ADVANCED

ENGLISH
STRUCTURES
0115261

1/2025
PREFACE

Advanced English Structures is specifically compiled for 0115261: Advanced English

Structures, a required course for English major sophomores. The book focuses on structural
differences between phrases and clauses and functions of core parts and modifiers in sentential
structures. Through the direct, functional, and practical approach of each unit, students can get a
glimpse of how to use complex sentential structures for effective written communication, and they
are expected to master such an advanced writing skill at the end of this course.

Watcharee Kulprasit

English Language Program

Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences

Thaksin University, Songkhla Campus

Academic Year 1/2025

CONTENTS

PAGE
PREFACE

UNIT

UNIT I 1
INTRODUCTION TO PHRASES

UNIT II 12
INTRODUCTION TO CLAUSES

UNIT III 19
MODIFIERS

UNIT IV 27
INTRODUCTION TO SENTENCES: THEIR PARTS AND VOICES

UNIT V 34
SENTENCE PATTERNS

UNIT VI 46
TYPES OF SENTENCES

UNIT VII 56
SENTENCES: MOODS AND THEIR PRAGMATIC FUNCTIONS
CONTENTS (CONT.)

PAGE
UNIT

UNIT VIII 73
EFFECTIVE WRITTEN COMMUNICATION

REFERENCES
INTRODUCTION
TO PHRASES
UNIT I
UNIT I
INTRODUCTION TO PHRASES

WHAT IS A PHRASE?

A phrase is a group of related words that go together and are built around a single word without
a subject-verb component. It is used as a single part of speech.

TYPES OF PHRASES

There are several types of phrases in linguistics, each serving a different grammatical or semantic
function. Here are some common types of phrases:

1. NOUN PHRASE (NP)

A noun phrase consists of a noun with its modifier(s). The noun is the head of the noun phrase.
The phrase and its head share the same category.

• The noun phrase can precede the verb or the verb phrase.

• The noun phrase can follow the verb or the verb phrase.

• The noun phrase can be found after the preposition in the prepositional phrase.

• The noun phrase can contain a relative clause.

• An article (a, an, and the), a quantifier (every, each, some, all, no), a numeral or a numeral phrase
(three, eighteen, sixty, a thousand), or a demonstrative* (this, that, these, and those) can appear at
the beginning of the noun phrase.

*Demonstratives differ from articles in that demonstratives can optionally be left on their own inside the noun phrase
(without a noun). Because the noun phrase lacks the noun which should be its head, it is a headless phrase.

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Example: There are two noun phrases in the following example:

The dirty shirt is on the floor.

The dirty shirt = a noun phrase (NP) → a subject

The = an article → its modifier

dirty = an adjective → its modifier

shirt = a noun → its head

the floor = a noun phrase (NP) → a prepositional object

the = an article → its modifier

floor = a noun → its head

More examples: Some books are old.

He told a hundred lies to me.

I found the key which you gave to me.

The man whom you met yesterday is my boyfriend.

That goes into this small cabin.

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2. VERB PHRASE (VP)

A verb phrase is a verb (a principal verb) that consists of two or more words that are built around
it and does the work of a single verb. The verb is really the head of the verb phrase within the
sentence. The verb phrase also contains the auxiliary verbs which precede the verb (i.e. might,
could, should, have, be and do) and the negation word not.

Example: There is one verb phrase in the following example:

I will sing a pop song.

will sing = a verb phrase (VP) → a verb

will = an auxiliary verb

sing = a verb → its head

More examples: I was reading the letter to Paul.

I should have sung a pop song.

This pop song might have been sung by me.

They do not care anymore.

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3. PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE (PP)

A prepositional phrase is a phrase that consists of a preposition, their objects, and their modifiers.
The preposition is the head of the preposition phrase and usually comes before the noun phrase
(hence pre-position). It can function as an adjective or an adverb, depending on the word it
modifies.

Example: There is one prepositional phrase in the following example:

Paul dances on the red carpet.

on the red carpet = a prepositional phrase (PP) → an adverbial modifier

on = a preposition → its head

the red carpet = a noun phrase → a prepositional object

More examples: The village beyond the city wall was destroyed.

The end of this story will appear in the next chapter.

We were drunk after the party.

He bought that large poster at the nearest market.

The painting on the wall is one of my beloved sister’s favorites.

*Use prepositional openers and inversion to show where in order to vary sentence openings to
create different effects.

Examples: On the other side of the road was parked our car.

Behind the tree is our house.

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4. ADJECTIVE PHRASE (AdjP)

An adjective phrase is a phrase that consists of an adjective as its head of the adjective phrase. It
can be found inside the noun phrase to tell us something about the noun or the noun phrase.
However, it can also be found outside the noun phrase. Even though it is outside the noun phrase,
the adjective phrase here still tells us about the noun phrase.

Example: There is one adjective phrase inside the noun phrase in the following
example:

The quite slow car was mine.

quite slow = an adjective phrase (AdjP) → an adjectival modifier

quite = an adverb → its modifier

slow = an adjective → its head

More examples: The car was quite slow.

This incredibly beautiful view takes my breath away.

Paul is wearing a very expensive suit.

They were the happiest kids I’ve ever seen.

My son, smart and diligent, can pass this test easily.

*Use adjective openers to vary sentence openings to create different effects.

Examples: Dark green ivies towered over Paul’s house.

Pretty cold broccoli cheddar soup was served at the party.

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5. ADVERB PHRASE (AdvP)

An adverb phrase is a phrase that consists of an adverb as the head of the adverb phrase. It most
characteristically roams free in the sentence and without very major effects on the meaning of the
sentence. The adverb phrase tells us something about the verb or about the event as a whole.

Example: There is one adverb phrase in the following example:

The car quite slowly drove past me.

quite slowly = an adverb phrase (AdvP) → an adverbial modifier

quite = an adverb → its modifier

slowly = an adverb → its head

More examples: Quite slowly the car drove past me.

The car drove quite slowly past me.

The car drove past me quite slowly.

*Use adverb openers to show how in order to vary sentence openings to create different effects.

Examples: Very quietly, she walked back to her bedroom.

