into the soil.

• It can interfere with use of machinery for cultivation.

• It cannot be used in hilly areas

• It may lead to erosion of the soil.

• It requires a large piece of land and a lot of water is needed.

Furrow irrigation
This is where water is supplied to the field using furrows.
It is best used on a gently sloping land where water flows by gravity. It requires that land is levelled
to ensure uniform flow of water.
Advantages of furrow irrigation
• It reduces evaporation of water.

• It is cheap where land is leveled.

• The system does not involve a lot of capital.

• It is easier to control water than flood

• Labour costs are low.

Disadvantages of furrow irrigation

• Sufficient water may not reach the end of the furrow.

• It may cause water logging if furrows are blocked.

• It is tiresome and laborious to construct.

• Insufficient water leads to hard pan development.

SOIL SCIENCE AND PRODUCTION

Soil is the loose layer of weathered materials and other components covering the earth’s surface.
Soil is a mixture of air, water, weathered rocks, organic matter and living organisms covering the
earth’s surface.
Importance of soil to plants
• It provides nutrients to the plants.

• It provides water to plants.

• It provides the medium in which most plants anchor themselves through roots.

• It provides air for respiration of plant roots.

• It is a medium for microbial activity.

SOIL FORMATION
Soil is mainly formed through two main processes i. e. decomposition of organic matter and
weathering.
WEATHERING
This is the break down or disintegration of rocks to form soil.
There are three major processes of weathering i.e. physical, chemical and biological
weathering. In all, most weathering is affected by agents such as wind, water, living organisms
and temperature change.
Physical weathering
This is the mechanical breakdown or disintegration of rocks with no change in their chemical
nature. It is common in arid and semi-arid areas due to the high temperature ranges, and in
mountainous areas due to frost action. In more humid regions, it may be due to the physical
action of living organisms.
When the sun heats up the rocks during the day, the rocks expand and at night they contract.
 The alternate expansion and contraction of the rocks expands the cracks or joints in the rocks
and eventually the rocks break into small blocks. This is called block or granular disintegration.
Exfoliation/spalling; differential heating and cooling of the different rock layers make the rock
layers expand and contract at different rates. The outer layers are heated more and expand more
than the inner layers and so tend to pull away from the cooler layers beneath them and peel off.
Frost action; in cold regions, when the water in cracks/crevices freezes, it expands. This
increases the size of the cracks and eventually the rocks break.
Break down by living organisms; as plants extend their roots, the pressure they exert leads to
the breakdown of rocks. Burrowing animals such as reptiles and rodents and grazing animals
also break down the rocks through their weight and activities.
CHEMICAL WEATHERING
The rocks are broken down with a change in their chemical composition. It is caused by the
reaction of the minerals in the rocks with atmospheric gases such as oxygen, carbon dioxide
and water vapour, often assisted by high environmental temperatures.
Forms of chemical weathering includes oxidation, hydration, carbonation and hydrolysis.
Oxidation; minerals in the rocks react with atmospheric oxygen to form oxides, this is
especially true of minerals containing iron e.g. the clays in poorly aerated and drained areas are
blue-grey while those in well aerated and well drained areas are red or brown due to oxidation.
4FeCO3 + O2 2Fe2O3 + 4CO2
Iron (II) carbonate + oxygen iron (III) oxide + carbondioxide.
Hydration; this takes place when minerals in the rocks take in water as water of crystallization.
When this occurs, the rocks expand and when the water evaporates, the rocks contract. This leads
to stress, the alternate expansion and contraction eventually leads to the breakdown of the rocks.
E.g.
Fe2O3 + H2O Fe2O3.H2O
Iron (III) oxide + water hydrated iron oxide or goethite
(Red) (Yellow)
Hydrolysis; This is a chemical reaction between water and the mineral elements in the rocks i.e.
reaction between the hydrogen ions of water and the ions of the minerals. The metallic cations of
the minerals are replaced by hydrogen ions. E.g.
CaSiO3 + 2H2O H2SiO3 + Ca(OH)2
Calcium silicate + water silisic acid + calcium hydroxide
Carbonation; also called solution weathering. It occurs when the carbondioxide in the atmosphere
reacts with the bases in the rocks to form carbonates and bi-carbonates. Many bi-carbonates are
soluble and are then washed away by water.

Ca(OH)2 + CO2 Ca(HCO3) + H2O

Calcium hydroxide + Carbondioxide Calcium hydrogen carbonate + water
(Soluble)
Reduction; the process of removal of oxygen and is the reverse of oxidation. Changes soil colour
to grey, blue or green as ferric iron is converted to ferrous iron compound under the conditions of
excess water or water logged condition (less or no oxygen)
2Fe2O3(s) 4FeO9(s) + O2 (g)

BIOLOGICAL WEATHERING
This is when the rocks are broken down by living organisms. Lichens, fungi and bacteria colonize
rocks. They moisten the rocks and produce organic acids which breakdown the rocks further
allowing higher plants to establish. The plant roots break down the rocks. Animals will also be
attracted and their activities such as burrowing and feeding will further break down the rocks.
Human activities like mining, road construction break down the rocks into small particles which
form soil.
Summary of events of soil formation.
1. Disintegration; this is the breakdown of rocks into smaller particles. It is caused by changes
in temperature, frost action and plant action of simple plants like lichens and mosses.
2. Decomposition; this occurs when the organic materials produced by the plants and animals
break down. This causes further break up of rocks to release nutrients for use by plants
which in turn break down the parent rocks further.
3. Translocation; this is the removal of soil. Layers of soil are carried away by wind and water.
 It helps in mixing up of the materials that are deposited on the soil surface and in exposing
the rocks to further weathering. It is also called the vertical movements of particles and
dissolved solids within the soil profile and often into the ground water.
4. Deposition; the soil particles carried away by water and wind are deposited to another area.
FACTORS AFFECTING WEATHERING
Explain the factors that affect/influence soil formation.
There are five factors affecting the rate of weathering/soil formation namely;
• The nature of the parent material/rock

• Living organisms

• Climate

• Topography

• Time

Nature of the parent material/rock

The parent material is the rock from which the soil is made. The parent material determines the
type and nature of the formed and ease of weathering.
Rocks vary in their mineral composition and in the existence of joints (areas of weakness). Rocks
rich in iron for example easily break down due to oxidation while rocks rich in silica are more
resistant.
The mineral content of the rock also determines its colour. Rocks with light coloured minerals heat
up more slowly than dark coloured minerals. The differences in the rates of expansion and
contraction and so the rate of weathering. The parent rock affect the nature of the resulting soil e.g.
sand soil may be formed from granite, clay soils are formed from volcanic rocks.
Climate
Climate affects weathering directly through the effect of rainfall, temperature and wind on the
rocks and indirectly through the effects on vegetation and on the activity of other living organisms
in the area.
The effect of temperature;
• High and low temperatures leads to expansion and contraction which causes peeling off of the
rock surface thus weathering.
• Freezing of water leads to expansion of ice in cracks leading to break down of rocks.

• Temperature increases the rate of chemical reaction as the biological break down of rocks.
The effect of rainfall
• Rain water dissolve carbon dioxide in the atmosphere forming weak carbonic acid which
decomposes the rock leading to its breakdown.
• Rain drops help to expose helps to expose the rocks through erosion.

• Direct impact of rain drops may loosen the rock surface.

Wind; it blows bigger and loose particles hitting them against on another leading to further
breaking of the particles.
Living organisms
Thick vegetation cover reduces the rate of physical weathering but increases the rate of chemical
weathering.
Roots of plants growing through cracks enlarges the cracks and splits the rocks.
Action of termites, earth worms results into soil mixing and nutrient recycling.
Pounding of the rocks by hooves of animals may break down the rocks.
Plants and animals die and decay adding organic acids to the rocks. The organic acids help to break
down the rocks.
The living organisms also add humus which influences the nature of the resultant soils. In general,
the more the living organisms present, the faster the rate of weathering.
Topography/relief
This affect the rate of weathering, the depth of the soil and the nature of the soil formed by
influencing the amount of water that enters into the soil and the rate of soil erosion.
If the land is flat, there will be little soil erosion and hence the soil will accumulate and cover the
rocks thus protecting them from agents of weathering. In the lower slopes, there is only
accumulation of eroded soil formed from step and gentle slopes.
If the land is sloping, there will be a lot of soil erosion. The erosion will remove any soil made and
so leave the rocks exposed to the agents of weathering and thus encouraging further weathering.
Time
Soil formation is a very slow process. The longer the rocks have been exposed to the agents of
weathering the more the soil that will be formed. Limited time leads to young soils and mature
soils are formed after a very long period of time.

SOIL COMPONENTS
Soil is made up of or consists of air, water, mineral matter, organic matter and leaving organisms.

AIR
Soil air is found in those pores of the soil not occupied by water. The amount of air in the soil is
affected by the following;-
• The amount of water in that soil i.e. the more the water, the less the air.

• Soil structure and texture; granular structure and sandy soils encourage better aeration than
platy structures and clay soils.
• Depth of the soil; the deeper you go into the soil, the less the air present due to the effect of
compaction and the shortage of organic matter.
• Organic matter content of the soil; organic matter holds soil particles together creating pores.

Importance of air
• It aids germination

• Oxygen is important for the respiration of plant roots and soil organisms.

• Carbondioxide helps to dissolve nutrients making them more available for plants.

• Nitrogen helps in the formation of proteins by microbes.

• Water vapour prevents desiccation by the plants roots and soil microbes and help in the
transfers of water with in the soil.
A balanced supply of oxygen is essential since too much oxygen encourage rapid break down
of organic matter while too little oxygen encourages the multiplication of anaerobic bacteria
that use up the oxygen in organic and inorganic compounds reducing them to sulphides, nitrites
and other reduced compounds that are dangerous to plants.
Soil air is usually renewed by the processes of diffusion, mass flow and by rain.
Diffusion is the movement of molecules of a liquid or gas from area of high concentration to
the area of low concentration i.e. down diffusion gradient. Diffusion is the most important
renewal of soil air.
Mass flow; this occurs when molecules of a substance are pushed into one general direction
and in this case air is pushed into the soil due to differences in pressure between the soil and the
atmosphere.
Rain water. Rain water contains dissolved gasses such as carbon dioxide and oxygen.

Experiment to determine the amount of air in the soil

• Place a measured amount of soil in a measuring cylinder.

• Add a measured amount of water to the soil.

 • Stir the content using a glass rod and leave to settle.

• Note the level of water in the measuring cylinder

• Some bubbles will be seen, this shows that air is escaping from the soil.

Observation; the volume of water in the measuring cylinder falls.

Conclusion; the volume of water falls because air has been displaced by water i.e. the
observed total of the mixture will be less than the calculated total.
e.g. 50cc of soil +50cc of water = 100cc
However, the observed total may be 95cc. the difference between the calculated total
and the observed total is the volume of air that escaped e.g. 100-95 = 5cc.
Percentage of air in the soil sample

Explanation
In sand soil, the volume of air is greater than that in clay soil. This is because clay soil has smaller
particles which are more closely packed together and loam soil has intermediate air content.
When equal volumes of soil and water are used to determine the amount of air in the three types of
soil using measuring cylinder. It will be found that the volume of water falls greatly in sandy soil
followed by loam and least in clay. This shows that air has been displaced greatly by water in sandy
soils followed by loam and least in clay.
WATER
This is found in the micro pores of the soil and it plays the following important roles.
• It is important in the germination of seeds since the seeds need water to activate their
enzymes before germination starts.
• It is essential to satisfy the plants evapo-transpiration requirements.
• It is an essential solvent for the soil solution i.e. the solution of nutrients and water that
the plants absorb.
• It helps to fight the desiccation of plant roots, microbes and fauna.
• It controls the soil temperature; water logged soils tend to be cold.
• It provides a habitant for water loving soil microbes.
• It amount of water in the soil and the ease of entry of water into the soil control the ease
of erosion of the soil.
• Soil water is important in the chemical weathering of rocks especially by hydration and
hydrolysis.
Forces which influences the availability of water
Adsorption by soil solids: some of the soil water is so tightly held y the soil solids in
very tiny pores or as a thin film around the soil particles that it cannot be used by the
plants. Also the soil water molecules so held other water molecules by cohesion. Water
which is so hold is called hygroscopic water.
Capillary forces; these resist sol water movement except to adjust to the differences in the
free energy of water between adjoining layers.
Gravitational pull; this removes some of the water from the rooting zones making it
unavailable to plants. It makes some of the water to flow through the soil to the lower layers
where it cannot be used by plants.
Osmotic forces; the water may be attracted by ions and other solutes in the soil solution
making it hard for the plants to absorb it.
The available water for plant use is that in excess of that held by these forces.
Terms related to soil moisture
Permanent wilting point; this is a situation where the plant remains wilted during day and
at night due to limited soil moisture. When a plant reaches this level, it never recovers.
Field moisture capacity; this is when all micro pores of the soil are filled with water.
Wilting point; is the moisture content level at which plants wilt.
Available water capacity (AWC) is the amount of water in the a soil that is available for
plant growth. The upper limit is set by the field capacity (FC) and the lower limit is the
value of wilting point.
MINERAL MATTER
This is composed of broken rock particles. It is composed of minerals such as copper, iron,
aluminium, silicon etc. Soils often inherit the mineral content of the parent material though
this may be altered by leaching and deposition or by human actions.
Soil may be termed as mineral soil if it consists predominantly of inorganic matter and not
more than 10% organic matter.
 The mineral matter provides the frame work of the soil.
ORGANIC MATTER
Organic soils are soils that contain 75-90% organic matter. They are formed from extensive
deposits of organic matter in swamps and marshes where the rate of decomposition is low
due to the poor drainage and aeration.
All organic matter in the soil can be grouped into three i.e. litter, residues and humus.
The litter includes the relatively undecomposed dead parts of the plants, animals and
animal excreta that have just recently been deposited onto the soil surface.
The residues include the dead parts of the plants and animals and animals’ wastes that is
still actively decomposing.
Humus refers to the well decomposed and stable organic matter that cannot be subjected to
further decomposition or resistant to further decay.
Factors affecting the rate of decomposition of organic matter
Age of the plant/material; the younger the plant, the easier it is to decompose because it
would have more water soluble components and less lignin which is resistant to
decomposition.
Amount of water in the material; plants that are more succulent are easier to decompose.
Carbon to nitrogen ration (C:N ratio); legumes are easier to break down than cereals
because they have a narrow C:N ratio and so the microbes suffer no shortage of nitrogen as
they break down the materials. The optimum C:N ratio is around 1:30 and litters like coffee
husks take longer to decompose because they have a wider C:N ratio i.e. more than 1:30
(1:30-60). The narrower the better.
Chemical composition of the material; some plants contain materials that give extremes
of pH and such plants are not easy to break down. Pine for example gives residues that are
very acidic and so these residues are very hard to break down.
Presence of living organisms; the more the living organisms present the higher the rate of
breakdown of organic matter.
Soil factors; these include aeration, temperature, availability of water, pH and fertility
level. These influence the activity of living organisms that breakdown the organic matter.
Climatic factors e.g. rainfall and temperature; these influence the activity of soil living
organisms and the speed of bio-chemical reactions. Within a given temperature range for
example, the higher the temperature the higher the rate of decomposition.
Properties of organic matter/humus
Physical properties
• Low plasticity and cohesion i.e. it cannot be moulded unlike clay particles.
• It is black or dark in colour.
• It is gummy and has a cementing action on soil particles.
• It is spongy i.e. has many spaces or pores that may be used to hold water or air.
• It becomes more colloidal with further decay and humus is typically colloidal giving it
a surface area for adsorption of ions
• It becomes amorphous with further decomposition.
• It is alight material with a low bulk density.
• It is insoluble in water but soluble in dilute alkali.
Chemical properties
• It has a high cation exchange capacity i.e. a high capacity to adsorb and lose cations or
exchange one cation for another.
• It has a strong adsorbing power for mineral ions.
• It has a zwitterion capacity i.e. the ability to release either cations or anions to plants.
• It contains plenty of mineral ions that can be used as plant nutrients.
• It can release both hydrogen ion (H+) and hydroxyl ions (OH-) and so can buffer soil pH.
Functions of organic matter/humus
• It provides food and shelter for soil living organisms.
• It provides plant nutrients such as potassium, calcium and magnesium.
• The solvent action of humic acids produced as the organic matter breaks down helps to
extract some plant nutrients from rocks for plants to use.
• It improves the soil structure by holding the soil particles together because it is gummy.
• It holds soil water and air which are important for the effective absorption of nutrients
by plants.
• It improves the movement of air and the rate of water percolation through the soil by
improving the soil temperature.
• It gives the soil a darker/black colour which enables it to absorb more sunlight/heat. It
therefore increases soil temperature.
• The organic acids released during the break down of organic matter help in the process
of weathering.
 • Organic matter provides sites for attachment of mineral ions. It is therefore increases
the nutrient holding capacity of the soil and reduces leaching. It also adsorbs gaseous
nitrogen released from the soil and prevents its escape.
• It reduces erosion hazards because it holds the soil particles together more firmly. It
binds soil particles.
• Organic matter buffers soil pH due to its capacity to release either H+ or OH- ions
• It contains hormones and vitamins that stimulate plant growth. The hormones
contained include auxins and gibberellins.
• They improve soil tilth/workability (ease cultivation)
• It improves on soil porosity.
• Organic matter release carbon dioxide which is very important in photosynthesis
process in plants.
Qn. Explain the important functions of humus?
Experiment to determine the amount of water and organic matter in the soil.
• Get a tin container and weigh it.
• Place the soil sample in the container and weigh them.
• Get the total weight of the container and soil. Subtract the weight of the empty container
to get the weight of the soil.
• Heat the soil in the container on a steam bath or in an oven, weighing it from time to time
until weight stops decreasing.
• The difference in weight between the constant weight after gentle heating and the weight
at the start of the experiment is the weight of water in the soil sample.
• Now heat the soil strongly on an open flame to burn off all the humus. When the soil
stops giving off smoke weigh it.
• The difference between this new weight and the weight at the start of strong heating is the
amount of humus in the soil sample. E.g.
a=weight of empty container=10g
b=weight of the container + soil=60g
c=weight of container +dry soil after gentle heating = 55g
d=weight of container + soil after strong heating=50g

