ETHICS MIDTERM REVIEWER

MODULE 6: “How is Moral Character Developed & Stages of Moral

Development”

What does moral character mean?

Moral Character and Its Development

 The term "Character" originates from the ancient Greek term
character, which initially referred to the mark on a coin.
 A distinctive feature is a set of qualities or characteristics that
distinguish one thing from another, allowing for the differentiation
between individuals.
 In philosophy, character is commonly used to describe the moral
aspect of a person.
 Moral character refers to a person's virtues and a sound moral
compass, indicating their good character as a good person and
citizen.
 Ethical behavior refers to an individual's tendency to think, feel,
and act in an ethical or unethical manner.
 The development of moral character can be explained through
various approaches including virtues, disposition, circular relations
of acts and character, and theoretical perspectives.

Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development

 Lawrence Kohlberg and his associates developed a well-known
explanation for the development of morality of justice.
 Kohlberg proposed six moral development stages, grouped into
three levels: preconventional, conventional, and
postconventional, which individuals experience universally and in
sequence as they form beliefs about justice.

Theoretical Framework

Moral Stages According to Kohlberg

MODULE 7: “Reason and Impartiality as Minimum Requirement for

Morality & Seven Steps of Moral Reasoning Model”
 To make a moral dilemma decision, it is essential to
Reason and Impartiality Defined identify and explain relevant ethical values and principles, which
 Reason - The quality of reasoning refers to the ability to make sense may come from philosophical, socio-cultural, socio-political, or
of facts, apply common sense, and justify changes based on existing religious traditions. These principles should be considered in the
or new information. decision-making process, and their sources should be
o Moral judgments are based on reason, not personal acknowledged.
preference, and are influenced by our feelings, attitudes, 4. List the alternatives
opinions, and desires, ensuring they are acted upon. To determine a moral dilemma, identify relevant values,
o Impartiality is a principle of justice that values virtues, and principles, propose alternative courses of action, and
individual interests and viewpoints, ensuring decisions evaluate their applicability, sensibility, and practicality. Creatively
are objective and free from bias or prejudice. determining possible courses of action can lead to better decisions
o Impartiality in morality ensures equal consideration and a broader selection of ideas.
for all parties involved, assuming that no individual is 5. Compare the alternatives with the virtues / principles
intrinsically more significant than another. The initial list of suggested actions must be evaluated
Is REASON a requirement for morality? based on ethical values and principles, eliminating alternatives
The mind's ability to think, understand, and form judgments through based on moral principles. This step may resolve the issue by
a process of logic, as defined by Merriam Webster in 2017. eliminating all alternatives except one, satisfying relevant virtues
But ……. According to Immanuel Kant and values, and often weighting principles and virtues with a good
Morality is based on reason alone, and understanding this reason.
fundamental requirement leads to the realization that acting morally is 6. Consider the consequences
equivalent to acting rationally. Consider alternatives and their potential benefits,
He also view morality as …….. estimating their weight and weighing each one against the principles
 Morality alone shows that a person must decide what to do. to make a clear decision.
 Individuals have the ability to think and reflect on various actions, 7. Make a decision (including one’s justification for the decision)
ultimately choosing the appropriate course of action. After analyzing a moral dilemma, make a decision based
 Moral decision refers to actions taken by an individual based on their on previous discussions and justify it. Ethical decisions often have
own will, rather than being influenced by their desires. painful consequences, so choose the least problematic option.
 The concept of professional conduct is a fundamental value in the
professional code of ethics. MODULE 8: “Moral Theories and Mental Frames and Why they are
 Commonly understood as a principle of justice. Important”
 Jollimore (2011) asserts that ethical decision-making is based on
objective criteria, not bias, damage, or improper motives, rather than What is a moral framework?
favoring one person over another. Moral frameworks guide behavior, distinguishing right from
 The text emphasizes the importance of equal importance for all wrong in interactions. Moral values improve behavior, instill respect, and
individuals and prevents capricious favoritism towards any class, enhance relationships. Understanding right and wrong shapes character,
whether people, animals, or things. enabling individuals to make right decisions and improve interactions.

Is IMPARTIALITY a requirement for morality? Moral theories/ frameworks:

When do you make ethical decisions? Moral theories are divided into three types:
 When we faced situation where there are no clear cut or obvious  Virtue Ethics
choices.  Consequentialist ethics
 When situation cannot be determined by simple quantitative  Duty Based Ethics/Non-consequentialist ethics
analysis of data Virtue Ethics - Aristotle's ethical thinking, often viewed as consequentialist, is
 When reason and impartiality is present teleological, emphasizing the purpose of human life as living according to
 When you need to choose between good and better or bad and worse. reason.
Eudaimonia leads to happiness through human flourishing through
Are reason and impartiality a requirement for morality? moral and intellectual excellences, such as courage, which is a means between
The principle of impartiality involves guiding actions based on vices like recklessness and cowardice.
moral reasoning while considering the interests of all individuals affected by Virtue ethics, rooted in Aristotelian ethics, emphasizes character
one's decisions. quality as the determinant of morality, with the highest moral good achieved
To sum up… through certain character traits in moderation.

The 7-Step Moral Reasoning Model – Scott B. Rae, Ph.D.