More slowly, Paul opened the door this time.

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6. INFINITIVE PHRASE

An infinitive phrase is a phrase that consists of an infinitive verb with its objects or modifiers.

Example: There is one infinitive phrase in the following example:

To study more than three languages is significant nowadays.

To study more than three languages = an infinitive phrase → a subject

to study = an infinitive → its head

more than three languages = a noun phrase → an object

More examples: Paul plans to eat at a Japanese restaurant.

They asked us to join their party.

I have a lot of work to do before midnight.

To be nice is the easiest thing you can do with each other.

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7. GERUND PHRASE

A gerund phrase is a phrase that consists of a present participle form of the verb (the suffix -ing
is added to the infinitive) with its objects or modifiers. The gerund phrase acts as nouns, and it
can be part of any grammatical structure that a noun can be: the subject, object, subject
complement, possessive, or object of a preposition.

Example: There is one gerund phrase in the following example:

Cooking pasta for him is the thing that I always love to do.

Cooking pasta for him = a gerund phrase → a subject

Cooking = a gerund → its head

pasta = a noun → an object

for him = a prepositional phrase → a modifier

More examples: Their daily chore was taking out the trash after dinner.

Paul loved dancing with Rebecca.

He hated sleeping alone.

Did Dad mention talking to her?

Loving you is the last thing I will do.

Kathy’s winning the lottery surprised us.

Her winning the lottery surprised us.

She is in trouble for telling a lie to protect her son.

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8. PARTICIPIAL PHRASES

A participial phrase is a phrase that begins with the present or past participle form of the verb.

8.1 PRESENT PARTICIPIAL PHRASES

A present participial phrase is formed by adding -ing to the infinitive of a verb while dropping
the particle word “to” in order to introduce a phrase that modifies a noun or pronoun in a sentence.

Example: There is one present participial phrase in the following example:

Running down the hill, Paul tripped and fell.

Running down the hill = a present participial phrase → an adjectival

modifier

Running = a present participle form of the verb → its head

down the hill = a prepositional phrase → a modifier

More examples: Sitting alone in the dark room, he suddenly felt nervous.

The cashier, handing me the receipt, thanked me.

Discovering the cause of the disaster, Tom knew what he would do

next.

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8.2 PAST PARTICIPIAL PHRASES

A past participial phrase is formed by the verbal form as it is used in the perfect tenses, but the
auxiliary “have” is omitted in order to introduce a phrase that modifies a noun or pronoun in a
sentence.

Example: There is one past participial phrase in the following example:

Discovered in southern Thailand, the tribe had apparently been forgotten

years ago.

Discovered in southern Thailand = a past participial phrase → an

adjectival modifier

Discovered = a past participle form of the verb → its head

in southern Thailand = a prepositional phrase → a modifier

More examples: Frightened by the clap of thunder, that dog went in the house.

The painting, stolen from the gallery yesterday, has been found.

Excited by the huge ice cream in front of him, Paul took a lot of photos.

Imprisoned for many years, Ken had no friends.

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9. APPOSITIVE PHRASES

An appositive phrase can be a single noun or a noun phrase that is placed after the noun it
modifies. It usually adds extra information or clarification, so it is often set off by commas.

Example: There is one appositive phrase in the following example:

Their dog, an energetic beagle, barked all night.

an energetic beagle = an appositive phrase → a modifier

an = an article → its modifier

energetic = an adjective → its modifier a noun phrase

beagle = a noun → its head

More Examples: I have never visited Chicago, my boyfriend’s hometown.

My dog, Joanna, is sleeping on the sofa.

I will cook cream of mushroom soup, his favorite soup, tonight.

Katherine, our lovely aunt, will take care of this.

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INTRODUCTION
TO CLAUSES
UNIT II
UNIT II

INTRODUCTION TO CLAUSES

WHAT IS A CLAUSE?

Clauses are the basis of sentences. A clause is a group of words containing a subject and verb.
They are rather like little sentences.* There are two types of clauses: independent clauses and
dependent clauses.

1. INDEPENDENT CLAUSES

An independent clause or a main clause is a simple sentence. It expresses a complete thought

and can stand on its own. However, when it is part of a longer sentence, it is referred to as an
independent or main clause. A simple independent clause or main clause contains at least a
grammatical subject and one lexical, finite verb. Finite verbs in standard English agree with the
subjects of the clauses and are also marked for tenses. Their subjects have the nominative case.
Modal auxiliaries count as finite even though they show no agreement or tenses.

Examples: That dog looks dirty.

Ken is not my type.

Her friends smiled at her.

That boy has been laughing for a long time.

He may know the answer.

She might not listen.

Paul and his family spent their vacation in Greece last summer.

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Nevertheless, a comma splice can happen when two independent clauses are joined with a
comma. In some cases, a run-on sentence occurs when there is not appropriate punctuation or
conjunction between two independent clauses. Both are considered grammatical errors.

Examples: She is selfish, no one wants to be her friend. (a comma splice)

Everyone knows him they choose to keep quiet. (a run-on sentence)

To correct these two cases of grammatical errors, divide it into two sentences (two independent
clauses), or use a comma with a coordinator (FANBOYS) or a subordinator.

Examples: She is selfish, no one wants to be her friend. (a comma splice)

She is selfish. No one wants to be her friend.

She is selfish, so no one wants to be her friend.

Because she is selfish, no one wants to be her friend.

Everyone knows him they choose to keep quiet. (a run-on sentence)

Everyone knows him. They choose to keep quiet.

Everyone knows him, but they choose to keep quiet.

Although everyone knows him, they choose to keep quiet.

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2. DEPENDENT CLAUSES

A dependent clause or a subordinate clause has a subject and verb, but it does not express a
complete thought and cannot stand on its own. It is not a sentence. Dependent or subordinate
clauses begin with subordinators (subordinating conjunctions), such as although, as long as,
unless, before, since, as soon as, while, though, even though, as, if, when, until, after, because,
who, whom, that, which, whose, why, how, what(ever), where(ever), etc. However, a dependent or
subordinate clause standing alone is a common error known as a sentence fragment. This
happens because an independent clause is missing.