Weight of fresh soil = b-a =60-10= 50g

Weight of water in soil = b-c =60-55=5g
Weight of humus in the soil=c-d=55-50=5g
Percentage of water in the soil=
Percentage of humus in the soil =

LIVING ORGANISMS
These includes both plants (flora) and animal fauna. They exist in two forms I.e.
• Micro living organisms e.g. bacteria, fungi, viruses etc.
• Macro living organsims e.g. earth worms, termites, ants etc.
The contribution of the soil organisms depends on whether they are symbiotic, parasitic or
saprophytic in their feeding.
Symbiosis occurs when two organisms live together and each benefits from the association e.g. the
association between the legumes and the nitrogen fixing bacteria in the root nodules of legumes,
the relationship between the mycorriza on the roots of plants and the plants and the algae which
leave symbiotically with azotobacter.
Parasitism occurs when an organism lives or depend on another organism (host) without the host
benefiting from the association. Usually, parasites do not kill their hosts quickly e.g. eel worms in
tomatoes.
Saprophytes are those organisms that obtain their food from dead or decaying organic material.
Importance of soil living organisms
• Burrowing animals help to mix the various soil layers. They also help to mix organic matter
with the main body of the soil.
• They add humus to the soil when they die and decay.
• Burrowing animals help in the aeration, drainage and infiltration of water into the soil.
• They produce organic and inorganic acids that help in weathering. These acids also help to
extract minerals from the rocks hence releasing nutrients for plant use.
• They help in decomposition of organic matter to release nutrients.
• Fixation of nitrogen into the soil. This is done by both symbiotic and non- symbiotic bacteria.
The symbiotic bacteria are mostly thr Rhizobium species that form the root nodules on
legumes. They get carbohydrates for their energy from the legumes and in turn produce
nitrogenous compounds used by the legumes. Non symbiotic bacteria include the
azotobacter ofrten active in alkaline soils and clostridium species common in acidic soils.
 • They increase the stability of soil aggregates. Some such as earth worms ingest soil particles
and egest them in granular form. Some bacteria also secret gummy substances that help to
hold the soil particles together.
• Some produce antibiotics e.g Aspergillus and penicillium( both fungi) produce penicillin.
• Some produce vitamins especially vitamin B1
• Some produce toxins that cause many plant diseases e.g. wilt in tomatoes and potatoes
(caused by bacteria), root galls on plants. (caused by nematodes)
• They carryout inorganic transformation e.g. in well drained soils, iron and manganese are
oxidized to higher oxidization states which have lower solubility at medium pH.
• Algea temporarily transform soluble forms of nitrogen and other nutrients into organic or
soluble forms of nitrogen and other nutrients into organic or insoluble forms and thus
reduces leaching of soluble nutrients. Ie. They recycle plant nutrients by using them to
rebuild their body and release them when they die and decompose.
• Some are pests and parasites.
• They compete with plants for nutrients.
• Some are vectors of plant diseases eg eel worms.
• Some cause denitrification leading to loss of nitrates e.g. pseudomonas bacteria.
• They cause toxic production in oxygen deficient soils thus inhibiting root growth.
Factors influencing the abundance of soil living organisms
Tillage practices; tillage of the soil directily kills the soil living organisms. It also improves on the
drainage and aeration of the soil which promotes rapid break down of organic matter by aerobic
bacteria eventually causing a fall in the population of living organisms due to shortage of food.
Soil depth; deep soils favour abundance of living organisms because they provide space for escape
from extreme environmental conditions which cause fluctuations of populations. However, the
deeper you go into the soil, the fewer the living organisms present due to shortage of food, air etc.
Types of crop grown; some organisms are abundant when certain crops are grown. Blue-green
algae is common in rice fields while mycorrhiza is common in tree crops such as pine and oak.
Rhizobium is common with legumes.
Amount of water in the soil; most living organisms require moist conditions to survive. However
increasing moisture content favours continuously fewer organisms e,g. very high moisture content
may favour algae but discourage moulds.
Soil aeration;most organisms require oxygen for survival. Absence of oxygen then reduces the
population of aerobic organisms but increases that of anaerobic and facultative organisms.
Soil temperature; most organisms live only within a given range of temperature.
Soil pH. Most bacteria and earth worms do well in slightly alkaline soil while the fungi will be
favoured by acidic soils.
Mineral nutrient in the soil especially calcium and nitrogen. Most of the organisms require these
nutrients for their biochemical activities.
Competition between organisms; some organisms produce substances that kill others e.g. some
fungi produce antibiotics that kill bacteria.
Organic matter content; many soil organisms use organic matter for food. The higher the amount
of organic matter present, the higher the population of soil living organisms present.
Pollution; use of pesticides and other agricultural chemicals and the damping of industrial and
other wastes in the soil reduces the population of living organisms.
Human activities like manuring/mulching introduces more living organisms into the soil.
Experiment to determine the presence of living organisms in the soil
Apparatus and materials
• Muslin bags
• Lime water
• Garden soil
• Conical flasks
• Cork
Procedure
• Put a handful of fresh garden soil in muslin bag A.
• Put garden soil that has been heated strongly to kill living organisms in muslin bag B.
• Suspend the muslin bags in different conical flasks containing lime water and cork the
flasks.
• Leave the apparatus to stand for about four hours.
Observation
The lime water in flask A will turn milky while that in flask B will remain clear.
Explanation
• Carbon dioxide produced during respiration of living organisms in fresh soil (A) turned lime
water milky.
• The lime water in flask B will remain clear since the organisms were killed by heating.
Conclusion
Fresh garden soil contains microorganisms which respire actively.

SOIL PROFILE
This is the vertical arrangement of soil layers from top to bottom i.e. from the ground surface to the
parent rock. These layers are commonly known as horizons and differ in humus content, colour,
mineral composition, plant nutrient availability and texture.
NB; the horizontal arrangement of soil layers a cross a slope is called soil catena.
The horizons/ layers collectively are called solum. Atypical soil profile is easily distinguished into
four clear layers or horizons namely A, B, C and D.

A00
A01
A1
A2
A3
B1
B2
B3
C

HORIZON A
This is the top soil layer of the earth.
• It is composed of decaying organic matter which provides it with its dark (black) colour.
• Living organisms are numerous which help in decay of organic matter.
• It is well aerated.
• Leaching is high in this layer.
• It has a good granular structure due to frequent cultivation.
• Most of the plant nutrients are found in this layer.
• Most of all the above characteristics make it suitable for crop growth.
• It is an eluviated horizon from which certain fractions are removed constantly by leaching
action of water.
• It is where most plant roots are found.
This horizon consist of several sub horizons with slightly different characteristics namely A00, A01,
A1, A2 and A3
Aoo; this is an organic layer consisting of completely un decayed organic matter recently deposited
on the soil. Such organic matter is referred to as litter.
A01; this is also organic layer consisting of decayed or decaying organic matter.
A1; this is a mineral horizon containing plenty of dark coloured humus.
A2; this is a mineral horizon which has lost oxides of iron and aluminium to leaching. It is also
called the zone of eluviation or the alluvial layer and so it is often leached.
A3; this is a transitional horizon between A and B horizons but the properties of A predominate.
Horizon B (subsoil)
This is a layer of the soil that is just below the top soil.
• It is a layer of deposition of leached minerals from horizon A i.e. a layer/zone of illuviation
into which leached colloidal materials are re-deposited.
• Soil particles in this layer are more closely packed to each other.
 • Soils are brown/reddish in colour due to absence of organic matter.
• Living organisms are very less due to absence of organic matter.
• It is poorly aerated
• It has few plant roots for deep rooted tree plants only.
Horizon B may also have different sub horizons such as B1, B2 and B3
B1; this is a transitional layer having both the properties of A and B but properties of B
predominate. It is dark coloured due to the presence of humus.
B2; this is either yellow or orange in colour due to the precipitation of clays and oxides of iron and
aluminum deposited there. It is also called a layer of alleviation or the layer of accumulation.
B3; this is a transitional horizon having more properties of B than of C

Horizon C (substratum)
This is made up of partially weathered rocks. In young or a zonal soil, the horizon is absent and the
A and C horizons feature prominently. In a well-developed, mature zonal soil, the A and B horizon
are prominent and at times the C horizon may disappear.
Horizon D (bedrock/parent rock)
This is made up of completely un weathered rock. A soil that clearly has all the layers of the profile
is called a mature soil while that without all clear profile layers is said to be immature soil.
Importance of the soil profile
• The depth of the soil profile act as storage space for water, therefor it determines the
ease of erosion of the soil because it controls the amount of runoff.
• The depth of the soil profile determines the availability of rooting space and so the type
of crop that can be grown.
• It determines the workability of the soil. Deep soils are easier to work and mechanize
than shallow soils.
NB; Eluviation is the movement of soluble mineral nutrients in solution or suspension form from
one place to another with in the soil.
Illuviation is the precipitation and accumulation of the leached and eluviated materials in the B-
horizon of the soil.
Humification is the a process through which organic matter is decomposed to form humus with
help of living organisms. It is increased by high temperature.
Zonal soils are mature soils with well-developed profiles.
A zonal soils are young soils without a clear defined soil profile that show a more recent origin and
occurs where soil forming processes have had insufficient time to operate fully.
Intra-zonal soils are soils that reflect the dominance of a single local factor such as parent rock or
extremes of drainage.

Factors affecting the development of a soil profile.

• Parent rock influence; jointed and faulted rocks are characterized by mediums through which
weathering a gents and processes operate thereby forming a deep and mature soil profile.
• Rock resistance; hard rocks do not easily weather down into simpler substances due to high
levels of resistance to weathering while soft rocks weather faster to form good soil profile.
• Rock colour; this is because dark or dull coloured rocks like basalt which is green or black
have a high rate of solar energy.
• Climate through its elements of rainfall and temperature influences soil profile.
• Relief or topography influences soil profile development. Steep slopes of mountains have less
developed soil profiles because of high rates of erosion by running water forming bare
rocks or thin soils with an incomplete or immature soil.
• Vegetation; it provides organic matter that decomposes into humus. It also determines the
extend of operation of erosion forces.
• Time; it takes a long time for soil profile to develop. The longer the parent rock is exposed to
weathering agents and other soil forming processes the more developed soil profile.
PROPERTIES OF SOIL
Soil properties are categorized as physical and chemical properties.
Physical properties of soil
These are properties that can be seen and attached and they include;
• Soil texture
• Soil structure
• Soil colour
• Soil aeration
• Soil temperature.
• Bulk density
Soil structure
This is the overall physical arrangement/grouping of soil particles
Or. It is the way how individual particles are grouped or packed or aggregated. The aggregates are
called soil peds. It is described in three ways i.e.types of peds, size of peds and resistance of peds to
pressure.
Classes of soil structure
Soils may be classified as structure less, granular or structured.
(i) Structure less; these are single separate grains e.g. in sand.
(ii) Granular; these are roughly spherical aggregates with spaces between the granules. Water
can be held between the granules and it is a very good structure for crop growth. It
is common in surface soils with a very high moisture content. The small
granules may also come together to form bigger crumbs e.g

(iii) Structured; soils form aggregates that are platy, blocky or prismatic.
Platy or plate like structure; soil partcles are horizontally shaped. They look
like flat plates placed on top of one another. It is common in lower horizons.

Blocky or cuboidal structure; the soil aggreagtes form blocks which may have
sharp corners (blocky) or round corners (cuboid). Blocky aggreagates are
common in the B-horizon.

Prismatic or columnar structure; the aggregates or peds are tall with fairly flat
surfaces. They are common in the subsoil. The surfaces look like a prism and
vertically arranged. When the prismatic peds suffer eluviation, the top corners
become more rounded ad it then becomes columnar structure.