Moral reasoning, or moral development, is a psychological study
that combines moral philosophy and moral development. It is fundamental to
human behavior and occurs within and between individuals. This model helps
marketers make ethical decisions, considering financial, brand, and customer
relationships, avoiding conflicting opinions when operating from personal St. Thomas' natural law ethics, based on Aristotelian principles,
value systems. suggests that everything has a purpose, but this raises questions for those who
Scott Rae's 7-step moral reasoning model, based on biblical don't believe in a divine planner, and is also influenced by synderesis and
principles, focuses on virtues, principles, and consequences, despite cultural, conscience.
ethnic, and religious biases. St. Thomas posits that human conscience is innate and geared
1. Gather the Facts towards goodness, as humans are created in God's image. Thomas Aquinas'
In moral decision-making, it's crucial to understand the moral philosophy views basic moral norms as fixed and unchangeable, while
general facts of the situation before making a decision. Clarifying an human laws promote good and align with natural law, emphasizing good over
ethical dilemma involves ensuring all necessary facts are available, evil.
identifying what knowledge and strategy are needed, and addressing
the dilemma. Kantian moral precepts are a philosophical framework that
2. Determine the ethical issues explores the relationship between rights, legality, and morality, using Kant as a
The ethical issue in a moral situation must be clearly case study.
stated, addressing the major moral dilemma. Ethical interests are Kantian Case study:
created by competing interests, and moral values and virtues must Susan, a law graduate, and her husband Rick wanted a large family.
support these competing interests. Without identifying underlying After their youngest child was school-age, Susan decided to return to legal
values, an ethical dilemma doesn't exist. Passion often drives people practice, feeling she had given up on her career.
to hold positions. Susan, a legal assistant, became pregnant while applying for a job.
3. Determine what virtues / principles have a bearing on the case She discovered her fetus had Down syndrome, and unsure of its severity,
decided to have an abortion without her husband's knowledge, potentially CONSEQUENTIALIST THEORIES
preventing her from returning to work. Teleological theories suggest that the rightness of an action is
determined by its consequences, specifically the amount of good it produces.
NONCONSEQUENTIALIST THEORIES Ethical Egoism - The morally right action is the one that balances
 These are also known as deontological theories. good over evil for oneself, promoting their best interests in every situation.
 These theories say that the rightness of an action does not depend Utilitarianism - The morally right action balances good over evil,
entirely on its consequences. considering everyone's consideration. The principle of utility encourages
 It depends on the nature of the action itself. actions to maximize good for the greatest number, treating intentions as
irrelevant.
Divine Command Theory Types of Utilitarianism
 It asserts that the morally right action is the one that God commands.  Act-utilitarianism: The right actions are those that directly lead to
the greatest overall good, considering everyone's consideration.
Natural Law Theory  Rule-utilitarianism: The morally right action is one that, if
 A theory asserting that the morally right action is the one that follows generally followed, would result in the most favorable balance of
the dictates of nature. good over evil.
 People are supposed to live according to natural law—that is, they
are to fulfill their rightful, natural purpose.
 The things that we are designed to seek are called basic goods.
The Basic Goods
 Life
 Reproduction
 Educate one’s offspring
 Seek God
 Live in society
 Avoid offense
 Shun ignorance

Right ethics (Deontology)& Virtue Ethics

Both consequentialism and consequentialism focus on the action
itself, examining its justifiability in intent, contrasting with consequentialism
which focuses on outcomes.

Study Guide: Deontology & Virtue Ethics

 Right ethics (Deontology): Right ethics, a form of duty ethics,
compares actions against a duty or imperative, as seen in Kant's
Deontology, which emphasizes the character of actions.
 Virtue Ethics: Virtue ethics evaluate actions against a set of virtues,
aiming to be virtuous, like Stoicism's virtues of wisdom, justice,
fortitude, and temperance, emphasizing the character of the
individual making the actions.
So, in short:
 Right ethics: Are my actions compatible with some imperative?
 Virtue Ethics: Are my actions motivated by virtue?

Autonomy: A Kantian interpretation

 Respecting individuals as autonomous agents implies equal status
with us, and we cannot treat them as mere means.
 Using somebody implies an imbalanced power structure, meaning
that the users are
o in a higher rank;
o have more power;
o have ends in the action plan that the inferior party
cannot share.
 Autonomy necessitates acknowledging the experimenter's end as
one's own, and being deceived is one's choice if they can recognize
collective interests as shared without contradiction.

Synthesis: Kantian Ethics

Kant posited that the source of good is the good will itself, not
external factors like nature or God. He argued that morally right actions are
done according to the categorical imperative, a universal moral law that
autonomous individuals freely give themselves.

Two reasons of moral actions:

 hypothetical imperatives - A moral command, such as "be honest"
for a good reputation, is based on personal motive or desire.
 categorical imperatives - Moral laws, both absolute and
unconditional, are a set of moral principles that are universally
accepted and enforced by all individuals.

FORMULATIONS OF THE CATEGORICAL IMPERATIVE

 UNIVERSALITY - “Always act in such a way that the maxim of
your action can be willed as a universal law of humanity.”
 RESPECT - “Always treat humanity, whether in yourself or in other
people, as an end in itself and never as a mere means.”

The Formula of the End Itself

Treat rational agents as intrinsically valuable beings, not mere
means to be exploited. Respect human dignity and act freely on principles.
Personality is the basis of ethical value, and sacrificing the few for the many is
not acceptable.

“Categorical imperatives”
Categorical imperatives are commands to act without an end in
mind, providing a strong reason to believe in innate morality due to their
synthetic and à priori nature.