Examples: Although he is rich.

Because you are selfish.

What he is thinking.

Who is a lawyer. Dependent Clauses

If she wants to. 

When I was young. Sentence Fragments

After Tom knew the truth.

Until all the cookies are golden brown.

Why they had done that.

Moreover, a sentence fragment can happen when the writer does not express a complete thought
whereas it is punctuated to look like a complete sentence as the following examples.

Examples: In the middle of the night.

The most beautiful woman I have ever seen in my life.

Walked as fast as she could.

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 My favorite dessert, the one that I always have after every meal.

That she refused to go with him.

Knowing that it was wrong.

To correct this type of sentence error, add what is missing, or rewrite it.

Examples: Although he is rich, I don’t like him.

I don’t like him although he is rich.

In the middle of the night, the moon is shining brightly in the sky.

Katherine is the most beautiful woman I have ever seen in my life.

She walked as fast as she could.

Strawberry short cake is my favorite dessert, the one that I always have
after every meal.

My favorite dessert, the one that I always have after every meal, is
strawberry short cake.

We were told that she refused to go with him.

She refused to go with him.

Paul knew that it was wrong.

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FUNCTIONS OF DEPENDENT CLAUSES

Dependent or subordinate clauses can function as adjectives, nouns, and adverbs in the sentences.

1. Adjective Clauses

An adjective clause (a relative clause) is the dependent or subordinate clause that functions as
an adjective in the sentence. That is, it modifies a noun, a pronoun, or a noun phrase. It starts with
the relative pronoun (who, whom, that, which, whose) and cannot stand alone.

Examples: Paul who was mad at me left the party three minutes ago.

That is the little girl whom we met at the parking lot yesterday.

The shirt that I gave him on his birthday was left on the floor after our
fight.

The carrot cake which is in the fridge has gone bad.

I am working in Chicago, which is my hometown.

That is my cousin whose wife has been sick for 10 years.

Reduced Adjective Clauses

The writer can use a reduced adjective clause when the subject in the main clause and the subject
in the dependent clause or the adjective clause are the same. If there is a subject after the relative
pronoun, an adjective clause cannot be reduced. Thus, the reduced adjective clause becomes an
adjective phrase starting with a present participle for the active voice or a past participle for the
passive voice.

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Examples:

Sentences with Adjective Clauses Sentences with Reduced Adjective Clauses

That old man who is standing next to Jim That old man standing next to Jim is our new
is our new professor. professor.

These students who used our service have These students using our service have the right
the right to complain. to complain.

This cherry tart that is made by Chef This cherry tart made by Chef Antony is our
Antony is our favorite dessert. favorite dessert.

I have found the chapter that explores the I have found the chapter exploring the effects
effects of this innovation in more detail. of this innovation in more detail.

The bike which was parked here The bike parked here yesterday was stolen.
yesterday was stolen.

But…

That is the little girl we met at the parking lot yesterday.

The shirt I gave him on his birthday was left on the floor after our fight.

The carrot cake in the fridge has gone bad.

I am working in Chicago, my hometown.

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2. Noun Clauses

A noun clause is the dependent or subordinate clause that functions as a noun in the sentence. It
begins with the subordinator (what, how, who, why, whoever, whom, whomever).

Examples: What I want now is the truth.

Your honesty is what I need most.

He has never told us how he did that.

Give it to whoever comes first.

She told whomever she met.

She explained why she was late.

Who called you is still a mystery.

3. Adverb Clauses

An adverb clause is the dependent or subordinate clause that functions as an adverb in the
sentence. It begins with the subordinator (although, as long as, unless, before, since, as soon as,
while, though, even though, as, if, when, until, after, because).

Examples: When she started crying, he left her house as quickly as he could.

He decided to move on as he saw her with her new boyfriend.

She always texts me unless her boyfriend is with her.

After she quit that job, she had been unemployed for seven years.

He is singing while he is driving.

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MODIFIERS
UNIT III
UNIT III
MODIFIERS

MODIFIERS

A modifier is a word, phrase, or clause that functions as an adjective or adverb to provide

additional information about the word called the head. It is also known as an adjunct. The
modifier that appears before the head is called a premodifier, while the one that appears after the
head is called a postmodifier.

NOUNS & THEIR MODIFIERS

In a structure of modification in which the head is a noun, modifiers can appear before and/or after
the head noun. Therefore, there are two types of noun modifiers: pre-nominal modifiers and post-
nominal modifiers.

PRE-NOMINAL MODIFERS

If modifiers appear before the head noun or in the pre-posed or pre-nominal position, they are
called pre-nominal modifiers.

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 PRE-NOMINAL MODIFIERS
PRED D POSTD ADJ N
D/ ART POSS POSS DEM OR CAR HN
QUANT ADJ of ADJ NO NO
Name
all another a my Paul’s this first one white school uniform
both any an your that second two dirty lemon pie
half each the their these third three old lady
double either our those four sweet
neither its five
enough his
much her
no
some
many
several
just

Abbreviation:
HN = Head Noun
N = Noun
ADJ = Adjective

POSTD = Post-determiner/ Post determiner/ Postdeterminer

OR NO = Ordinal Number
CAR NO = Cardinal Number

D = Determiner

DEM ADJ = Demonstrative Adjective

POSS of Name = Possessive of Name

POSS ADJ = Possessive Adjective

ART = Article
QUANT = Quantifier
PRED = Pre-determiner/ Predeterminer

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Examples: There is a magical unicorn near that orange brick house.

NP = a magical unicorn → a subject

N = unicorn → a head noun

ADJ = magical → a pre-nominal modifier

ART = a → a pre-nominal modifier

NP = that orange brick house → a prepositional object

N = house → a head noun

N = brick → an adjective/ a pre-nominal modifier

ADJ = orange → a pre-nominal modifier

DEM ADJ = that → a pre-nominal modifier

POST-NOMINAL MODIFERS

If modifiers appear after the noun or the head noun or in the post-posed or post-nominal position,
they are called post-nominal modifiers. There are nine types of post-nominal modifiers.

1. Adjective Phrase (Modified Adjective)

Example: Paul, deeply disappointed, told her what to do next.