NB; soil flocculation refers to the process where by smaller soil particles form larger soil
 particles in the flowing medium. Or it is a process during which soil particles which are
dispersed or small in size contact and adhere each other forming clusters, floc or crumbs of
larger size. The opposite is de-flocculation.
Characteristics of a good soil structure
• It should be easy to till or cultivate.
• It should have suitable temperature.
• It should promote root penetration and anchorage.
• It should have good water percolation or infiltration capacity.
• It should have good water holding capacity
• It should be well aerated i.e. it should allow easy circulation of air.
Factors that influence and favour the formation of soil structure/aggregates
Qn; Explain the factors that favour soil flocculation or aggregation.
Organic matter; this is sticky and so binds the soil particles together stabilizing the soil
aggregates.
Soil water; Moist soils are more plastic than dry ones and so are easier to bind together. Also, too
much water causes dispersion of soil structures which destroys them.
Liming; calcium has the capacity to flocculate soil colloids. Liming then encourages the formation
of soil aggregates due to the favourable effect of the calcium on the soil.
Living organisms; some living organisms produce substances that cement soil particles together.
Some other living organisms such as earth worms ingest the soil particles and egest them in
granular form.
Compaction; this leads to the formation of platy structures. It may destroy all other structures. It
may destroy all other structures to form the platy structure.
Soil texture; soils with large particles are not plastic enough and so their soil particles are not easy
to attach onto one another. Sandy soils are therefore structure less.
Presence of root hairs; these make soil particles cling together.
Vegetation cover; this protect the already formed structure.
Importance of soil structure
• It controls the passage of water through the soil. Granular structure enables a more
rapid downward flow of water than platy structure.
• It controls the passage of air through the soil.
• It controls soil temperature through its control of soil aeration.
• It controls/determines the water holding capacity of the soil.
• It controls the soil pH by controlling the passage of air especially carbon dioxide which
causes acidity.
• It creates conducive environment for microbial activities.
• It determines/control the workability of the soil. Single, loose grained soils are easier to
work than sticky heavily soils.
• It determines/control soil erodability. i.e. it controls the ease of soil erosion.
• It controls/determine the ability of roots to penetrate deep into the soil through the
control of temperature, water and air.
Destruction of soil structure
• Tillage of soil with very high moisture content. This leaves the soil particles puddled together
and destroys the soil structure.
• Continuous tillage; this denies the soil structure the chance to recover and causes compaction
of the soil. It also leads to rapid break down of organic matter.
• Pollution; this reduces the population of micro-organism which otherwise have a binding
action on the soil particles. It also eventually reduces the amount of organic matter present
in the soil.
• Overgrazing/ overstocking; these reduce the amount of vegetation cover present and so
encourage soil erosion. They also cause compaction of the soil damaging the structure and
creating platy soils.
• Mining; this removes soil layers to create pits. It may also cause deposition of sub soils on the
surface, destroying the soil structure by clogging the soil pores left between the aggregates.
• Leaching of bases especially calcium. Calcium has the ability to cause flocculation of soil
colloids.
• Soil erosion; this washes away the top soil layers and the fine organic matter and so destroys
the structure. Also deposition of eroded fine particles on the soil surface clogs the soil pores
and cause puddled soils.
• Cropping and harvesting practices; some crops do not add enough organic matter to the soil
and others like pine produce acidic organic matter that may discourage many living
organisms. Also, harvesting practices that do not add organic matter to the soil destroy the
soil structure.
• Water logging; this causes dispersion of the soil particles destroying the soil structure and
 creating puddle soils.
Qn; Explain the cause of de-flocculation of soil.
Maintenance of soil structure
Minimum tillage; this allows the soil to recover its structure. It also avoids compaction of the soil
caused by tillage and reduces the breakdown of organic matter.
Working the soil at the correct moisture content; this prevents puddling and compaction of the soil.
Growing of cover crops; these cover the soil and reduce the rate of soil erosion. They also add a
high amount of organic matter to the soil.
Addition of organic matter; organic matter has colloidal properties that help to hold soil
properties together.
Bush fallowing; natural vegetation is more diverse and encourages a more robust soil life. Natural
vegetation also gives a denser cover and more organic matter will be added to the soil.
Liming; limestone is effective as a granulating agent largely through its effect on biotic forces and
also through the ability of calcium to cause flocculation of soil colloids.
Drainage; the removal of excess water from the soil reduces dispersion of soil particles, reduces
pudlling and encourages living organisms which add organic matter to the soil. It also reduces
leaching of bases.
Pollution control; this maintains the population of living organisms which will add organic matter
to the soil and also bind the soil particles together.
Mulching; organic mulches add organic matter to the soil, control soil erosion and provide food
and a favourable micro climate for soil living organisms.
Afforestation and agroforestry; these control soil erosion add a lot of organic matter to the soil
and create a favourable micro-climate for living organism.
Soil structure stability and consistency
The stability of the soil structure is the resistance of the soil to any change caused by external
forces such as rainfall and cultivation.
Consistency of the soil is the degree of cohesion of the individual soil particles and the resistance
of these aggregates to breakages when they are handled
The stability of the soil is influenced by;
• Soil structure; soil rich in sand are less stable than those rich in clay.
• Organic matter content; the higher the amount of humus, the higher the stability of the soil.
Demonstrating structural stability
Apparatus;
• Different soil samples
• Glass beakers
• Coarse wire screens.
Procedure
Submerge completely several dry granules or clods of soil about the same size on a wire screen in a
beaker of water.
After five minutes note the level of disintegration of the different soil samples.
Demonstrating structural consistence
Attempt to crush a handful of the soil or manipulate it between the forefinger and the thumb
depending on the moisture content of the soil.
For wet soils, consistency is described in terms of stickiness or plasticity. For stickiness soils may
be classified as non-sticky, slightly sticky, sticky and very sticky.
Plasticity is the ability of the soil to be moulded into different shapes. Soils can be classified as
non-plastic, slightly plastic, plastic and very plastic.
SOIL TEXTURE
This refers the measure or percentage composition of sand, silt and clay in the soil (the relative
amounts of different soil particle sizes in a given volume of soil
It may also be defined as the roughness (coarseness) or smoothness (fineness) of the soil. Or the
size of the soil mineral particles.
Importance of soil texture
• It determines the soil response to liming and fertilizer application.
• It influences soil aeration.
• It determines the rate of organic matter decay because of aeration.
• It influences soil drainage and water holding capacity.
• It affects the rate of soil erosion.
• It determines the ease of cultivation (soil tilth/workability) e.g. it is easy to dig sand than
clay.
• It affects soil temperature i.e. clay soil is colder than sand soil.
• It determines the ability of the soil to retain water.
• It determines the ability of the soil to retain water.

How to determine soil texture.

This involves feeling the soil with fingers i.e. one finger and the thumb. Sand soil feels gritty,
 clay feels smooth and loam is moderately gritty and smooth.
Clay soil is sticky when wet while sand is not.
When a lump of wet soil is rolled to form a ball or a ribbon, clay is quick and easy to roll and
form a ball while sand is not easy to roll into a ball as the soil breaks down.
Measuring soil texture using mechanical analysis (sedimentation method)
This refers to the collection of soil from the field and then separate it into different layers in the
measuring cylinder without using chemicals. It involves separating the soil into different layers
without using chemicals.
An experiment to show that soil is made of particles of different sizes.
Apparatus; clear measuring cylinder/test tube, soil sample, sieve and water.
Procedure
• Sieve the soil particles.
• Place the soil into the measuring cylinder/test tube.
• Add equal volume of water.
• Shake vigorously while the top of the cylinder is covered.
• Allow the mixture to settle for some time.
• Observe and record the results.
Conclusion.
The particles which are heavier e.g. coarse sand settles first followed by less weight particles.
Classification of soil according to particle size.
Class of soil Size of particles (diameter)
Coarse soil 2-0.2mm
Fine sand 0.2-0.02mm
Silt 0.02-0.002mm
Clay Below 0.002mm

Main textural classes/types of soil

The main textural classes are sand, clay and loam
Sandy soils
They contain 70% or more of sand particles.
• They are rough coarse textured of large particles.
• They have high drainage.
• They have a very low capillarity.
• They have a poor water retention/water holding capacity.
• They usually have an acidic pH.
• They are very easily eroded and leached.
• They have a poor nutrient content.
• They are usually single grained and the particles are loose.
• They cannot be moulded into shapes.
• Warm up quickly.
Improvement of sand soil.
• Addition of organic manures to bind the particles together.
• Addition of artificial fertilizers.
• Mixing with clay to form loam.
• By liming.
Clay soils
These soils have at least 35% clay particles.
• They have a fine texture.
• They are poorly aerated.
• They are poorly drained.
• They have good water retention/water holding capacity.
• They have a very high capillarity.
• PH ranges from slightly alkaline to slightly acidic.
• They are not easily leached and eroded.
• They can hold a lot of nutrients on the colloidal surface of the clay particles.
• They are sticky when wet and form hard lumps when dry.
• Clay particles show the properties of solids and liquids when in solution.
• Clays are plastic and can easily be moulded
• They are heavy and therefore difficult to work to.
Improvement of clay
• Add sand soil to form clay which improves the texture.
• Add organic manures to improve on aeration, water and root penetration.
 • Add artificial fertilizers.
Loam soils
This consists of a mixture of both clay, silt and sandy in equal proportion together with humus.
The characteristic of loam are intermediate between those of sand and clays e.g.
• Adequate soil nutrients and in available form for plant growth.
• Good/moderate aeration.
• High capillarity but lower than clay.
• Fairly retain soil moisture and nutrients.
• Have good water holding capacity due to presence of humus but less than clay.

SOIL DRAINAGE/PERMEABILITY AND WATER RETENTION OR WATER HOLDING

CAPACITY.
Soil drainage is the ability of the soil to allow water to pass through it.
Soil water retention is the ability of the soil to keep water for some time.
Experiment on soil water drainage and retention.
• Set three measuring cylinder and place funnels at the mouth.
• Plug the funnels with cotton wool or filter papers.
• Measure out the same quantity of dry soil and place it in different funnels to different
cylinders.
• Measure out the equal amount of water and add it to the soil in the funnels at the same time
by starting a stop clock.
• Allow the water to stop dripping through the funnel into the measuring cylinder.
NOTE
The amount of water in the measuring cylinder is the water that drained through the soil.
The difference between the volume of water that was added to the soil and the water in the
measuring cylinder after the water has stopped dripping from the funnel is the amount that was
retained by the soil. E.g.
If 50cc of water was added to the soil and there are 40cc of water in the measuring cylinder.
Water that drained through the soil=40cc
Water that was retained by soil=50-40=10cc
Drainage and water retention are inversely proportional.
Observation
At the end of like 30minutes, it will be observed that sand has allowed more water to pass through
than clay and loam.
Clay will also retain much water than sand and loam
Loam pass and retain moderate amount of water.
Conclusion
Clay soil has a poor drainage and a high water retention/holding capacity.
Loam has an average.
Sand has a high drainage with poor retention.
The percentage of water retained can be got by the formular
=

SOIL CAPILLARITY
This is the ability of water to rise through the small pores of the soil. It is brought about by the
forces of adhesion and cohesion.
Experiment to determine soil capillarity
Apparatus
• Tubes
• Stand
• Cotton wool
• Water
• Water trough
• Different samples
Procedure
• Get tubes that are open on both sides.
• Plug the bottom end of the tubes with cotton wool as shown below.
• Fill the tubes with different dry soil samples.
• Place the plugged end of the tube in a bath/trough of water.
Setup of the experiment
 Observation
• Clay soil show the highest level of water rise
• Loam shows tan average.
• Sand shows the lowest level of water rise.
During the observation water rises very fast in sand soil showing that sand loses water easily.
SOIL COLOUR
The colour of the soil is an important indicator of certain physical and chemical characteristics.
Soil colour is due to
• Organic matter content (humus content)
• Mineral elements (chemical nature of iron compounds present)
• Soil conditions (drainage and aeration) soils are commonly described as

(i) Dark; which includes black, dark grey and dark brown.

(ii) Bright; which includes yellow, red, reddish-brown and yellow brown.

(iii) Light; white or whitish grey.

The colour can be predominant or common at certain layers of the soil profile e.g.

Dark colour in A-horizon and O-horizon and light or as grey in alluvial layer in podzols.

POROSITY

This refers to the pore spaces in the soil. This is determined by particles size e.g. sand surface soils
35-50%, their arrangement (structure), organic matter content (40-60%), biological activity,
consistency i.e. the degree of cohesion of the soil mass and its resistance to pressure. When
particles are large, the pore spaces are big (macro pores) but when particles are fine they are closely
packed so the pore spacws are small )(micro-pores). The pores determine air and small content of a
particular soil e.g.

(i) Macro-pores contain more air but less water.

(ii) Micro-pores contain less air but retain more water.

(iii) The finer the soil texture, the greater the total area and poor spaces or porosity. Thus sand
soil has the largest percentage of pore space i.e. 50-60% and clay soil has the lowest
percentage (10-30%, loam is moderate (30-50%)
(iv) Soil compaction and cementation by iron oxides. These have low porosity while granulated
or well-structured soils have high porosity.
Factors influencing aeration
• Texture of the soil; rough textured soil like sand is more aerated than clay.

• Soil structure; granular structure is more aerated than others.

• Living organism; the more the number of living organisms the more the soil is aerated.
 • Organic matter content; the more the organic matter the more the aeration.

• Soil water/moisture; water logged areas are less aerated because air spaces are occupied
by water.
• Tillage implements used; heavy machines compact the soil thus reducing air space.

Effects of poor aeration

• Reduces the number of living organisms

• Reduces seed germination

• Leads to poor drainage of water

• Leads to poor root development.

• Leads to stunted growth of plants

Improving aeration
• Marling of soil i.e. mixing different soil samples.

• Application of organic matter.

• Frequent cultivation

• Liming

• Draining water logged areas.

SOIL TEMPERATURE
This is the measure of hotness or coldness of the soil.
Importance of soil temperature.
• It controls the moisture content of the soil by affecting the rate of evaporation.
• It affects the aeration of the soil by influencing the moisture content of the soil.
• It controls the germination of seeds. All seeds require a certain critical temperature of
activation of their enzymes before germination can begin.
• It controls root extension and development directly because the roots need warmth to
grow, and indirectly by controlling the aeration and water content of the soil.
• Increasing soil temperature increases cell wall permeability.
• Temperature controls the uptake of water and minerals salts through its control on
solubility, water movement and root extension.
• It affects microbial activity within agiven range of temperature, increasing soil
temperature increases microbial activity e.g. below 50c nitrification stops and it is
optimum between 50C-320C and stops at 950C
• It indirectily affects the availability of plant nutrients by affecting the rate of breakdown
of organic matter.
• It affects the rate of weathering by influencing the rate of chemical reactions and the rate
microbial activity.
Qn; Explain the effects of soil temperature on soil productivity?
Factors that influence soil temperature
Organic matter content of the soil; it imparts a dark colour to the soil, increasing its temperature
absorption capacity.
Water holding capacity/drainage; water logged soils generally have lower temperatures than well
drained ones.
Ambient temperatures; the atmospheric temperatures directly influences the soil temperatures i.e.
the hotter the climate the higher the soil temperature.
Modification of soil temperature.
• By application of organic matter
• Improving soil drainage
• Through irrigation for high temperatures in the soil.
• Establishing sheds to guard against very high temperatures e.g.in a nursery beds.
BULK DENSITY AND PARTICLE DENSITY OF SOIL
Bulk density (BD) is the ratio of weight to volume of the soil.
It is the weight per unit volume of an air dry soil sample with its natural structure.
I.e. Bulk density =

It is expressed in g/cm3. The volume includes both solids and pores.

 Factors that influence bulk density
Organic matter; organic matter is very light and spongy and so encourages a fluffy, porous
condition in the soil which results in a low bulk density.
Soil texture(particles); fine textured soils like clay have low bulk density while coarse textured
soil like sand has higher bulk densities than other soil. This is because the particles of sand
generally lie in closer contact than those of finer textured surface soils. Also, sandy soils generally
contain less organic matter and water.
Soil depth; bulk density tends to increase the deeper one goes into the soil profile. This is due to
the lower organic matter content, less aggregation and root penetration and the compaction caused
by weight of the overlying layers of the soil.
Soil pores; soils containing more pores will have low bulk density than those with low pores.
Level of cultivation; intensive cultivation increases the bulk density because it causes rapid break
down of organic matter and also causes compaction of the soil.
System of soil management; the addition of manures in large amounts to the soil lowers the bulk
density of the soil.
Cropping system; continuous cropping reduces the amount of organic matter and reduces the bulk
density.
Particle density (PD) is the mass per unit volume of the soil solids. The oven dried soil is
compressed and then its particle density found using the formula.
PD=
Particle density is greatly influenced by the following;
• The nature of the minerals present in the soil; presence of heavy minerals e.g. magnetite
increases the particle density of the soil.
• Organic matter content; organic matter reduces the particle density of the soil because it is
less dense.
Expected ranges of bulk density values.
Moist soils 100-1.8
Construction sand 1.45-1.65
Sand peat mix 1.17-1.42
Sandy soils 1.4-1.7
Clay soil 1.0-1.5
Compacted soil 1.6-2.0

How to calculate bulk density and particle density of the soil

Measure 100g of W1, pour it into a measuring cylinder and record its volume in the table below.
Measure 100 cm3 of water and add to W1 in the cylinder. Stir and record the volume of the mixture
in the table. Repeat the procedure using W2
Specimen Mass(g) Vol. of specimen Vol. of water Vol. of mixture
W1 100 90 cm3 100 cm3 140 cm3
W2 100 70 cm3 100 cm3 136 cm3

From the results, calculate

(i) Volume of air in each specimen
W1
Expected volume of mixture = 190 cm3
But new volume = 140 cm3
Therefore volume of air = expected volume - obtained/new volume
= 190 – 140 = 50 cm3
W2
Expected volume of mixture = 170 cm3
But new volume is 136 cm3
Therefore volume of air = expected volume – obtained/new volume
= 170 – 136 = 34 cm3
(ii) Bulk density of each specimen
W1 = B.D = =
W2 = B.D = =

Particle density of each specimen

W1= PD =

W2= PD =

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF THE SOIL

The chemical properties of the soil includes
• Soil pH
 • Cation exchange capacity (CEC)
• Mineral matter.
SOIL pH (soil reaction)
This refers to the acidity or Alkalinity of the soil. PH means potential of hydrogen ions.
The soil high in hydrogen ions (H+) and sometimes (Al3+) tend to be acidic in nature. This is
common in areas with very high precipitation that leaches the bases out of the soil.
Alkalinity occurs in the soils with high hydroxyl ions (OH-) and comparatively high degree of base
saturation like Ca2+, Mg2+, Na2+.
Where the H+ and OH- are equal, the soil is said to be neutral.
Soil pH = =