N = Paul

PONM = , deeply disappointed,

(Adjective Phrase/ Modified Adjective)

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2. Compounded Adjective

Example: Paul, bored and annoyed, asked her to leave him alone.

N = Paul

PONM = , bored and annoyed, (Compounded Adjective)

3. Adverb

Example: Who is that young lady over there?

HN = lady

PONM = over there (Adverb)

4. Adjectival Noun Phrase

Example: The presentation next week will be given by Paul.

HN = presentation

PONM = next week (Adjectival Noun Phrase)

5. Adjectival Prepositional Phrase

Example: That dog under the bench is probably sick.

HN = dog

PONM = under the bench (Adjectival Prepositional Phrase)

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6. Adjectival Participial Phrases

Examples: That lady, sipping her red wine, is my aunt.

HN = lady

PONM = , sipping her red wine, (Adjectival Participial Phrase)

That dish, cooked by Paul, was delicious.

HN = dish

PONM = , cooked by Paul, (Adjectival Participial Phrase)

7. Adjectival Infinitive Phrase

Example: She has lots of work to do before bed.

HN = work

PONM = to do before bed (Adjectival Infinitive Phrase)

8. Adjective Clause (Relative Clause)

Example: Those boys who look exhausted can take a rest for a while.

HN = boys

PONM = who look exhausted (Adjective Clause)

9. Adjectival Appositive

Example: Ken, one of my close friends, is going to New York next month.

N = Ken

PONM = , one of my close friends, (Adjectival Appositive)

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VERBS & THEIR MODIFIERS

In a structure of modification in which the head is a verb, modifiers usually appear after the verb
or the head verb. They are called post-verbal modifiers.

POST-VERBAL MODIFERS

There are five types of post-verbal modifiers.

1. Adverbial Prepositional Phrase

Example: Paul dives in the sea.

V = dives

POVM = in the sea (Adverbial Prepositional Phrase)

2. Adverbial Noun Phrase

Example: Paul dives every week.

V = dives

POVM = every week (Adverbial Noun Phrase)

3. Adverbial Participial Phrase

Examples: That lady sat crying with frustration.

V = sat

POVM = crying with frustration (Adverbial Participial Phrase)

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 She returned wounded by an assassin.

V = returned

POVM = wounded by an assassin (Adverbial Participial Phrase)

4. Adverbial Infinitive Phrase

Example: Paul dives to relieve his stress.

V = dives

POVM = to relieve his stress (Adverbial Infinitive Phrase)

5. Adverbial Clause

Example: Paul dives when he feels bored.

V = dives

POVM = when he feels bored (Adverbial Clause)

However, when an adverb is the modifier of the verb or the head verb, it can appear before or
after the verb or the head verb, so it can be a pre-verbal modifier or a post-verbal modifier.

Examples: She bitterly cried.

V = cried

PRVM = bitterly (Adverb)

She cried bitterly.

V = cried

POVM = bitterly (Adverb)

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SENTENCES & THEIR MODIFIERS

Sentences also have modifiers. It is called a sentence modifier as it modifies the whole sentence.
It can be shifted between the front and back without essentially changing the meaning. The
sentence modifier can be a single word, a phrase, or a clause.

Examples: Surprisingly, he won the lottery.

He won the lottery, surprisingly.

I will tell you everything I know, honestly.

Honestly, I will tell you everything I know.

Yesterday he asked me to join his club.

He asked me to join his club yesterday.

To tell the truth, she is nervous.

She is nervous, to tell the truth.

Before taking a shower, she answered his call.

She answered his call before taking a shower.

She cried bitterly after he had left.

After he had left, she cried bitterly.

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INTRODUCTION
TO SENTENCES:
THEIR PARTS AND
VOICES
UNIT IV
UNIT IV
INTRODUCTION TO SENTENCES: THEIR PARTS AND VOICES

WHAT IS A SENTENCE?

Written language is different from spoken language. In writing, there is no conversational partner
and generally no shared context. The writer has to spell things out. This calls for “sentences”. A
sentence represents an action, an event, or a state of affairs: something that happens or
something that is.

THE SENTENCE AND ITS PARTS

In English, a sentence is generally made of the subject and the predicate. The subject is the noun,
pronoun, or set of words* (the complete subject with its modifiers) that performs the verb, and it
precedes a word or set of words that show action, feeling, or state of being, called the predicate.
To find the subject, always find the verb first. Then ask who or what performs the verb. Sentences
can have more than one subject and more than one verb.

Examples: Paul is drinking beer with his friends.

We have had a lot of problems to solve.

To love him once again is the most difficult thing to do.

That car ran so fast.

Our friends will never show up at the party.

Talking with him was not good advice.

Jane’s son never smokes.

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Tomatoes are red.

How is Paul?

She was late.

Is everything fine?

The boy hurried.

My heart races.

Harry Potter never wins an Academy Award.

The old steam engine kept running.

I like cheesecake, but Ken likes raspberry pie.

He and I chose chewy cookies.

She runs and practices yoga every day.

Down came the rain.

Here is your document.

The river flows through the town.

To make her smile is my favorite thing I always do.

Trying to escape from this place was their goal.

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SENTENCE VOICES

Sentence voices refer to the relationships between the subjects and the verbs in the clauses and
are typically categorized as either active or passive.

Use active voice whenever the subject is performing the verb, especially when you want to
emphasize the doer of the action instead of the receiver.

Examples: He did that!

Paul hit the ball.

A thief stole my wallet.

My father finally made a decision.

More Examples: She writes the reports.

He is preparing the presentation.

The company launched a new product.

He was leading the discussion.

Tom has resolved multiple customer complaints.

They had finished the project before the deadline.

She will present the findings tomorrow.

They will be attending the conference next week.

By next month, the team will have completed the analysis.

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However, use passive voice (a form of the auxiliary verb to be followed by the past participle of
the main verb) when…

1. you want to emphasize the receiver of the action instead of the doer:

Examples: The ball was hit.

My wallet was stolen.

Finally, a decision was made.

It was done!

More Examples: The documents are signed every morning.

The file was restored in 2024.

The project report is being reviewed at the moment.

The building was being renovated when we arrived.

Several negative comments have been received this week.

The email had been sent before noon.

The final decision will be announced tomorrow.

The assignment will have been completed by Sunday.

2. you do not know who performed the action:

Examples: This journal is published annually.

Our dinner was already made.

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 The new law is being discussed.

The policy has been updated recently.

The package had been delivered before I got home.

The application will be processed within five business days.

The decision will be made soon.

The project will have been finalized by next month.

3. you do not want to mention the doer of the action:

Examples: I was misinformed.

Paul was given some bad advice.

Many issues have been ignored for too long.

More Examples: Mistakes are made in every organization.

Important details are being overlooked.

My concerns have been ignored.

The rules were being bent all along.

Critical warnings had been dismissed before the failure occurred.

Your complaint will be reviewed.

Changes are going to be made.

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4. when you want to sound objective:

Examples: It is believed that the victims are escaping.

It is acknowledged that our project has been rejected.

It is presumed that the patients responded positively to the treatment.

It is considered that the sample size was insufficient for conclusive results.

It is estimated that over 10,000 homes were damaged in the flood.

It can be assumed that thousands of people on the coast were affected by the
disaster.

Passive Infinitives and Modals

The infinitive can appear in the passive voice. Passive infinitives are formed by combining the
auxiliary verb to be with the past participle of the main verb.

Examples: The manuscript deserves to be published in a reputable journal.

The proposal hopes to be accepted by the funding committee.

The contract needs to be finalized before the meeting.

The experiments require to be conducted under strict conditions.

The data is expected to be analyzed by the research team.

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 This formation similarly extends to modal verbs, such as can, could, may, might, should, must,
allowing the expression of modality in the passive voice (a modal verb followed by the past
participle of the main verb).

Examples: The application must be submitted by the deadline.

The guidelines should be followed carefully.

The equipment can be repaired by the maintenance staff.

The results could be affected by external factors.

The project may be rejected if it is impractical.

Passive Forms in Different Tenses

Present Past Future

Completed Actions is/ am/ are was/were will be

past participle past participle past participle

Actions in Progress is/ am/ are was/ were will be

being past participle being past participle being past participle*

Perfect has/have had will have

been past participle been past participle been past participle *

*These forms are uncommon.

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SENTENCE
PATTERNS
UNIT V
UNIT V
SENTENCE PATTERNS

In English, a sentence has two main parts: a subject and a verb that express a complete thought.
However, real sentences are more complex as we want to exchange more information. Therefore,
there are various English sentence patterns to convey information, messages, or ideas.

Pattern 1: S – LV – SC

[Subject + Linking Verb + Subject Complement]

Linking verbs or state-of-being verbs: all forms of the verb to be and the words, such as look, feel,
appear, taste, smell, sound, seem, become, act, go etc.

Subject Complements: a word or phrase giving more information about the subject, such as
adjectives, adverbs, noun phrases, or prepositional phrases

Examples: I am here.

You look great!

Paul is a pastry chef.

That soup tastes bad.

Your keys are on the sofa.

Our teacher remained silent for the rest of the class.

Our employees felt tired after enduring two challenging weeks.

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Pattern 2: S – IV

[Subject + Intransitive Verb]

Intransitive verbs do not need direct objects e.g. sing, talk, rain, listen, cough, ring, live, cry, laugh,
stand, wait, smile, etc. (The thought of the sentence pattern is already completed by the action of
the verb.)

Examples: She smiles.

Fairies exist.

Paul is sneezing.

That old man has just died.

A little boy is crying bitterly.

Something bad has happened.

The audience was laughing so hard.

Pattern 3: S – TV – DO

[Subject + Transitive Verb + Direct Object]

Transitive verbs need direct objects to complete their meanings, e.g. hug, eat, push, have, borrow,
pay, grab, teach, squeeze, etc.

Direct objects: a word or phrase indicating the receiver of the action of the transitive verb

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Examples: You met me at noon yesterday.

Ken bought a new car last year.

I am baking some sugar cookies.

We are discussing the same problem.

My cousin never borrows any books from the library.

Pattern 4:

4.1 S – TV – IO – DO

[Subject + Transitive Verb + Indirect Object + Direct Object]

4.2 S – TV – DO – PREP – IO

[Subject + Transitive Verb + Direct Object + Preposition + Indirect Object]

Indirect objects: a word or phrase indicating the person or thing that the transitive verb is
performed for or directed to

Examples:

S – TV – IO – DO S – TV – DO – PREP – IO

He gave me a white rose. He gave a white rose to me.

Paul bought her a condominium. Paul bought a condominium for her.

My sister handed her son $10. My sister handed $10 to her son.

They offered me a good job. They offered a good job to me.

I am teaching Thai students French. I am teaching French to Thai students.

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Pattern 5: S – TV – DO – OC

[Subject + Transitive Verb + Direct Object + Object Complement]

Object complements: a word or phrase describing the object, such as adjectives, past participles,
nouns, or noun phrases

Examples: This rumor makes him sad.

They painted our house blue.

I had my hair cut.

Paul named his cat Yummy.

We elected Charles our chairman.

Pattern 6: Inversion

In English sentences, the subject comes before the verb. On the contrary, when the verb comes
before the subject, it is known as inversion. Inversion can be of two types:

Pattern 6.1: AUX – S – MV

[Auxiliary Verb + Subject + Main Verb]

In this pattern, the “Auxiliary” comes before the subject, but the main verb comes after the
subject.

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Examples: Never does she go to hospital.

Hardly do Paul and I come here.

Pattern 6.2: MV – S

[Main Verb + Subject]

In the second pattern, the main verb comes before the subject.

Examples: Round the corner went Paul.

Under the bench were sleeping many stray dogs.

We use the inversion when …

1. the sentence begins with one of the following words: Hardly, Scarcely, Rarely, Seldom, Never,
Little, etc.

Examples: Hardly does he go to school.

Seldom had she seen such a perfect match.

Never does Paul go to hospital.

Scarcely ever did they arrive on time.

Rarely is he sick.

Little does she know how much trouble she is in.