Sources of hydrogen ions

The sources of hydrogen ions may be classified as permanent or pH dependent. Permanent sources
of H+ are those located on the internal surfaces of the clay crystals. They do not directly influence
this soil pH unless are those broken down.
PH dependent sources are those directly related to soil pH. They are found at the broken edges and
external surface of silicate clays and from the humus colloids. As the pH increases, these H+ are
released from the colloids into the soil solution
Sources of hydroxyl ions
If the the hydrogen ions and aluminum ions are replaced with cations like Ca2+, Mg2+, K2+, the
concentration of hydrogen ions will decrease. The hydroxyl ion concentration will simultaneously
increase since there is an inverse relationship between H+ and OH-. The cations liberate hydroxyl
ions when they hydrolyze. i.e.
Ca2+[micelle] + 2H2O 2H[micelle] + Ca2+ + 2OH-
Active and reserve acidity
The hydrogen ions in the soil solution constitute the active acidity of the soil. The hydrogen ions
and aluminium ions held on the soil colloids are referred to as the reserve or exchange acidity of
the soil.
Soils therefore have a buffering capacity. Removal of hydrogen ions from the soil solution results
in their being replenished by the reserve acidity. Hydrogen ions would move out of the soil colloids
into the soil solution ensuring only a slight change in pH
When more H+ are added to the soil, a temporary increase in the concentration of H+ in the soil
solution occurs. H+ would then be removed from the soil solution and adsorbed onto the soil
colloids. Again the pH change would be small. The buffering capacity of the soils is dependent on
the adsorbed cations in the soil.
Buffering capacity of the soil is the ability of the soil to resistance/allow changes in soil pH.
Importance of soil pH
• It controls the availability of nutrients to plants. Some nutrients are converted into insoluble
forms in extremes of pH e.g. phosphorous becomes unavailable in very acidic or in very
alkaline pH. At pH above 8.5, manganese, potassium, iron and zinc become less available.
Nitrogen is available at pH of 6-8.
• It controls the type of crop to be grown. Oarts and barley prefer an alkaline pH while tea (4-5
pH) and cotton prefer acidic soils. Rice prefer 5-6 pH.
• It controls the presence of soil living organisms most of which prefer slightly acidic to
slightly alkaline soils. This may be because at such pH, nutrient conditions are favourable.
• It controls the presence of disease causing organisms. In acidic soils fungal diseases are
common while in alkaline soils, bacterial diseases are common.
• It controls the type of fertilizer to be applied e.g. sulphate of ammonia fertilizers should not
be applied in acidic soils continuously.
• It determines the toxicity of elements e.g. in extremely acidic soils manganese and iron
become too soluble and may become toxic to plants.
Causes of soil acidity
• Presence of acidic soluble salts; these may arise from fertilizer, organic matter decay or
weathering of minerals. If they are acids, they undergo hydrolysis to yield acids.
• Leaching of bases; when bases are leached, they are replaced by H+ that cause acidity.
• Presence of organic matter; the break down of organic matter in the soil produces
organic and inorganic acids. Humus may also react with iron and aluminium ions to
form complexes which subsequently undergo hydrolysis to yield H+ .
• Water logging; excessive water causes hydrolysis of some cations in the soil. These are
replaced by H+. it also causes a buildup of carbon dioxide which causes acidity.
• Rain water; carbon dioxide in the atmosphere can dissolve in the rain water to form
carbonic acid. The atmosphere also contains gases such as sulphur dioxide and
nitrogen dioxide which form acids.
 • Biological activities in the soil; aerobic and anaerobic decomposition of organic matter
produce carbon dioxide which leads to the formation of carbonic acids.. This dissolves
the bases and encourages leaching. Some plants also produce acidic exudates.
• Uptake/absorption of the bases by plants. The plants absorb cations and these are
replaced by H+.
• Application of acidic fertilizers; fertilizers such assulphate of ammonium hydrolyze to
give rise to nitric acid and sulphuric acid. Also all nitrates are soluble and when
soluble nitrates are leached, they take cations with them.
• Weathering; the soil could have been formed from acidic parent materials e.g. granite
contains an excess of quartz or silica which combine with water to form acids e.g.
silicic acids. This is the case with most sandy soils.
Causes of alkalinity
Any process which encourages the buildup of exchangeable bases e.g. Ca, Mg, K and Na or those
that permit them to remain in the soil encourage alkalinity.
• Weathering; the soil might have been formed from alkaline parent materials such as
limestone or calcitic rocks.
• Irrigation; irrigation water contain salts which release cations that are adsorbed by the soil
colloids increasing soil alkanity.
• Addition of base containing materials to the soil such as lime.
• Drought; this reduces precipitation and leaching of the bases thus encouraging alkalinity.
• Ground water may carry bases into the soil in low topographic positions and leave them there
when it evaporates.
NB; Saline soil contain dissolved substances known as salts e.g. chlorides, sulphates, carbonates
and bicarbonates of Ca, Mg, Na and K.
Sodicity refers to the amount of sodium present in irrigation water.
A sodic soil contains high level of sodium relative to the other exchangeable cations i.e. Ca, Mg
and K.
Problems associated with acidity in the soil
• It affects availability of plant nutrients e.g. phosphorous is not available in acidic soils.
• It causes high concentrations of iron and aluminium which are toxic to plants.
• It inhibits the activity of important soil microbes such as nitrifying bacteria.
• Fungal pathogens are more prevalent in acidic soils.
• Most crops cannot grow in very acidic soils.
• It increases the cost of production as the farmer has to incur liming costs.
DETERMINATION OF SOIL PH
There are two common methods of determining soil pH
Electromagnetic method; this is done by use of pH meter where the hydrogen ion concentration
of the soil is balanced against a standard hydrogen electrode. It is however expensive and requires
skills though very accurate.
Dye method/universal indicator method; indicators/dyes change colour with increase or decrease
in pH. A soil sample is saturated with the dye and after a few minutes, the colour of the dye is
compared with a suitable colour chart and read off where the colours match. This method is
however less accurate than the electromagnetic method and the method depends on the ratio of the
soil and water used to wet the soil prior to mechanization.
Procedure for determining soil pH using a universal indicator
• Fill/put like 20g of soil in a clean test tube
• Add 20ml of barium sulphate (BaSO4).this help to break down the coarse soil particles
into fine particles.
• Add 20ml of distilled water (same volume of soil and BaSO4)
• Shake the test tube vigorously.
• Allow the content to settle, then add 6-10 drops(1-2ml) of universal indicator
• Shake/mix the test tube again and allow the contents to settle.
• Hold the test tube against a printed colour chart.
• Compare each colour of the chart with the colour of the suspension containing the
indicator and note the pH.
NB; the amount of barium sulphate and distilled water must be equal.
PH scale

Neutral
Acidity Alkalinity
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

PH chart

PH 1,2 3,4 5,6 7,8 9,10 11,12 13,14

Colour Red/ Pink Yellow Green Blue Indigo Dark blue
Orange
Degree Strongl Moderat Fairly Neutral Weakly Moderat Strongly
y acidic ely ely
Acidic alkalin alkaline
Acidic e alkaline

The pH scale and chart is numbered from 1-14, pH 1-6 is acidic (low pH), pH7 is neutral while pH
8-14 is alkaline (high pH)
The acidity decreases from pH 1-6 while the alkalinity increases from pH 8-14.
The acidic pH is shaded in red while alkaline pH is shaded in blue.
SOIL MODIFICATION
Lowering soil pH
The high pH (alkaline) is lowered to a low pH (acidic) by addition of sulphur or acidic fertilizer
such as sulphate of ammonia.
If the pH is high or low, it can be neutralized by addition of organic matter.
Importance of lowering soil pH.
It enable the growing of certain crops e.g. tea and ornamentals
• It eliminates deficiencies of iron, manganese and zinc in alkaline soils.
• Discourages certain diseases e.g. potato scab caused by actinomycetes.
Methods of modifying alkaline soil.
• Applying acidic organic matter; pine needles, saw dust, moss and peat are used to make
acidic compost manure. This acidic compost is commonly used in growing ornamental
plants.

• Use of chemiclas e.g. ferrous sulphate and other acidic fertilizers e.g. sulphate of
ammonia (NH4SO4). These salts hydrolyze to produce sulphuric acid which drastically
lowers soil pH.

Raising soil pH

A low pH (acidic reaction) is usually raised to high pH (alkaline) by addition of lime in the soil

LIMING

This is the practice in scientific soil management, where by unfavourable soil condition associated
with acidity may be corrected by the application of lime.

Lime is a component of calcium or magnesium. Lime when applied to the soil, the soil pH raises
after time lag.

Lime material include;

• Calcium carbonate (CaCO3)

• Corals or shells

• Calcium oxide or quick lime/ burned lime

• Wood ash

• Sugar factory lime

 • Paper mill refuse which contains calcium carbonate.

• Calcium hydroxide (CaCOH) i.e. lime water.

Qualities of a good liming material.

• It should have a mild alkalizing effect. It should be mild enough to cause no harm where
overdose is applied.

• It should result into a desirable proportion of cations adsorbed on the cation exchange
sites. These cations should mostly be calcium or magnesium.

• It should have a favourable effect on soil structure. The most favourable for soil
structure is calcium.

• It should not be expensive.

• It should be relatively easy to handle, store and apply.

• It should leave no objective residues in the soil.

Factors considered before liming

PH of the soil; lime should be added after the pH has been found to be very low.

Buffer capacity or reserve acidity of the soil; this tends to resist changes in the pH and so should
be taken into account. This buffer capacity is affected by soil texture and organic matter content.

Percentage base saturation; the availability and activity of the bases should be considered as they
have the capacity to replace H+ on the exchange sites.

Type of crop to be grown; different crops have different pH requirements e.g. tea require low pH
(acidic)

Fineness of the liming materials (limestone or carbonate used); if the carbonate are fine, smaller
amounts should be used than when they are rough. If quick liming is required, fine liming materials
are used but if the farmer wants long lasting effect, large sized particles of lime should be used.

Economic returns in relation to the cost of the lime. The benefits of liming should be able to
offset the cost of the lime before liming can be undertaken.

How lime reduces soil acidity

Lime reduces acidity by

(i) Reducing the amount of carbon dioxide. It reacts with the carbon dioxide or carbonic acid to
form bicarbonates e.g.

CaO +H2O Ca(OH)2

Ca(OH)2 + 2H2CO3 Ca(HCO3)2 + 2H2O

CaCO3 + H2CO3 Ca(HCO3)2

(ii) Replacing the adsorbed hydrogen in the soil colloidal complex i.e.

2H[micelle] + CaCO3 Ca[micelle] + H2O + CO2

Carbonate is freely evolved by these reactions and lost from the soil. The adsorption of Ca2+
and Mg2+ rises the percentage base saturation of the colloidal complex and hence the pH of the
soil solution.
Loss of lime from the soil.
• Soil erosion
• Crop removal
• Leaching
Effects of over liming
• Excessive application of lime reduces the availability of nutrients e.g. Mn, Cu, Zn, P and
Bo.
 • The drastic change in soil pH also affects some plants adversely.
• It induces the spread of diseases e.g. potato scab
These effects can be reduced by;-
• Applying manure
• Applying dolomite limestone which is milder than calcitic limestone.
• Using coarse lime which is milder than fine lime and has more long term effects.
Functions/benefits of lime
• Lime is essential for the growth of plants and animals. It provides essential nutrients such as
calcium and magnesium.
• Matter. It neutralizes the organic acids produced by the breakdown of organic matter. It also
replaces the hydrogen ions adsorbed on the soil particles (micelle) with Ca2+ and Mg2+ and
reduces soil acidity.
• It converts phosphates and iron in the soil into usable or available forms. Phosphorous is
generally more readily available in neutral to slightly acidic soils.
• Lime enables utilization of soluble acidic manures e.g. phosphates dissolved bones and
ammonium sulphate. It prevents any damage that would result from the acidic nature of
these manures.
• It makes clay soils easier to cultivate. It also binds light soil particles more closely together
and so improves the water holding capacity of sandy soils. Generally it improves the
physical condition of the soil.
• It promotes the development of a big population of soil organisms. These break down organic
matter to release nutrients.
• The increased activity of soil living organisms leads to the break down and elimination of
certain organic intermediate products that would have been toxic to higher plants.
• It prevents diseases which flourish in acidic soils e.g. the fungal diseases.
• It reduces the toxicity of aluminium and manganese that are very soluble in acidic soils that
are deficient in the bases.
• It promotes nitrification by symbiotic and non-symbiotic bacteria and also the oxidation of
sulphur.
CATION EXCHANGE CAPACITY (CEC)
This is the sum total of exchangeable cations that a soil can adsorb.
Factors affecting CEC of the soil.
Soil texture; fine textured soil such as clay has a high CEC than coarse textured soil such as sandy
soil.
Amount of organic matter content; the higher the organic matter content the higher the CEC
Amount of clay; the higher the clay content in the soil the higher the CEC.
Soil pH; the CEC in most soils increases with pH. The higher the pH, the higher the CEC.