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2. one of the correlative conjunctions: Not only …but also, Neither…nor, No sooner…than,
Hardly…when, Scarcely…when etc. is used.

Examples: Not only did he talk on the phone, but he also watched a movie.

Not only does Paul prepare our breakfast, but he also makes us a drink.

Neither do we have lunch at home, nor do we eat out.

No sooner had she seen me than she hugged me tightly.

No sooner had he left her house than he burst into tears.

Hardly had I reached home when he texted me.

Scarcely had she answered his call when she started crying.

3. the sentence begins with one of the following phrases: Under no circumstances/ In no
circumstances, In no way, On no account, On no condition, or At no time.

Examples: Under no circumstances shall I accept his assistance.

In no circumstances are you allowed to go outside after midnight.

In no way will I forget him.

On no account must you refuse to marry me.

On no condition will he stop loving her.

At no time did he come back to her.

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4. the sentence starts with one of the adverbial expressions beginning with “only” such as only
yesterday, only the day before yesterday, only last month, only last fortnight, only after a month/
year, only then, only in this way, only when, only by doing this thing, only in a few schools/
colleges/ countries/ continents etc.

Examples: Only yesterday did he call me.

Only then did he tell her the truth.

Only when all the stars have gone out will I grasp the complexity of

the universe.

Only by accepting this challenge can they join this club.

Only by screaming was he able to make himself heard.

5. the sentence begins with one of the adverbial expressions showing places, such as outside the
gate, under the table, in the valley, along the border, round the corner, on the hill, under a tree,
on the bed, ten/five miles beyond the school/college/city, nowhere etc.

Examples: In the valley did he find a beautiful woman.

Under a tree is sleeping an old dog.

On the bed was sitting my puppy.

Five miles beyond the city was a wonderful palace.

Nowhere have I ever heard such a thing.

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6. the sentence begins with one of the following words: Here/ There/ Away/ Out/ Up/ In /Down

Note: When a pronoun is used as the subject, no inversion takes place in such a sentence.

Examples: Down fell a dozen apples.

In came the child weeping.

Here comes the train.

There goes Ken.

Away went Paul.

But…

There she goes.

Away he went.

Here she comes.

7. the reporting verb is placed after the reported speech.

Note: If a pronoun is used as the subject, no inversion takes place.

Examples: “Let’s play basketball,” proposed Paul.

“Let’s play basketball,” he proposed.

“Call me when you have a problem,” said Jane.

“Call me when you have a problem,” she said.

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 “Get out!” instructed Ken.

“Get out!” he instructed.

“Are you afraid to grow old?” asked Tom.

“Are you afraid to grow old?” he asked.

8. the sentence begins with “so + adverb of manner…that”.

Examples: So well did he lead his team that everyone started praising him.

[He led his team so well that everyone started praising him.]

So suspiciously did she act that they couldn’t trust her.

[She acted so suspiciously that they couldn’t trust her.]

9. the sentence begins with “so + adjective…that”.

Examples: So suspicious does she look that we can’t trust her.

[She looks so suspicious that we can’t trust her.]

So delicious was the meal that they ate it all.

[The meal was so delicious that they ate it all.]

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10. the sentence begins with “such + noun … that”.

Examples: Such a suspicious woman does she look that we can’t trust her.

[She looks such a suspicious woman that we can’t trust her.]

Such a delicious meal was it that they ate it all.

[It was such a delicious meal that they ate it all.]

11. the reduced conditionals or inverted conditionals are used.

1st Conditional: Real conditions in the present or future

Examples: Should it rain, we will cancel the picnic.

[If it rains, we will cancel the picnic.]

Should she be late, we will leave without her.

[If she is late, we will leave without her.]

Should she not hurry, we will be in trouble.

[If she doesn’t hurry, we will be in trouble.]

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2nd Conditional: Unreal conditions in the present or future

Examples: Were I his friend, I would not leave him alone.

[If I were his friend, I would not leave him alone.]

Were he not smart, this project wouldn’t be successful.

[If he weren’t smart, this project wouldn’t be successful.]

Were I to go to Chicago, I would meet him there.

[If I went to Chicago, I would meet him there.]

Were he not to answer your call, you would leave him alone.

[If he didn’t answer your call, you would leave him alone.]

3rd Conditional: Unreal conditions in the past

Examples: Had I known my heart would break, I would have loved you anyway.

[If I had known my heart would break, I would have loved you anyway.]

Had you not done that, the situation wouldn’t have been getting worse.

[If you hadn’t done that, the situation wouldn’t have been getting worse.]

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Had she been in the meeting, she would have heard the announcement.

[If she had been in the meeting, she would have heard the announcement.]

Had I not been sick, I would have gone to the party.

[If I had not been sick, I would have gone to the party.]

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TYPES OF
SENTENCES
UNIT VI
UNIT VI
TYPES OF SENTENCES

English sentences can be classified into four types as simple sentences, compound sentences,
complex sentences, and compound-complex sentences.

1. SIMPLE SENTENCES

A simple sentence is made up of one thing happening, so it has one independent/ main clause.

Examples:

That dog barked. [S-V]

That curious dog barked. [S-V]

That curious dog barked all day. [S-V]

That curious dog barked at the snail all day. [S-V]

That curious dog barked at the snail on the ground all day. [S-V]

That curious dog with the navy-blue collar barked at the snail on the ground all day. [S-V]

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There are six patterns of simple sentences:

That curious dog with the navy-blue collar barked at the snail on the ground all day. [S-V]

The curious dog barked and ran all day. [S-VV]

The curious dog wagged its tail, barked, and ran all day. [S-VVV]

The curious dog and the smaller one barked all day. [SS-V]

The curious dog and the smaller one barked and ran all day. [SS-VV]

The curious dog, the smallest dog, and the biggest one barked all day. [SSS-V]

Use short, simple sentences for drama and clarity.

Examples: Paul jumped.

Self-discipline is necessary.

You are late!

The door creaked.

Silence fell.

It was gone.

No one moved.

She screamed.

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2. COMPOUND SENTENCES

A compound sentence is made up of two clauses of almost equal weight. We use compound
sentences for flow. There are five patterns of compound sentences.

1. A compound sentence can be made up of two independent/ main clauses linked together by a
coordinating conjunction. Coordinating conjunctions are some of the most commonly used
conjunctions. They include and, but, or, nor, for, so, and yet (FANBOYS). In compound
sentences, they are used primarily to combine independent/ main clauses, and those clauses are
separated by a comma.

Examples: Paul is cooking breakfast, and Jane is taking a nap.

He is rich, and he is handsome.

Tom sang, and I danced.

Ellen left her house, but she didn’t know where to go.

She never cares, but he does.

We can join this activity, or we can stay home.

You must tell the truth, or you will be in trouble.

He doesn’t speak Spanish, nor does he speak French.

She doesn’t care about him, nor does she want to break up with him.

I don’t like her, for she is selfish.

It is raining heavily, so we can’t leave the hotel.

He was lazy, yet he passed the examination.

It’s simple, yet it’s attractive.

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2. A compound sentence can be made up of two independent/ main clauses linked together by a
correlative conjunction. Correlative conjunctions are pairs of words that function together. The

words in the pairs of conjunctions cannot be separated and used alone; to have the intended
meaning, they must be used together. The following pairs are used as correlative conjunctions:
either...or, hardly...when, neither...nor, no sooner...than, not only...but also, scarcely...when, and

whether...or.

Examples: Either you make a decision, or I will deal with it.

Neither do you pay attention to what he said, nor do you deal with it.

Not only did he leave her alone, but he also let her face all difficulties on her own.

No sooner had they started having a fight than she began to cry.

Hardly had I taken a nap when Paul sent his message.

Scarcely had she shut the door when he started crying.

I am not sure whether she is going to tell him, or she is not going to tell him.

I am not sure whether she is going to tell him or not.

I am not sure whether she is going to tell him.

[When using whether. . . or, you can combine two clauses or phrases. The clause following “or” can be elliptical because its

meaning is understood.]

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3. A compound sentence can be made up of two independent/ main clauses linked together by a
conjunctive adverb. Certain adverbial expressions can function as conjunctions. They are called
conjunctive adverbs, and they combine two clauses just as other conjunctions do. However, there
is a different approach to punctuation with conjunctive adverbs: a semicolon precedes a
conjunctive adverb, and a comma follows it.

Here are some commonly used conjunctive adverbs:

nonetheless also as a result

on the contrary besides consequently

on the other hand in addition as a consequence

nevertheless furthermore accordingly

however moreover hence

in contrast additionally thus

conversely therefore

otherwise in other words alternatively

that is

similarly in fact for example

likewise indeed for instance

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Examples: His son is quite shy; however, he is a good actor.

My boyfriend kissed me; moreover, he hugged me tightly.

He didn’t care about me; therefore, we broke up.

You must do something; otherwise, the same mistake will happen twice.

He has a high income; in other words, he is very rich.

Customers can shop online; alternatively, they can go to our downtown shopping mall.

The garlic butter steak was delicious; likewise, the chimichurri was excellent.

I like you a lot; in fact, we should be more than friends.

She is so nice to me; for example, she never leaves me to face difficulties alone.

4. A compound sentence can be made up of two related independent/ main clauses linked together
by a semicolon (;).

Examples: He didn’t say a word; he just walked away.

The test was difficult; many students failed.

Baking is one of my favorite hobbies; you should try my dessert once.

Paul has two younger sisters; they both have been in jail for three months.

Charles loves reading young adult novels; one of his favorite authors is Holly Smale.

Yesterday Tom took Alice to one of the Michelin star restaurants in NYC; it was
their first wedding anniversary.

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5. A compound sentence can be made up of two related independent/ main clauses linked together
by a colon (:). In this case, the second clause illustrates the first one. The capitalization of an
independent clause after a colon is optional.

Examples: She had only one goal: she wanted to win.

It hit me suddenly: I had forgotten her birthday.

Lisa forgot to tell Joe something: his research proposal was rejected.

My friends and I went to NYC: we were invited to speak at an international

academic conference.

Lipe Island has the most beautiful view: the island is surrounded by the
breathtaking beach, picturesque cliffs, and crystal turquoise seawater.

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3. COMPLEX SENTENCES

A complex sentence has an independent/ main clause supported by one or more dependent/
subordinate clauses. A dependent/ subordinate clause can start with a characteristic subordinating
word. It belongs to the class of subordinating conjunctions. Subordinating conjunctions come only

at the beginning of a dependent/ subordinate clause, which makes them a good clue. The
dependent/ subordinate clause is less important – it is an extra piece of information that is added
on to the independent/ main clause – the main event. Most dependent/ subordinate clauses can
move around in a sentence, placed at the front, dropped into the middle, or tagged on at the end. If
a sentence begins with a clause introduced by a subordinating conjunction, that clause will be
separated from the independent/ main clause by a comma. If the clause introduced by a
subordinating conjunction follows the independent/ main clause, a comma is not required. The
clause that appears first in a sentence is usually the one that is emphasized. This is true of both
dependent/ subordinate clauses and independent/ main clauses. We use complex sentences to add
extra layers of information, argument, reasoning, or explanation.

Some of the most used subordinating conjunctions are listed here:

after even though that before

although since though so that

as if because while

as if inasmuch as unless why

as long as in order that until/ till than

as much as lest when even if

as soon as now that whenever wherever

as though provided (that) where how

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Examples: She left because he didn’t care about her anymore.

She said that he was meaningful to her.

When he left, she started crying.

That young man who is standing next to Ellen is my youngest cousin.

As she was late, they left without her.

While she was leaving, she told me that Paul was coming.

After he left her alone, she started crying.

He always does what he wants since he never cares.

Although she never asks, he is willing to do it for her.

She gave him a quick glace and smiled as she was dancing.

I will be right beside you if you need me.

She decided to move to another city when she quit her job that she didn’t like.

I am not sure why he talked to me like that.

She spoke quietly lest anyone overhear the conversation.

They hurried to see me as soon as they knew the news.

Come back to me after she leaves you.

Before we have some ice cream, let’s finish our homework.