PLANT NUTRIENTS/ELEMENTS
A nutrient is an element required for proper plant growth. These nutrients are required by plants for
their physiological, biochemical and biomass increase functions.
An element is regarded as essential if;
• Its deficiency results into specific deficiency symptoms or growth abnormalities.
• The deficiency symptoms or growth abnormalities can only be corrected by supplying the
nutrient in question i.e. it cannot be substituted by another.
• The element is directly involved in the metabolism with in the plant and its effects can be
demonstrated in a number of species.
There are over 17 essential elements, three of which are from air i.e. C, H and O2. The others come
from the soil i.e. nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), magnesium (Mg), sulphur (S), manganese (Mn),
iron (Fe), Boron (B), Zinc (Zn), Copper (Cu), molybdenum (Mo), chlorine (Cl), Vanadium (V),
cobalt (Co), silicon (Si).
NB; mineral salts are absorbed through the roots in the process called active transport while
is absorbed in the process of osmosis.
Micro and micro nutrients
Plant nutrients which are required in relatively large quantities are called macro or major elements
e.g. N, P, K, Mg, Ca, S, C, H & O.
Plant nutrients which are required by plants I relatively small quantities are called micro or minor
or trace elements e.g. V, Bo, Zn, Cu, Co, Mo, Mn, Fe, Cl.
The macronutrients are subdivided into primary and secondary nutrients. Primary nutrients are
required in relatively larger quantities than the secondary nutrients. Also the deficiency symptoms
of the primary nutrients are more frequent than those of secondary nutrients. Primary nutrients
include N, P & K while secondary nutrients include Ca, Mg and S.
CARBON, HYDROGEN AND OXYGEN
These elements are derived from the air and are known as organic elements/nutrients.
Carbon and hydrogen are derived from the air through photosynthesis but hydrogen and oxygen
can be derived from the soil moisture.
• C, H & O are important in the process of photosynthesis during which carbohydrates are
made in the presence of chlorophyll and sun light.
• Oxygen is used in the respiration of plants i.e. breaking of products of photosynthesis to
release energy.
NITROGEN
Uses
• It is used in cell division and growth.
• It is used in chlorophyll formation.
• It is used in protein and enzyme formation.
• It increases the size of grains and their protein content.
• It controls/regulates the use of other nutrients e.g. K & P.
• It encourages rapid vegetative growth necessary in leafy crops/vegetables e.g. a
maranthus, lettuce, cabbage, spinach and grasses.
• It increases the plumpness of grains and their protein content.
• It increases succulence which is a desirable quality in some crops like vegetables such as
lettuce, melons, cucumber etc.
Deficiency symptoms of nitrogen
• Chlorosis i.e. the leaves lose their green colour and become yellowis.
• Stunted growth
• Premature ripening of fruits and seeds.
• Premature loss of leaves.
• Restricted/reduced root development.
• Early flowering
• Reduced grain sizes in cereals.
Effects of excessive nitrogen
• Lodging or falling of the stems to the ground due to excessive succulence.
• Delayed maturity of the crops due to excessive vegetative growth.
• Excess nitrogen interferes with the uptake of P & K which are essential for the initiation
of the reproductive phase.
• Scorching of leaves.
• Reduced yield due to excessive vegetative growth.
• Susceptibility to foliar diseases/ easy spread of leaf diseases because the plants are
protein rich and remain green for longer.
• It leads to poor grain and fruit quality e.g. in barley and apples respectively.
• Leads to reduced quality and weakness of fibres in fibre crops such as cotton and sisal.
• Excessive succulence/excessive sap production.
• Leads to deep green colour in some plants.
Sources of nitrogen
The ultimate sources of nitrogen is the gaseous nitrogen that forms 78% of the atmosphere. It is
however converted into usable soil nitrogen by various processes.
(i) Symbiotic nitrogen fixation e.g. by rhizobium sp.
The bacteria enter the roots through the hairs and cause irritation to the plants. The irritation leads
to the formation of galls (nodules) in which the bacteria live. The plant provides carbohydrates for
energy while the bacteria fixes nitrogen into amino, ammonium and amide forms that are used by
plants.
Symbiotic nitrogen fixation can be enhanced if the nitrogen fixing bacteria is artificially
introduced to the correct plant species, this is called inoculation.
Factors affecting symbiotic nitrogen fixation.
• Soil pH; the organisms (bacteria) are sensitive to an excess of hydrogen ions and die of easily
in acidic conditions.
• Amount of calcium in the soil; calcium favours nodule formation and nitrogen fixation.
• Other macro and micro nutrients; these are required for the normal functioning of the
organisms (plants & bacteria).
• Amount of water in the soil; legumes tend to shed off their nodules during prolonged drought.
• Sufficient carbohydrates for the bacteria; the bacteria require assure source of carbohydrates
for their energy.
• Effective nodulation capacity of the plant; some plants produce more nodules than others and
hence fix more nitrogen.
• Inoculation of the crop with the correct species of bacteria. This increases the rate of nitrogen
fixation.
 (ii) Non symbiotic fixation
Some organisms are able to fix elemental nitrogen from the soil air into their body tissue. Since the
organisms are not directly associated with higher plants, they are often referred to as non-symbiotic
of free living fixers e.g. bacteria like Azotobacter, nitrococcus and Beijerinckia (aerobic) and
clostridium Sp (anaerobic). Others include blue-green algae common in lowland rice gardens.
Factors affecting non-symbiotic nitrogen fixation
• Level of soil nitrogen; fixation is encouraged by low levels of soil nitrogen.
• Soil pH; different fixers require different pH for optimum performance e.g. the blue-green
algae can survive in acidic soils while bacteria may not tolerate excess acidiy.
• Organic matter content; organic matter is essential to provide energy to the organisms.
• Light; blue-green algae require light since they are autotrophic.
• Amount of soil water; a few fixers can tolerate drought but all need some moisture to survive
and do well. Blue-green algae grow best in water logged soils.
(iii) Rain
Lightening causes ionization of nitrogen. It then forms nitrates that are washed down with the rain.
The rain also washes down nitrogenous compounds such sa ammonia, nitrates and nitrites that may
have been released by volatilization, burning and industrial pollution. It only contributes a small
proportion of the nitrogen in the soil.
(iv) Organic matter;
The breakdown of organic matter yields some nitrogen. Some organic matter is very rich in
nitrogen and maybe packaged and sold as fertilizer e.g. cotton seed cake and guano.
(v) Application of nitrogen fertilizer;
Atmospheric nitrogen is made to react with hydrogen in the harber’s process. The NH3 produced is
then used to make variety of fertilizers e.g. NPK, sulphate of Ammonia, urea, CAN etc.
Absorption form of nitrogen
Most higher plants absorb nitrogen in form of nitrates (NO3-). However, some can absorb nitrogen
in form of ammonia (NH4+) and sometimes nitrites (NO3-) especially the young plants and those
living in acidic and water logged conditions e.g. tea and rice respectively.
Loss of nitrogen (fate of nitrogen)
• Through leaching; the soluble nitrogen may be lost to the lower layers of the soil especially
in humid areas and where irrigation is practiced.
• Through volatilization; the nitrogen may be lost in gaseous form especially in poorly drained
and aerated soils. Some facultative organisms use the combined oxygen in nitrates and
some nitrogen will be lost especially in the form of nitrous oxides. This is called
denitrification. Also, nitrites give off nitrogen when they react with ammonium salts, urea
and carbohydrats in acidic conditions e.g.
2HNO2 + CO(NH2) CO2 + 3H2 O+ 2N2 (g)
• Through soil erosion; the soil and organic matter that are washed away contain nitrogen that
is also lost.
• Burning; this destroys the organic matter and the nitrogen it contains is lost in the smoke.
• Plant uptake; all crops absorbs nitrogen from the soil for protein synthesis.
• Fixation by clay minerals; some clay minerals fix nitrogen especially the ammonium form
and release it too slowly to be of practical value.
• Immobilization; this may be due to the formation of protoplasm by bacteria and other
organisms. Microbes use nitrogen to build uo their body tissues.
• Drainage; the dissolved nitrogen is carried away by the excess water as it is removed from the
soil.
• Through crop removal i.e. when crops are removed and residues are not allowed to
decompose from the field.
THE NITROGEN CYCLE.
Nitrogen cycle is a bio-cycle in which nitrogen is transferred through many processes to different
forms and back to its original state. It shows the inflow and outflow and the changes that occur in
the nature of nitrogen in the environment. There is 78% nitrogen in the atmosphere. This is the
ultimate source of nitrogen in the soil. The atmospheric nitrogen is converted into usable soil
nitrogen by several processes such as lightning, fixation, manufacture of fertilizers.
Illustration

Denitrification
(pseudomonas)
 Nitrates

Absorption Feeding
Nitrification
(Nitrobacter)
Death Decomposition/

Putrification

Nitrification Mineralization/
Ammonification
(Nitrosomonas)

Description
Atmospheric nitrogen is fixed by bacteria. Some live freely in the soil and air e.g.
Azotobacter (Non-symbiotic fixation) and others such as the Rhizobia are found
inside the root nodules of leguminous plants like peas, beans, groundnuts etc
(symbiotic fixation). This atmospheric nitrogen is changed into nitrates which
absorbed by the plants from the soil. All the bacteria responsible for the whole
process of nitrogen fixation are called nitrogen fixing bacteria.
The nitrogen in the plant proteins is passed to animals through the food chain by
feeding and digestion forming animal proteins.
Plants and animals die and decompose in the process of putrification through the
help of microbes to form organic matter.
When living organisms such as microbes like bacteria breakdown proteins and
animal remains in the decomposition process, amino acids and similar nitrogenous
compounds (from organic matter) are yielded and after converted into ammonium
compounds in the process of ammonification.
Ammonium compounds are changed into nitrates by nitrifying bacteria. First
nitrosomonas changes ammonium compounds into nitrites (NO2-) then nitrobacter
changes nitrites into nitrates (NO3-). However, ammonium compounds can be
changed into atmospheric nitrogen through denitrification.
Nitrates are converted back into atmospheric nitrogen by denitrifying bacteria such
as pseudomonas and thiobacillus.
Definition of key terms
Nitrification; this is the biochemical (enzymatic) oxidation of ammonium
compounds to form nitrates. Or it is the conversion of ammonium compounds into
nitrates. This is done in two stages i.e.
Ammonium compounds are oxidized into nitrites or nitrous acid. This is
accomplished by bacteria known as nitrosomonas (and nitrococcus)
NH4+ + O2 2NO2- + 2H2O + 2H2 (g)
The nitrite is converted/oxidized into nitrates by bacteria called nitrobacter.
NO2- + O2 NO3-
The nitrite is usually quickly converted into nitrates to pevent a buildup of nitrous acid which is
toxic to plants.
Factors affecting nitrication.
• Aeration; increasing aeration e.g. by cultivation increases nitrification since it is an oxidative
process.
• Temperature; nitrogen is highest at the optimum temperature for nitrifying bacteria 80-900F.
• Moisture; nitrification is retarded by very low and very high moisture contents. Nitrification
can however occur at low levels in limited moisture conditions.
• Exchangeable bases; nitrification requires an abundance of exchangeable bases especially
calcium.
• Fertilizers; small amounts of many elements encourage nitrification. A reasonable balance of
N, P& K also encourages nitrification.
• Application of large amounts of ammonium compounds depresses nitrification. Ammonia is
apparently toxic to nitrobacter but does not adversely affect nitrosomonas. Excess ammonia
therefore encourages a buildup of toxic nitrites.
• The carbon-nitrogen ratio; if organic matter with a very high C:N ratio is applied to the soil.
Nitrification is reduced because the bacteria involved in the breakdown of the organic
matter will use up all the nitrogen available to build their bodies.
Denitrification
This is the biochemical reduction of nitrates (or ammonium comounds) to gaseous nitrogen either
as molecular nitrogen or oxides of nitrogen. It is done by pseudomonas and thiobacillus bacteria
Factors that favour denitrification.

Mineralization
This is the process by which organic matter is decomposed to release simple inorganic ions which
may be absorbed by plants.
It is the conversion of an element from an organic form to an inorganic form as a result of
microbial decomposition.
Immobilization
This is the conversion of an element from its inorganic form to organic form in microbial/plant
tissues. Or it is the process by which micro organisms use nitrogen to build up their body tissues.
This makes the element not available to plants.
Aminization
This is the process of converting the more complex proteins and allied compounds to amino acid
groups.
Ammonification
This is the conversion of amino acid into ammonium ions (NH4+).
Management of nitrogen in the soil
• Add organic matter to the soil
• Carryout crop rotation/bush fallowing
• Seed inoculation with the right bacteria
• Applying nitrogenous fertilizers
• Drainage to improve aeration and discourage denitrifaction
• Control soil erosion
• Pollution control
How plants absorb nitrates from the soil
Plants absorbs nutrients through root hairs using passive absorption in solution with water and
active transport which requires energy. Absorption is selective.
The nitrates cross the cortex of the root through the apoplast, symplast and vascular path ways to
the xylem vessels of the root.
The transpiration pull translocates them up the plant.
From the xylem vessels, the nitrates are conveyed to the cells probably by diffusion and active
transport.

PHOSPHORUS
Uses
• It encourages the formation, development and establishment of roots especially
secondary roots(lateral and fibrous rootlets)
• It strengthens the stems (straw) of cereal plants and reduces lodging.
• It is an essential element in various metabolic processes such as phosynsthesis, cell
division, amino acid metabolism and respiration (ATP formation).
• It imparts disease resistance to certain crops.
• It is used in the formation of fats e.g. the phosph-lipids and proteins like albumen.
• It helps in flowering and fruit formation. It is essential for the change of plant from
vegetative to a reproductive phase i.e. it stimulates blooming (flowering) and seed
formation.
• It improves crop quality especially in horticultural forage crops and cereals.
• It is a constituent of nucleic acids. (protein synthesis)
• It controls the absorption of other nutrients especially nitrogen and potassium.
Sources of phosphorus
• Artificial fertilizers e.g. SSP, DSP, NPK
• Organic matter/manure
• Weathering of rocks containing phosphorus e.g. rock phosphate.
Absorption form of phosphorus
• Plants absorb phosphorus in the monovalent form or primary orthophosphate ion
(H2PO4-)
• Other plants however can absorb phosphorus in a divalent form or secondary
orthophosphate ion (HPO42-).
Nitrogen in the
• Plants may also absorb soluble organic phosphates e.g. those contained in phytin.
atmosphere
Absorption of phosphorus is affected by pH values of the soil. When it is high, absorption of
2-
HPO4 occurs while low pH valves increase the absorption of the primary orthophosphate ion
(H2PO4-) Symbiotic nitrogen fixation by
Factors affecting the availability of phosphorus. Rhizobium
Nitrogen
Soil pH; phosphorus is most a vailable at fixation
pH 6-7. This is because the ionic form of phosphorus
present in the soil changes with pH. In extremely acidic pH, H2PO4- become more available. As the
Azotobacter (Rhizium bacteria)
soil becomes more alkaline, H2PO4- is changed to HPO42- and then finally to PO43-. i.e.
H2PO4- H2O + HPO42- H2O + PO43

H2PO4- may be more available than HPO42 but(Azotoba

the availability of both is best.
cter) Plants Animals
Availability of soluble iron, aluminium and manganese; these react with H2PO4-
ions rendering the phosphorus insoluble and unavailable for plant growth. Iron and
aluminium would form insoluble hydroxyphosphates e.g
Al3+ + H2PO4- + 2H2O 2 H+ + Al(OH)2H2PO4 + OH-
Presence of calcium and calcium minerals; calcium minerals cause precipitation of phosphates in
alkaline soils. If soils contain calcium carbonate, available phosphorus will react with both the
calcium ion and its carbonate i.e.
Ca(H2PO4)2 + 2Ca2+ Ca3(PO4)2 + 4H+
Amount and decomposition of organic matter; organic matter contains phytin phosphor-lipids
and nucleic acids which contain phosphorus. Phytin may be absorbed directly while the nucleic
acids have to be broken down by enzymes at the root surfaces and the phosphorus Organic matter
is then absorbed.
Organic matter may also reduce phosphorus fixation in mineral soils.
Activaties of microorganisms (mineralization); rapid decomposition of organic matter and the
Nitrites
consequent high microbial population results in temporary tying up of inorganic phosphates in
microbial tissues. Prodducts of organic decay e.g. organic acids and humus also form complexes
with Al & Fe compounds. This reduces the fixation of phosphorous by Fe & Al. humus and lignin
also helps to release phosphorus after it had been fixed as basic iron phosphate.
Types of silicate clays present in the soil; some silicate clays fix more phosphorus than others.
Loss of phosphorus (fate of phosphorus)
• Leaching
• Soil erosion Ammonium
• Crop removal
 • Fixation by Fe, Al, Mn and clays. Compound
Deficiency symptoms
• The plants become purple or red in colour especially cereals due to accumulation of
pigments other than chlorophyll (anthocyanin pigmentation)
• Low yields of grains, fruits and root crops.
• Lower/reduced growth rate than normal.
• Delayed maturity and stunted growth.
• Slender stalks.
• Reduced resistance to diseases
• Lodging of plants due to weak stems and very succulent stems.
• Premature leaf fall and dead areas on fruits and leaves
• Leaves become dark-to blue-green in appearance and develop dead patches.
• The axillary bud s fail to grow( become dormant)
• Poor branching of roots and stems.
Management of soil phosphorus.
• Soil pH control; keeping the soil pH at 6.0-7.0 keeps phosphate fixation at a minimum
by reducing the solubility of Fe, Al & Mn in acid soil or the formation of insoluble
calcium phosphate in alkaline soils.
• Placing the fertilizer in localized bands; this reduces contact with the soil and hence
prevents rapid reaction of the fertilizers with the soil minerals.
• Pelleting of phosphate fertilizers; phosphate fertilizers are often pelleted or aggregated
and may be coated with kaolin to reduce their contact with the soil.
• Addition of organic matter to the soil; the organic matter adds phosphorus, buffers soil
pH and also helps to release some phosphorus from the insoluble iron-phosphate
complexes.
• Erosion control; this prevents the washing away of the soil particles and organic matter
and so the soil phosphorus is maintained.

POTASSIUM (K)
Uses
• It is needed in nitrogen metabolism and synthesis of proteins.
• It reduces lodging of plants brought about by excessive nitrogen by encouraging strong roots
and strengthening cellulose in cell walls.
• It encourages the growth of meristematic tissues i.e. terminal buds and root tips.
• It is important in the formation of both chlorophyll and starch.
• It regulates the availability and use of essential elements such as phosphorus and nitrogen e.g.
it prevents undue ripening caused by excess phosphorus.
• It activates enzymes.
• It is involved in the movement of stomata and maintenance of water in plants. Therefore it
plays a big role in maintaining plants turgor.(closing and opening of stomata)
• It is necessary in the development of tubers such as Irish and sweet potatoes.
• It is used in various metabolic processes e.g. photosynthesis and respiration.
• It aids in the development of plump heavy kernels in cereal grains (seeds fill well)
• It imparts resistance to crops against certain diseases.
Sources of potassium
• Crop residues
• Artificial fertilizers e.g. NPK, muriate of potash/potassium chloride (KCl) and sulphate
of potash (K2SO4)
• Potassium bearing minerals e.g. potassium feldspars and micas.
Absorption form of potassium
Potassium is absorbed as potassium ion (K+)
There are 3 forms of potassium depending on its availability i.e.
(i) Readily available potassium which forms 1-2% of total K and exist aas potassium in the soil
solution and exchangeable potassium absorbed in the soil colloids.
(ii) Slowly available K, fixed by soil colloids which release it gradually in small quantites.
(iii) Unavailable potassium; about 90-98% of the total potassium is not available. This is
particularly the case in 2:1 expanding type of clays such as illite and vermiculite.
Factors that affect the availability of potassium
• Soil moisture; too much moisture interferes with exchangeable potassium and increases
leaching rate. Dry conditions are better.
• Soil pH; increase in pH leads to fixation of potassium.
• Temperature; increase in temperature increases the level of exchangeable potassium.
 Also, alternate freezing and thawing tends to release foxed potassium under certain
conditions.
• Type of soil colloids; potassium fixation is usually in soils with the expanding type of
clays.
Loss of potassium (fate of K)
• Crop removal
• Soil erosion
• Leaching
• Fixation in the soil especially by the clays.
Deficiency symptoms of potassium
• Reduced resistance to diseases
• The leaves curl at the edges
• Premature leaf fall
• Chorosis i.e. the leaves lose colour.
• The edges of the leaves are scorched ad have small dots. Scorching occurs on the tips
and along the outside of the leaf while the inside remains green.
• Dead hearts i.e. the apical meristems may dry up.
• Lodging in plants.
• Stunted growth
• Mottled leaves
Note; in potassium deficient soils, sodium may be used by some plants instead.

CALCIUM (Ca)
Uses
• It is used in the synthesis of proteins.
• It is useful in the elongation of plant apical tips and roots.
• It is necessary in the formation of middle lamellae and increases protein content of
mitochondria which are found in plant cells.
• Its presence in the soil makes Mg, P & K available to plants.
• It is needed in the process of nitrification, calcium raises the pH of the soil and thereby
provides an ideal pH for nitrifying bacteria. i.e. it is a liming material
NB; calcium is absorbed as Ca2+
Deficiency symptoms of calcium
• Poor growth and development of terminal buds and the root tips do not grow well.
• Chlorosis and death of leaves. The leaves become chlorotic especially along the margins of
young leaves.
• The leaves roll up and curl.

MAGNESIUM (Mg)
It is absorbed as Mg2+ ion
Uses
• it helps in the translocation of carbohydrates and proteins.
• It makes cell walls stronger thus reduces lodging.
• It is part of the chlorophyll molecule.
• It activates enzymes.
• It influences seeding in plants (seed formation)
• It is a liming material/agent
Deficiency symptoms
• Leaf chlorosis between veins i.e. intervenial chlorosis
• Clour of tissues turn white.
• Leaves get scorched from the margin inwards.
• In maize, stripes appear on the leaves.
• Stunted growth.
NB; excess K inhibits Mg uptake in plants.

SULPHUR
It is so important to legumes which require high quantities within their tissues. In tropical soils, it is
normally deficient due to bush burning which enhances volatilization.
Uses
• It play a major role in synthesis of lipids (it increases oil content) e.g. in groundnuts.
• It helps to activate respiration enzymes.
• It is part of cell sap (cytoplasm)
 • Helps in protein synthesis and in the manufacturing of amino acids.
NB; sulphur is absorbed as SO42- few plants can take SO2 through the leaves.
Sources of sulphur
• Burning of fuel releases sulhur dioxide gas (SO2) or coal
• From the atmosphere
• Aerated mash produce a lot of sulphur.
• Artificial fertilizers e.g. sulphate of ammonia.
• Rain
Deficiency symptoms
• The leaves develop white stripes parallel to the leaf veins.
• Leaves become pale green.
• Stunted growth.
• In legumes, nodulation is reduced.
• Thin plant stems and complete chlorosis due to anthocyanin pigment.

CARBON CYCLE

A
B

I H G

C D E

F
bbb

Description
A=photosynthesis: this process takes place where green plants build up carbohydrates into organic
compounds by photosynthesis.
B=Respiration; this process takes place when plants obtain energy by oxidation of carbohydrates
from the cells. Carbon dioxide is returned once again into the environment.
C=Feeding; Animals convert plant materials into tissue.
D=Decay; the organic matter of dead bodies is used by bacteria and fungi as a source of food.
E=Fossilization; the prehistoric plants form deposits of coal, petroleum and natural gas.
F=Decay and respiration; return carbondioxide a gain into the atmosphere when carbohydrate is
oxidized to provide energy.
H=Respiration; Returns carbon dioxide into the environment when carbohydrate in dead bodies of
plants and animals are oxidized.
I=Carbustion; combustion of prehistoric plant products like coal, petroleum and natural gas return
carbondioxide to the atmosphere.
NB: The main sources of carbon in the soil are organic matter and lime.
MICRONUTRIENTS
Though taken up in smaller quantities they play a vital role in plant life and without them crop
failure is assured. Their deficiencies are first noticed on the young leaves because micronutrients
are heavy, less soluble and have numerous complex bonds that strongly attach them to soil
particles. It becomes difficult to dissolve them in water and transfer them from older leaves to the
young ones. Most micronutrients are cations e.g. Fe3+, Fe2+, Zn+, Mn2+ unlike Cl which is an anion.
IRON
It is abundant in tropical soils and is absorbed as ferrous (Fe2+) which is more soluble than ferric
(Fe3+). In very acidic soil, iron becomes more soluble and available but in alkaline soils, it is less
available; especially calcium rich soils (Calcerous). Poorly aerated soils have low levels of iron as
its presence is affected by excess mangansese, copper and zinc.
Importance of iron
• It is part of chlorophyll molecule.
• It helps to activate respiration enzymes
MANGANESE
It is absorbed as manganese ions (Mn2+) and its toxicity is commonly associated with acidic soils.
Importance of Mn
• It is acatalyst during chorophyll synthesis.
• It is useful in respiration of plant cells.
• It increases libido in animals.
• It influences availability of calcium, magnesium and phosphorus in soil.
Deficiency symptom
• Stunted growth.
Zinc
It is important during chlorophyll synthesis, stem elongation (meristematic growth) and normal
root development.
Deficiency symptoms
• Leaf chlorosis
• The buds formed are white.
• Shoots fail to increase in length.
Note; (i) Excessive zinc levels are toxic to plants.
(ii) Chlorine acts as an electron carrier in enzymatic reactions.

SOIL SAMPLING
This refers to the systematic collection of soil samples from various locations or parts of the garden
and take them to the laboratory for analysis or testing.
Objectives of soil sampling
• To determine the suitable tillage practices to use.
• To determine the type of crops to grow.
• To determine the fertility level of the soil and the nutrients to add.
• To determine the type and amount of fertilizer to add.
• To make crop yield estimates based on the fertility of the soil.
• To determine the structure of the soil.
• To determine the water holding capacity of the soil
• To determine the organic matter content of the soil.
• To determine the pH of the soil.
• To determine the amount of air in the soil (soil aeration)
• To determine the texture and soil type.
• To determine the permeability/drainage capacity of the soil.
• To determine the capillarity of the soil
• To determine which tillage practices to be used on that type of soil
Methods of soil sampling
(i) Spot sampling
(ii) Transverse method
 (iii) Zigzag method
Spot sampling; sample of the soil is picked from a single spot/place/location of the garden chosen
randomly. This method is not commonly used because it less represent the whole field and only
suitable for small piece of land.

Transverse/grid method; samples of the soil are picked from the garden/field
diagonally following a line.

Zigzag/random method; the soil samples are taken picked from the garden
randomly without following any order.

During soil sampling the following tools are used; hoe, spade, soil auger, hand trowel.
The following sites should be avoided during soil sampling; old house sites, rubbish pits, very wet
areas like swamps, boundaries, anthills, under trees, ditches, kraal, burnt places, near tree stumps,
near road sides etc.
Equipment for sampling soil
•
• Garden trowel
• Hoe
• Spade
• Ground spear
• Soil anger
• Clean container

Procedure of soil sampling

• Obtain clean and complete equipment to use.
• Determine the area to be sampled so as to know how many samples to take. One field
should not exceed five hectares. (1hectare=10000m2)
• Choose the method that will be used to collect the samples.
• In considerstion of the method, choose the sites from which to collect soil while avoiding
the following areas anthills, rubbish pits, very wet areas, burnt areas etc.
• Clear all vegetation at the selected sites to exclude plant material that is yet to
decompose.
• Collect the samples from a depth of about 15cm from the different sites.
• Add all samples from the different sites to make a composite sample.
• Thoroughly mix the composite sample by breaking the big clods into smaller particles.
• Sub-sample the composite sample and then obtain like one kilogram to make a
representative sample.
• make two labels for each representative sample with the following information;
 (i) Person taking the sample and the address.
(ii) Area sampled
(iii) Field number
(iv) Equipment used
(v) Date of sample
(vi) Purpose of sampling
(vii) Depth of sampling
• Take the sample(s) to the laboratory and air-dry them
• Carry out the intended analysis and record the outcomes.

SOIL FERTILITY AND PRODUCTIVITY

Soil fertility is the ability of the soil to supply all the required plant nutrients in right amounts and
in available for.
Soil productivity is the ability of the soil to produce and sustain high crop yield indefinitely.
Factors affecting/contributing to soil fertility and productivity
Soil depth; the soil should be deep enough to hold the plant’s root and supply the water and
nutrients required.
Soil structure and texture; these control the aeration, drainage, temperature and pH of the soil.
Drainage; the soil should be well drained to reduce the rate of leaching and ensure a proper
aeration of the soil.
Freedom from weeds; weeds compete with crops for soil nutrients. Soil free from weeds increases
soil fertility and productivity.
Aeration; the soil should be well aerated to provide enough oxygen for plant roots and soil living
organisms.
Availability of nutrients; the soil should be able to provide the nutrients required by plants and in
available form
Soil pH; the soil should have a favourable pH for the growth of crops and soil living organisms.
Organic matter/humus content; the soil should have large amounts of organic matter/humus,
because it provides plants with nutrients, improves soil structure and improves soil pH.
Water holding capacity/soil moisture; the soil should hold enough water for the crops to grow.
Freedom from pests and diseases; the soil should be free from pests and diseases which may
hinder crop growth.

Loss of soil fertility and productivity

Soil erosion; this washes away the top layer that contains most of the plant nutrients. It also carries
away the soil living organisms and organic matter.
Leaching; this where by dissolved mineral nutrients are carried deeper by water into the subsoil
where most roots of crops cannot reach. It thus reduces the nutrient content of the soil, destroys soil
structure and increases soil acidity.
Presence of weeds; these compete with the crops for nutrients, light and moisture. They thus
remove plant nutrients and hamper crop growth. Some are also alleloparthic and produce chemicals
that prevent the normal growth of the crops.
Soil capping; the formation of an impermeable layer develop on the soil surface. This prevents
entry of water into the soil and reduces crop growth. It is a result of human beings trampling over
the soil surface using heavy tillage machines on land for a long time.
Development of hard pans; hard pans are hard impermeable layers that develop below the soil
surface due to cultivation at the same depth for long. These prevent root development and entry of
water in the soil.
Change in soil pH; this leads to the death of soil living organisms and reduce the fixation of some
nutrients. It may also make some certain crops unable to grow.
Continuous cropping; this may remove the nutrients faster than they can be recycled naturally.
Also it leads to rapid oxidation of the organic matter resulting into destruction of soil structure.
Water logging/poor soil drainage; this reduces the amount of air in the soil, causes acidity and
encourages leaching of nutrients.
Pollution; this is the addition of unnatural levels of substances into the soil or environment e.g.
polythene bags, toxic chemicals etc. it prevents proper growth and utilization of plant nutrients.
Bush burning; this causes loss of non -metallic nutrients like carbon, nitrogen and sulphur. Also
the burning destroys the organic matter and living organisms in the soil.
Mono-culture/monocroping; the growing of one type of crop year after year leads to depletion of
nutrients and organic matter, leads to build up of pests and diseases, reduced plant cover and hence
soil erosion.
Presence of pests and diseases which prevent proper crop growth and lowers the ability of the
plant to utilize nutrients properly.
Volatilization; this is the evaporation of some nutrients in gaseous form back to the atmosphere
e.g. nitrogen, sulphur and carbon.
 Methods of improving soil fertility and productivity.
Proper drainage; is the removal of excess water from the soil to enable crop growth. It reduces
leaching and raises soil temperature and aeration. It also improves the soil structure and break
down the organic matter to release nutrients.
Breaking hard pans; this may be done by deep tillage or sub soiling to enable proper infiltration
of water and root growth. It increases soil life and the absorption of plant nutrients
Proper weed control; this avoids rapid removal of nutrients by weed. It also reduces the
competition between weeds and crops.
Mulching; this conserves soil moisture, provides organic matter, controls soil erosion as well as
controlling weed growth.
Fertilizer application; artificial and organic fertilizers provide the soil nutrients that may be
lacking for the normal growth of crops.
Proper control of pests and diseases; this enables the plats to grow well and utilize plant nutrients
properly.
Minimum tillage; this maintains soil structure, reduces oxidation of organic matter and controls
soil erosion.
Soil pH control; this improves soil life (living organisms), reduces fixation of nutrients and also
prevents toxicity of some elements.
Crop rotation; this controls soil erosion, controls weeds as well as pests and diseases. It also
improves on the availability of organic matter and improves nutrient recycling.
Pollution control; this reduces the rate of death of living organisms in the soil and makes it easy
for the crops to grow.
Bush fallowing; leaving the soil to rest for some time enables the soil to regain its nutrients and
structure. It also controls weeds, pests and diseases and reduce soil erosion.
Ley farming; growing pastures in rotation with other crops adds organic matter to the soil, controls
weeds, pests and diseases and soil erosion.
Agroforestry; the trees protect the soil from erosion, help recycle nutrients as well as provide
organic matter for use by the crops. They also help to recover nutrients that had been lost by
leaching with the help of their long roots.

FERTILIZERS
Fertilizers are substances added to the soil to supply plant nutrients or supplement on natural
fertility.
Types of fertilizers
Fertilizers are mainly grouped into two broad groups namely;-
• Artificial /inorganic fertilizers
• Natural/organic manures
Reasons for application of fertilizers
• To replenish the nutrients lost through harvesting
• To increase yields if the nutrient status of the soil is the limiting factor.
• To get constant yields.
ARTIFICIAL/INORGANIC FERTILIZERS
These are usually often man made commercial compounds added to the soil to increase its nutrient
content. The most common fertilizers are those that contain nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium
either singular or combination. These elements are thus referred to as fertilizer elements.
Inorganic fertilizers are grouped according to;-
(i) The major nutrients supplied i.e. nitrogenous, phosphates, potassic fertilizers
(ii) The form in which they are applied i.e. liquid e.g. rapid grow, granular e.g. SSP and
crystalline e.g. ammonium sulphate.
(iii) Fertilizers that contain/supply only one essential element are referred to as simple or
straight fertilizers e.g. SSP, TSP, DSP while those that contain two or more elements
are referred to as compound or mixed fertilizers e.g. DAP, CAN, NPK
Qualities of a good fertilizer
• Should be easy to apply.
• Should be easy to handle.
• Should be easy to store.
• Should supply all required nutrients readily to the soil.
• Should be affordable.
• Should have a long lasting effect/residual effect.
• Should have a high nutrient content.
• Should have a reasonable degree of solubility.
• Should have less effects on soil properties such as pH, structure and living organisms.
Merits/advantages of inorganic fertilizer
• They release the nutrients for plant use readily in large amounts.
• They contain known nutrients in known concentration i.e. they have a defined composition.
 • They are easy to handle and store because they come in convenient packages.
• They are easy to be absorbed by plants because they are soluble.
• They release nutrients quickly to the soil.
• Many types can easily be combined with irrigation water and applied at once.
• They are easier to apply than organic manures because they are less bulky.
• They are specific and so allow only the nutrients lacking in the soil to be applied.
• Some can be applied at any stage of growth of the plants.
Demerits/disadvantages of inorganic fertilizers
• Some may have scotching effect or burn plants.
• Some are expensive to buy
• They need skills to apply them.
• They may pollute the environment if improperly used.
• They easily leach into the soil.
• They may be toxic to the plants if used in excess.
• They may be dangerous to the person applying them.
• Excess application causes lodging of the plants.
• Frequent application changes soil pH.
• They don’t improve soil structure.
• May be toxic to beneficial micro-organisms in the soil.
Labeling of fertilizers
A fertilizer may be labelled as NPK 5-10-20. The fugures 1, 10 & 20 represent the percentages of
the available nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium respectively. These may be percentages of ratios.
It means that total amount of fertilizers contains only 35% of nutrients. The rest (65%) is filler
material usually sand which is added to make up the weight.
It means ay Aton of NPK 5-10-20 contains
5/100 X 1000 = 50kg of available N
10/100 X 1000 = 100kg of available P
20/100 X 1000 = 200Kg of available K
65/100 X 1000 = 650Kg of filler materials

Activity

1. A farmer would like to establish the tea nursery, he prepared the land, removed all the weeds and
he made 20 beds each measuring 1m wide and 20m long. He then applied NPK at the rate of
140g/m2. The elements are in the ratio of 2:3:1

Calculate;

(a) The total area for the nursery beds

(b) The total amount of NPK fertilizers used to in the nursery.

(c) Calculate the amount of each of the nutrients used NPK.

(d) Which element was used in greatest quantity and why

Solution

(a) Area of one bed

A=L x W

20m x 1m= 20m2

Area for 20 beds = 20 x 20m2 = 400m2

(b) 140g/m2 x 400m2

=56000gm

(c) N=

P=

K=

(d) It is phosphorus because it is needed for strong root formation

2. A farmer applied 210kg of NPK fertilizer which contained the elements in the ratio 25:5:5 per
hectare of a tea plantation.
(b) Calculate the amount of each nutrient that the farmer applied per hectare.
Total ratio =25+5+5= 35
Amount of nitrogen =
Amount of phosphorus=
Amount of potassium=
(b) Determine the percentage of each element in the fertilizer.
Percentage of nitrogen =
Percentage of phosphorus=
Percentage of potassium =
3. (a) Determine the quantity of urea needed to supply 120kg N/ha if urea is 46%N.

X=
Therefore, =260.9kg of urea/ha
(b) Calculate the quantity of urea that a farmer needs to apply in a plot measuring 10m x 10m to
supply 120kg N/ha
1ha=100m x 100m
=1000m2
But the farmer’s field is 10m x 10m
=100m2
Therefore, if 260.9 kg of urea goes into 10000m2
Then x kg goes into 100m2
X=
Hence the farmer needs to apply 2.609kg of urea to his plot.
4. A farmer wants to apply 40kg N/ha using urea fertilizer in a small plot of 5x5m. How much urea
is required for that small plot?
Principles of inorganic fertilizer application
• Use the right form of fertilizer because different crops responds differently to different
forms of the same fertilizer.
• Apply the right amount of fertilizer because different crops require different amount of
fertilizer.
• Apply the fertilizer at the right time because of nutrient requirement for the plants are
not constant over the growing period. Also the nutrients are not static after
application e.g. some may be fixed, leached, volatilized etc.
• Apply the fertilizer at the right place. This is because the nutrients are mobile and also
suffer displacement.
• The placement should allow movement of the nutrients through the soil to the rooting
zones.
It should also minimize the loss of nutrients from the soil.
It should also reduce the fixation of nutrients especially that of potassium and phosphorus.
It should give the nutrient sufficient time to dissolve and become available to the crop
It should avoid stimulation of unwanted weed growth.

Methods of fertilizer placement

Side dressing; the fertilizer is placed between the rows of crops after they have emerged.
Fertilizers are placed alongside the row of the crop at the optimal time for the crop.
Ring placement; fertilizers may be placed in a circular around stools e.g. of bananas and around
the stems of trees/crops within the spread of branches because surface roots are likely to grow
under the shade since it will be moist.
In irrigation water; nitrogen and soluble phosphate fertilizers may be applied in the irrigation
stream/water. However, though the method is cheap, ammonia may be lost through volatilization.

Foliar application; liquid fertilizer e.g. urea may be sprayed onto the leaves.
Broadcasting; the fertilizers are scattered on top of the ground before the crop emerges.
Top dressing; this is a general application of the fertilizer onto the soil surface after the crop has
emerged.
Band placement; the fertilizer may be dug onto a narrow band in the soil close to the row of plants
at time of planting.
Contact placement; seeds are placed together with the fertilizer in the planting hole.
Pumping into the soil; liquid fertilizer may be pumped into the soil using pressure to the required
depth.
Perforated method; many small holes are dug around the tree under its shade. Those holes are
then partially filled with fertilizers and then filled with soil. This method places the fertilizer within
the root zone and also reduces the growth of weeds.
Plough sole; fertilizers are placed at the bottom of the plough furrow.
Split application; the fertilizer is added in two or more portions at different times during the
season.
Drilling method; fertilizers are placed in the soil near the seeds at the time of planting/ near the
plant using adrill.
The method of placement chosen will depend on;-
• Toxicity of the fertilizer. Fertilizers that are toxic to the seedlings may not be applied by
contact placement because they will kill the seedlings.
• Mobility of the fertilizer; nitrogenous fertilizer may be applied broadcasting on the
surface because they are largely mobile and soluble.
• Ease of fixation; phosphate fertilizers are applied in localized band or by contact
placement because they are very easily fixed by soil colloids.
• Stage of development of crops; fertilizers intended for use by very young crops are
placed very close to the plant because the plant roots are not very extensive and
cannot absorb nutrients from distant sources.
• Weather conditions; in very hot conditions, fertilizers that can be easily lost in gaseous
form may be dug into the soil.

Reasons why nitrogenous fertilizers are top dressed.

• They are highly soluble and hence are easily washed in and reach the roots of the plants.
• They are required by plants at later stage of development not at germination or early
stage.
• If applied early they would be leached below the root zone and therefore will not benefit
crops.
• Nitrogen fertilizers are applied when the soil is dump because water is needed to dissolve
and move the fertilizer to the root zone.
• Nitrogenous fertilizers are volatile and if applied on dry soil, they will change into
ammonia gas and be wasted/lost.
Factors to consider before applying a particular fertilizer
• The nutrient lacking in the soil should be known.
• Time of application either before or after planting.
• The method of application e.g. more soluble fertilizers may be applied as top dressing.
• The type of fertilizers and the combination of element in that particular fertilizer.
• The nutrient requirement of that crop.
• The costs of the fertilizer and the income of the farmer.
• The availability of the fertilizer.
• The side effect of the fertilizer to the crop after application.
• The returns expected after harvesting.
• The climate of the area i.e. too much rainfall causes leaching of nutrients than the area
with low rainfall.
• The type of soil and its pH value.
Factors affecting the amount of fertilizer applied.
• Economic returns of the crop; the more the value of the crop, the higher the amount of
fertilizer applied.
• Rate of nutrient removal by the crop; some crops remove more nutrients and hence
more required to replace them.
• Nutrient content of the soil; fertilizers are applied to correct deficiencies. The greater
the deficiency, the more the nutrients required to correct it.
• Physical state of the soil; for proper utilization of the fertilizer by the crops, the soil
should have enough moisture.
Examples of nitrogenous fertilizers
Most nitrogenous fertilizers are produced synthetically from the atmospheric nitrogen. The
nitrogen is combined with hydrogen at very high temperatures.
The hydrogen is obtained by hydrolyzing water, burning coke with petroleum or natural gas. The
ammonia is then used to make other fertilizers. Examples are;-
Ammonium sulphate (NH4)SO4; it contains 21% nitrogen. It is a fine crystalline white salt which
is very soluble in water.
Calcium ammonium nitrate (CAN) or nitrochoke; this contain 25-26% nitrogen. It is a mixture
of ammonium nitrate and finally precipitated calcium carbonate. One half of the nitrogen is in
ammonium form and the other half is in nitrate form. The nitrate form is available immediately on
application and the rest becomes available later. It is not as acidic like sulphate of ammonia
because it contains calcium carbonate.
Urea (CO(NH2)2; this is made by combining liquid ammonia and carbon dioxide. It can be utilized
directly by plants such as wheat, rice, potatoes and fruits. Urea has avery high nitrogen content
(45%) and undergoes hydrolysis to form ammonium carbonate. The ammonium carbonate then
produces NH4+ and NO3-
Ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3); it is quick acting nitrogen fertilizer that contains 33% nitrogen. In
the soil solution, it produces both ammonium ions and nitrate ions. It is however a powerful
oxidizing agent and so it may explode under pressure or heat.
NB; organic commercial nitrogen fertilizers do exist e.g. cottonseed meal, guano and fish tankage.
They release their nitrogen slowly to the soil but their costs limit their usage. They are used in
flower gardens and potted plants.
Phosphate fertilizers
• Single super phosphate (SSP); it is greyish-white granular fertilizer with an acid odour but
practically it is not acidic.
• Double super phosphate
• Triple super phosphate
• Ammoniated phosphate/ Diammonium phosphate
• Basic slag and bone meal
• Rock phosphate
Potassium/potash fertilizers
• Muriate of potash (KCl) which is 40-50% potassium. It is a coarse or fine salt, closely
resembling ordinary domestic salt but with bitter or acidic taste.
• Sulphate of potash which is 40-42% potassium. The sulphate form is preferred for
tobacco because the potassium chloride lowers the leaf quality.
All potash salts used as fertilizers are water soluble and unlike nitrogen salts, most potassium
fertilizers even if used in large amounts, have little or no effect on the soil pH.
Advantages of compound/mixed fertilizers
• The mixture is usually dry with well mixed granules.
• The mixture is often stable and does not cake up easily to form lumps or deteriorate over
time.
• The mixture often contains all the major nutrients in the right proportions.
• Already made fertilizers save the farmers the labour of mixing fertilizers.
Disadvantages of compound/mixed fertilizers
• Compound fertilizers cost slightly more than the total cost of the constituents.
• They may be unsuitable for many soils e.g. soil may need only nitrogen and not phosphorus
or potassium.
• Some fertilizers do not make good mixtures because they react and cause volatilization
• Fertilizers mixed with lime may cause loss of ammonium
• Some mixtures require to be used immediately because they harden with time e.g. a mixture
of SSP, sulphate of ammonia and potassium.
Factors affecting crop response to fertilizers
• Age of the plant/stage of application; different nutrients are required at different stages of
growth e.g. nitrogen applied after flowering is of no value
• Amount of water in the soil/weather; too little or much water hinder the proper response. Too
little water makes the soil solution very concentered and may scorch the plants while too
much water washes the fertilizer away.
• Soil type; some soils e.g. clay fix phosphates fertilizers and so make them unavailable
reducing their effect on crops.
• Health of the plant; healthy plants respond better to fertilizers than diseased ones.
• Type of fertilizer applied; if the fertilizer that contains the limiting nutrients is applied,
response is better.
• Plant population; response is best with optimum plant population.
• Form of fertilizer applied; crops respond differently to different form of the same fertilizer
e.g. tobacco responds better to potassium sulphate than to potassium chloride.
• Soil pH; the soil may be unfavourable to the fertilizer.
• Amount of fertilizer applied; too much or too little give less of expected response. Optimum
amount give the best result.
• Agronomic practices carried out; practices say weeding, mulching and pruning increase the
response of crops to fertilizers due to reduces competition.
• Balance of fertilizer element; if unbalanced, it may affect the response.
• Type/variety of crop; certain crops need larger amounts of particular nutrients than others e.g.
legumes and cereals.
• Soil structure; bad soil structure interferes with root.
• Fertility level; crop response to fertilizers is in less fertilize soils.
• Time of fertilizer application; if early in crop life will ensure better response.
• Point of application; if applied too far, it may not reach the plant.
Testing ions in inorganic fertilizers
Procedure Observation conclusion
Testing for ammonium ions A gas which turns a red litmus Ammonium ion
paper blue indicating the gas is (NH4+) present
Sodium hydroxide is added to the test alkaline
solution/solid and gently heat
A red litmus paper changes to
OR use blue/red litmus papers to the
blue and the blue litmus paper
test solution remains unchanged

Testing for nitrate ions A brown ring is formed Nitrate ions (NO3-)
(i) Brown ring test present

Add iron 11 sulphate solution to a

solution of nitrate then slowly add conc.
Sulphuric acid.

(ii) Copper turning test Brown, pungent effervescence Nitrogen dioxide gas
(fumes) which turns a blue litmus released from nitrate
To nitrate sample, heat copper turnings
paper red reactions hence
along with conc. Sulphuric acid. Nitrate ions (NO3-)
present

Testing for sulphate ions Milky substance/white ppt/white Sulphate ions present
ppt insoluble is observed
To the testing solution/sample, add
dilute nitric acid followed by barium
nitrate/silver nitrate solution (or to the
test sample add lead nitrate)

Testing calcium ions White precipitate (ppt) observed Calcium ions present.
(Ca2+)
(i) To the testing solution add sulphuric White ppt insoluble in excess is
acid observed
(ii) To the testing solution add sodium
hydroxide solution

Testing for phosphate ions White precipitate which Phosphate ions

dissolves in the acid is observed present
(i) To the testing solution add lead nitrate
solution followed by nitric acid/HCL

(ii) To the test solution add barium nitrate White precipitate which Phosphate ions
solution followed by nitric acid/HCL dissolves in the acid is observed present

ii) To the test solution add silver nitrate Yellow precipitate which Phosphate ions
solution followed by nitric acid dissolves in the nitric acid is present
observed (Yellow ppt
formed/observed)

ORGANIC MANURES/NATURAL FERTILIZERS

These are fertilizers got from plants, animals and their remains. These include compost, farm yard
manure, green manure and old organic mulches. They also include industrial and urban wastes such
as sewage sludge, residues from crops and food processing industries etc.
Advantages of organic manures
• They often contain all the nutrients required for proper plant growth.
• They add humus/organic matter to the soil and humus increases the nutrient holding
capacity, water infiltration and drainage of the soil.
• They improve the soil structure
• Their decomposition rate is slow and so the residual effect is long and provides nutrients
for a long time.
• They rarely cause toxicity to the crops especially when well fermented before use i.e.
they are friendly to the environment.
• They modify the soil temperature since they produce humus which is dark in colour and
enables the soil to absorb more sunlight.
• They promote the activity of soil living organisms since they provide them with food and
shelter.
 • They improve soil texture, aeration and fertility.
Disadvantages of organic manure.
• They require more storage space than artificial fertilizers.
• Exposure to the elements of weather may cause severe loss of nutrients.
• Transporting to the field is difficult because they are bulk.
• They release the nutrients slowly to the soil and so it’s very difficult to predetermine the
effect of the manure on the crops.
• They may have health hazards to humans and animals if not properly treated before
use.
• Crop residues may transfer pests and diseases to other fields.
• Organic manure may cause a temporary shortage of nitrogen because the bacteria that
break down the organic manure may use up the nitrogen.
TYPES OF ORGANIC MANURE
GREEN MANURE
A green manure is a crop grown and ploughed into the soil while still green. The crop should be
ploughed into the soil just before flowering or at early flowering stage.
Qualities of a good green manure crop.
• It should be easy to establish.
• It should be easy to multiply.
• It should be able to grow in relatively poor soils
• It should be quick growing.
• Must be a legume to add nitrogen into the soil.
• Must be leafy and spreading so as to control soil erosion.
• It should be drought resistant.
• Must be pest and disease free.
• Must be easy to plough into the soil.
• It should rot/decompose easily.
• It should not act as a competitor to the main crop.
Specific benefits of green manure
• When legume crops are used, atmospheric nitrogen is fixed into the soil.
• Provides organic matter which improves aeration.
• Acts as a cover crop and controls soil erosion during the erosion prone season of the
year.
• Organic matter/humus is added to the soil which induces some micro-organisms to live
• The green manure crop as it grows, it absorbs the nutrients not absorbed by the main
crop and thus reduces the leaching of nutrients.
Disadvantages of green manure
• Most of the plants used are required for food.
• Ploughing the plants in the soil may require machinery.
• As the plants grow older, they become harder to plough in and rot.
• The green manure plants use up the water that would have been used by the subsequent
crop.
• Non-leguminous green manure crops depress the level of the soil nitrogen in the soil.
FARM YARD MANURE
This is made from animal wastes/refuse and animal beddings. The materials may be fermented
before being applied to the garden. The manure should be applied shortly before planting by
digging it into the soil.
Factors affecting the quality of farm yard manure
• The type of animal that provides the materials; non-ruminants produce manure of better
quality than ruminant animals because their digestive system is less inefficient and so
leaves much of the nutrients in the dungs.
• The type of feeds the animals eats; the more nutritious the food eaten, the better the dungs.
• The type of bedding materials; the best material is one that can absorbs urine e.g. cereal
straws.
• Degree of rotting; the more the materials are left to rot the better the manure.
• Degree of protection/storage; the manure should be protected from direct sunshine which
dries it up and prevents decomposition and from rainfall which leaches the nutrients.
• Age of the animals; young animals tend to produce dungs which is low in nutrient content
since their body still need a lot of nutrients. But grown up animals tend to produce dungs
which is rich in mineral nutrients.
Preparation of solid farm yard manure
• Beddings are put in houses where animals stay.
 • Animals urinate and defecate on the beddings.
• Beddings/litter are left in the house until they are fully mixed with the excreta.
• Beddings and excreta are removed and put in a prepared place. The place should be sheltered,
caution should be taken to reduce leaching and volatilization.
• Cover the material to prevent nutrient loss to the atmosphere.
• Allow the materials to decay for about one and a half months.
Preparation of liquid farm yard manure from cowdung

• Place a reasonable amount of cow dung in a sack and tie the sack securely with the rope.
• Fill a drum ¾ full of water and hang the sack in the water from a strong pole placed across the
top of the drum.
• Cover the drum and let it stand for 2-3 weeks.
• Stir the mixture in the drum every 3-5 days by partially lifting the bag in and out of water
several times using the pole.
• After 2-3 weeks, the water will have turned dark and most of the nutrients will have dissolved
into the water. The darker the colour, the more concentrated is the mixture. It is then ready
for use.
• Remove the bag from the drum
Major characteristics of farm yard manure.
• Low in mineral nutrients but high in organic matter.
• Relatively high moisture content
• Imbalanced nutrients composition e.g. low in P2O5
• Residual effects are fairly strong
• It is dark in colour and has partially decomposed materials.
• Releases nutrients slowly.
COMPOST MANURE
This is made up of partially decayed plant residue especially kitchen refuse.
Methods of making compost manure
There are two methods of making compost manure i.e. pit/indore method and the heap method.
The methods are basically the same though in the pit methods, pits are used while in the heap
method, heaps of materials are used.
Procedure of making compost manure using five pit (indore method)
• Make five pits each 150cm x 150m x60cm
 • The materials to be turned into compost are filled into the first pit with dry hedge
cuttings or maize stalks to trap nutrients and allow aeration are put first.
• A thin layer of ash to add mineral salts is added.
• A layer of top soil or old compost is added to provide the micro-organisms to decompose
the materials. This is known as seeding.
• Add artificial fertilizers e.g. SSP to increase the nutrient level of compost.
• The sequence is repeated until the pit is full.
• Water may be added to create the moist environment suitable for the decomposing
bacteria to live and work.
• A stick/pole may be inserted to create a hole that gives the avenue for addition of water
as well as when necessary and also for estimation of the temperature and the pH.
• When the pit is full, cover the pit with dry grass and soil to protect the materials from
rain that could cause leaching of nutrients from the compost.
• Dig a trench around the pit to carry away run off water.
• After 3-4 weeks, the materials in the first pit are transferred to the second pit and
covered with leaves. More fresh material is put in pit 1.
• After 3-4 weeks, materials in pit 2 are transferred to pit 3 and covered, materials in pit 1
to pit 2
• After one month, materials in pit 3 are transferred to pit 4 where it stays for another
month.
• From pit 4, it is transferred to pit 5 where it stays for another month. By this time the
manure is ready for use in the garden.

Heap method
Instead of using pits, the materials are piled in heaps.
Four-heap system
• Materials to compost are put at heap A where they stay for a month.
• After a month, the materials from A are transferred to heap B where they stay for one
month.
• More fresh materials are put at heap A
• After another month, materials at heap B are transferred to C where they stay for a
month.
• When fully decomposed, the manure is applied in the garden.
Seven-heap system
• In 7-heap system, materials are heaped at points A, C, E and G.
• After 3 weeks, materials from A and C are piled at point B and at the same time materials
from E and G are piled at point F.
• At point B & F, the materials spend three other weeks.
• Thereafter, materials from B & F are transferred to D and stay for a period of 3 weeks. At
point D, manure is ready to be applied in the garden.

1 turn
st
1 turn
st

2 turn
nd

2 turn
nd

1 turn
st
1 turn
st

Precautions for preparing quality compost

• Ensure constant turning and mixing of the compost manure to enable uniform decaying.
• Sprinkle water during dry period to speed up the process of decomposition.
• Add old compost/ soil to provide micro-organisms to speed up rotting.
• Add artificial fertilizers to improve on the nutrient content.
• Cover the pit to reduce loss of nutrients through volatilization.
• Remove materials that cannot rot such as polythene, glass and metals.
How can one tell that manure is ready for use?
• The materials reduce in volume.
• Temperature of the heap or pit reduces.
• Materials develop a sharp smell.
• Materials can easily break into pieces.
• Fungi grow on the manure.
Advantages of compost manure
• It is easy for anyone to get materials to make compost manure.
• It has a long lasting effect in the soil.
• It is cheap to prepare.
• It adds essential plant nutrients to the soil.
• Adds organic matter to the soil.
 • Used to improve on the soil structure.
Disadvantages of using compost manure.
• It requires a lot of labour to prepare.
• It is expensive to apply since it is bulky.
• The quantity of nutrients is always unknown.
• May be a source of pests and diseases.
• It takes a long time to prepare.
• May pose a health risk to a farmer.
• Has a bad smell.
ORGANIC MULCHES
These are materials used for mulching, mulching is the covering of the soil surface with a
layer of plant materials. When plant materials are used for mulching we refer to those
materials as organic mulches. However, inorganic materials like polythene paper may also be
used in mulching. Materials that used in mulch are collectively called mulches.
Advantages of mulching
• Mulching improves on water infiltration into the soil.
• Mulching controls weeds. This is done by leaving no space for weed growth and also cutting
off light for their growth.
• Mulching controls soil erosion by intercepting rain drops and reducing the speed of running
water.
• Mulching conserves soil moisture and this improves crop yields.
• The mulch also adds organic matter into the soil, especially organic mulch after decaying.
• Mulching maintains soil temperature. This favours microbial activity and also crop root
development and growth.
Disadvantages of mulching
• Mulching encourages multiplication of pests since it offers hiding ground for pests
• During the rainy season, thick mulch may contribute to lowering of soil temperature
and this may affect plant growth
• It requires a lot of labour and it is expensive.
• Mulching materials can be a fire hazard.
• They may cause mineral imbalance in the soil.
• Some mulching materials especially wet grass may be a source of weeds.

SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION

This refers to the art and science of how soil is retained in one place so that it is not carried away
by agents of soil erosion e.g. wind, water and animals.
It may also refers to the measures to control soil erosion and maintain soil fertility and productivity.
Objectives of soil and water conservation.
• To retain water for use in crop growth.
• To maintain soil fertility which would be lost through erosion.
• To control soil loss (soil erosion) by taking measures against agents that cause it.
• To maintain the physical properties of the soil e.g. soil structure, texture which are ideal
for crop production.
SOIL EROSION
This is the washing away of top most fertile soils from one place to another by agents such as
wind, running water and animals.
Types of soil erosion
There are mainly two types of soil erosion namely;
(i) Geological/natural erosion
(ii) Accelerated erosion.
Geological erosion; this is the erosion due to natural causes i.e. it occurs naturally. It is the
erosion which occurs when the soil is in its natural environment and under the protective cover
of natural vegetation or when there is no interference with the environment through man’s
activities such as deforestation, bush burning, farming, mining, roads construction, brick
making etc.
Accelerated erosion; this is the type of erosion that occurs as a result of human activities
interfering with the environment. It is the deterioration and loss of soil as a results of human or
animal activities which directly or indirectly loosen the top soil.
Types/mechanisms of accelerated erosion
(i) Rill erosion
(ii) Gulley erosion
(iii) Sheet erosion
(iv) Splash/raindrop erosion
(v) Wind erosion
 (vi) River bank/ stream erosion.

Types of soil erosion

1. Rill erosion;

It involves the formation of small channels called rills which carry water and soil but always
disappear between one rainy season and the next

2. Gulley erosion
This involves the formation of large channel which do not disappear and it is
characterized by deep V or U shaped long ditches dug by running water as shown
below

3. Splash/rain drop erosion

This is the removal of top soil from a small area due to the forceful drop of rain.
This causes the soil to splash a way which will block the soil pores and cracks hence stopping
water from entering through the soil and leads to surface runoff.

36

36

Rain
4. Sheet erosion
This is the type of erosion which occurs in relatively flat areas with uniform removal of soil from
every part of the garden.
Water flows over the entire garden at a slow speed carrying little soil from the top layer.

5. Stream/Riverbank erosion
These occurs along the bank/side of the river when the water is flowing it carries a long with
stones, logs and other materials which cut the bank of the river bank. Also flowing water wares
away the sides of the river which results in widening of the river bank.

6. Wind erosion
This occurs slowly under normal conditions but it occurs on soils which are bare due to lack of
vegetation and also where large number of animals are kept for long time.
Wind picks and carries a way the fertile soil particles causing loss of fertility.

NB; solifluction/landslides; this is a form of mass movement of soil in steep hilly areas. A
landslide is a sudden earth flow as a result of soil becoming saturated. The soil peels off and moves
downhill and covers large areas of the valley.
Factors that influence soil erosion
Rainfall intensity; the heavier the rain, the more the soil eroded. Areas that receive heavy rainfall
experiences severe soil erosion.
Volume of runoff; the higher the volume of runoff, the higher the intensity of erosion.
Topography/slope of the land; this determines the speed of running water. The steeper the slope,
the greater the speed of running water and the higher will be the amount of soil carried away.
The type of soil; loose soil particles e.g. those of sand are easier to erode than the sticky clay
particles. Also porous soils that have a longer storage capacity are harder to erode than shallow
impermeable soils.
Vegetation cover; the thicker/denser the vegetation, the less the soil that would be eroded. Areas
without vegetation are exposed to intensive soil erosion.
Soil depth; shallow soil are easily eroded than deep soil since saturation is easier.
Wind intensity; the greater the speed of wind, the higher the amount of soil that would be eroded.
Farming practices; indiscriminate removal of vegetation through bush burning, over grazing
leaves the soil unprotected making it easy to be carried away by the agents of soil erosion.
Causes of soil erosion
Natural causes of soil erosion includes;-
• Natural slope of the land which enables the soil particles to move downwards due to the
 force of gravity.
• Landslides and earth quakes that may cause dislodging of soil particles and give them
the initial energy to move.
• Bush fires caused by lightning.
• Water erosion by lakes, rivers and streams.
• Movement by glaciers.
Causes of accelerated soil erosion.
• Overgrazing; this reduces the amount of vegetation cover/exposing the land to the
agents of erosion.
• Over cultivation; this reduces the nutrient content of the soil eventually causing
destruction of soil structure and making the soil easier to erode.
• Mono-cropping; this encourages a buildup of pests and diseases and leads to rapid
removal of soil nutrients hence a poor vegetation cover and soil erosion.
• Deforestation and clean weeding
• Bush burning
• Ploughing down slope; this makes the slope unstable and encourages washing away of
the soil.
• Road construction; this creates area of weakness from which move serious erosion can
be increased.
• Tillage; this encourages rapid oxidation of organic matter and destroys the soil
structure increasing the rate of soil erosion.
METHODS OF SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION
Soil erosion can be controlled through cultural and mechanical ways;-
Cultural methods
These are farming practices used in crop growing for other purposes but which also control soil
erosion in the process.
Minimum tillage; this maintains the soil structure and reduces the damages of erosion.
Deep ploughing; this increases infiltration of water and reduces soil erosion.
Mulching; this controls soil erosion by several means like
• It reduces the impact of rain drops and so protects the soil from dislodging.
• It also reduces the seed of running water by increasing surface roughness.
• The surface cover of the mulches reduce the rate of evaporation thus making soil particles
heavy to be carried away by wind.
• The organic mulches decay and add nutrient into the soil thus giving a good crop cover.
Manuring; this controls soil erosion through
• This improves crop growth which ensures a good vegetation cover and reduce the impacts of
erosion agents.
• The manure also holds the soil particles together making them harder to erode.
• It improves the water holding capacity of the soil thus increasing its storage capacity and
reducing runoff.
Crop rotation; it ensures a continuously good vegetation cover and improves the organic content
of the soil thus containing soil erosion.
Intercropping; this involves the growing of more than one type of crops in the same field at the
same time. This reduces unprotected space available for erosion to occur since many intercropped
plants are harvested at different time.
Agroforestry, Afforestation and reforestation; trees are planted on steep mountain sides to
reduce the impact of rain and hold soil particles firmly.
Wind breaks; these are trees planted perpendicular to the direction of the prevailing wind to
reduce the speed of wind.
Planting of cover crops; these are short leafy crops that grow vigorously and cover the soil. They
reduce the impact of rain drops by breaking them down with their foliage. They reduce wind
erosion by covering the soil and reducing the wind speed.
Strip cropping; strips of crops with a good vegetation cover are alternated with those that do not
properly cover the ground.
Proper spacing; this reduces the area exposed to erosion through close spacing.
Characteristics of a good cover crop
• If it is a leguminous, it should be able to fix nitrogen in the soil.
• It should be tolerant to infertile soils and able to grow in any type of soil.
• It should have a lot of leaves (foliage) that spreads over the soil.
• It should be tolerant to shading.
• It should be drought resistant.
• It should be easy to remove when necessary.
• It should be pest and disease resistant.
• It should tolerate slashing and pruning.
 • It should require less labour to establish.
• It should be easy to multiply and establish.
• It should grow rapidly and vigorously.

Mechanical methods
Construction of bunds; these are heaps of soil placed a cross the slope/contours to reduce the
speed of running water. They may also be planted with grass e.g. pass palm to increase their
stability and resistance to erosion.
Contour ploughing; ploughing is done a cross the slope i.e. along the contour. The furrows
created by the ploughing increases infiltration of water. Also, strips of land called guidelines may
be left unploughed and planted with grass to trap the eroded soil.
Ridges; these are mounds of earth used in the cultivation of Irish and sweet potatoes. They reduce
the speed of runoff and encourages infiltration.
Barrages; are mechanical obstruction built a cross gullies to reduce the speed of running water and
trap the eroded soil.
Grassed water ways; these are drainage channels that carry the excess water safely away from the
garden and into a safe disposal area.
Absorption banks; are channels constructed a cross the field to catch running water and retain it
for future use. They reduce the volume of runoff and in that way they reduce soil erosion.
Use of soil stabilizers; these are added into the soil or onto the soil surface to increase entry of
water into the soil by increasing aggregation or to reduce the entry of water into the soil and runoff.
Diversion channels; these are channels constructed on the upper part of the field to catch running
water and carry it away along the sides of the field.
Terracing; stones in a wire mesh boxes are used to block water flow and stop serious erosion. It is
very expensive and rarely used.
Dams and reservoirs; these store excess water and reduce the volume of runoff.
Gabions; these are obstacles put across gullies to reduce erosion. They are made of boxes covered
with galvanized wire mesh and filled with stones. The boxes are placed in the gullies and the wire
mesh prevents stones from being washed away.
Other methods includes; Water harvesting, roof catchment, ponds etc.
IMPORTANCE OF SOIL EROSION
Positive importance
• Erosion encourages further soil formation or weathering by exposing the rocks formerly
covered by the eroded soil to the agents of weathering.
• It helps in the distribution of soil. Fertile soils may be deposited on formerly infertile
areas e.g. in the Nile delta in Egypt.
• In desert areas, wind erosion may cause development of oases or water holes.
Negative importance
• Loss of soil nutrients in the eroded top soil and so reduces soil productivity.
• The sub soils that remain may be shallower and hard to work on.
• Erosion washes away useful micro-organisms that live in the soil. This reduces the rate
at which nutrients can be recycled e.g. through the breakdown of organic matter to
release immobilized nutrients.
• It may cause silting up of water bodies reducing their storage capacity. This eventually
causes flooding.
• It may expose crop roots or wash away the crops making the farmer suffer losses
through lodging of his crops.
• It may also burry the crops and property in the areas of deposition.
• Infertile soil may be deposited on formerly productive soils thus reducing the
productivity of the fertile soils.
• Gulley erosion creates ditches (gullies) which divide the garden into irregular plots and
makes movement of animals and machines difficult.
• Erosion destroys the soil structure and this reduces percolation of water into the soil and
also reduces the water storage capacity.
• Soil erosion increases the cost of production of a farmer since the loss of soil fertility will
have to be compensated by application of fertilizers or manures and measures to
control it is very expensive.
• It destroys life in water bodies by causing pollution of water bodies and eutrophication,
sedimentation also reduces the scope habitats for aquatic life.
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