As Bob started singing, Joe decided to go out.

He is correct inasmuch as the data supports his conclusion.

While many people enjoy traveling, it turns out to be the easiest way to waste their
money.

She treats me as if I were a child.

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4. COMPOUND-COMPLEX SENTENCES

A compound-complex sentence has at least two independent/ main clauses and one or more
dependent/ subordinate clauses.

Examples: Because he loved her, he did everything she wanted, yet she declined his marriage
proposal.

I am not sure why he talked to me like that, but I am sure that he will have no such
chance to do it twice.

That young man, who is standing next to Ellen, is actually my oldest cousin, and I
have never talked with him.

Pete decided to join that club although he did not want to as he knew that he could
meet Jane there; however, he changed his mind when he found out that she did not
like him.

Although the restaurant was crowded and we had to wait for a table, we decided to
stay because we knew that the food was excellent and the atmosphere was perfect
for a special evening, and even though we were both very tired from our long day
of sightseeing, we figured that we could enjoy our meal and relax before heading
back to the hotel as we wouldn’t have another chance to visit such a popular place
anytime soon.

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SENTENCES:
MOODS AND
THEIR
PRAGMATIC
FUNCTIONS
UNIT VII
UNIT VII
SENTENCES: MOODS AND THEIR PRAGMATIC FUNCTIONS

Each sentence in English needs to contain “a tensed verb” and “a subject that agrees with the
verb” and has “a certain mood”. Its mood signals the writer’s “take” on the content expressed in
the sentence. It indicates whether something is a fact, opinion, command, suggestion, request,
wish, hypothetical (imaginary) situation, or uncertainty. Moods provide perspective. In English,
the three primary moods are indicative/ declarative, interrogative, and imperative moods as well
as two minor moods (exclamatory and subjunctive moods). These moods represent different
pragmatic functions: statements, questions, commands, exclamations, and subjunctive
sentences respectively.

Examples:

I spotted your boyfriend with another woman at the mall. (Indicative/ declarative mood)

When did you spot him? (Interrogative mood)

Tell him I will kill him! (Imperative mood)

What a good boyfriend! (Exclamative mood)

May they both have a happy afterlife together! (Subjunctive mood)

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 INDICATIVE/ DECLARATIVE MOOD

To express this mood, statements/ declarative sentences are used in English. They consist of a
subject and its predicate. The verb in the predicate is conjugated appropriately for the subject and
in a specific tense. Therefore, it is particularly important to understand the tense differences
between verbs that describe an incomplete action or one in progress, or a completed or habitual
action in the statement/ declarative sentences.

Incomplete Actions/ One in Progress

TENSES EXAMPLES

Present Tense
They are eating breakfast.
Present Continuous Tense
She is dancing.

Past Tense He was talking on the phone when it started raining.

Past Continuous Tense Laura and her friends were dancing in the rain when Peter found them.
The sun was going down while the children were playing in the
playground.
Future Tense
She will be working here.
Future Continuous Tense
Paul will be teaching this course.

Perfect Tense
Present Perfect Continuous Tense She has been doing her homework for two hours.
Past Perfect Continuous Tense They had been working in the mine.
Future Perfect Continuous Tense We will have been doing this project for eight more hours.

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Completed/ Habitual Actions

TENSES EXAMPLES

Present Tense Paul plays basketball every Saturday.

Present Simple Tense We paint our house.
Kathy always goes to bed early.
Past Tense
Our dog drank milk every night.
Past Simple Tense
She lived in Chicago for six years.

Future Tense
They will arrive here tonight.
Future Simple Tense
Uncle Paul will do it for you.

Perfect Tense
Present Perfect Tense We have stayed at this hotel since we arrived.
Past Perfect Tense She had never acted like this before.
Future Perfect Tense Jane will have finished her dinner by the time we get there.

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Using Negatives

The indicative or declarative mood is not limited to making positive statements; it can also express
negative ones by using any of a variety of negative words: no, not, none, nothing, no one, never,
nowhere, or nobody.

Examples: You have no time to make a decision.

We do not need to join that program.

She is not the woman they want.

None of my friends agrees with my idea.

I have nothing to lose.

He never wants her back.

Nobody knows he lives with his aunt.

No one agrees with our opinion.

They have nowhere to go.

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INTERROGATIVE MOOD

To reflect this mood, two types of interrogative sentences/ questions are used to ask questions.

1. Yes-No Questions

The first type can be called a yes-no question because the answer to such a question will begin
with the affirmative word “yes” or the negative word “no”.

Examples: Do you like that T-shirt?

Does it matter if you really want it?

Did he come home late last night?

Are you joking?

Is she your new girlfriend?

Has he been here for a while?

Have you ever noticed that?

Will you marry me?

Was that our Christmas present?

Shall we dance?

Can you dive?

Should we talk about this?

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2. Questions Using Interrogative Words

The second kind of question formation is one that begins with an interrogative word: who, what,

why, whose, how, which, where, or when.

Examples: Who is that woman?

What is your decision?

Why do you love him?

Whose cat is this?

How can you make it right?

Which palaces did you visit?

Where have you been?

When did he tell you?

Short Responses

Not all powerful sentences are long. Even short sentences can carry a lot of meaning, especially
when they are the response to a question or statement whose meaning is understood in the reply.
For instance, the individual words fine and hardly have their own meanings, but they can also
stand alone as an elliptical response to a question or statement.

Examples: You’ll have to live alone.

Fine. (Fine, I accept the fact that I must live alone.)

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 I suppose you’re going to vote for Thomas as a chairperson.

Hardly. (Your supposition is hardly correct. I’ll vote for Paul.)

Many individual words and brief phrases can be used as short responses to questions or
statements. Consider the following list:

Amazing! Of course.

Apparently. Outstanding!

Don’t mention it. Really?

Excellent! Terrific!

For heaven’s sake! That depends.

Fortunately. That’s great.

I have no idea. That’s hard to believe.

Impossible. Unbelievable!

Incredible. Unfortunately, no/not.

It can’t be (true)! What a pity.

Naturally. What do you mean?

Not at all. You’re kidding/not serious.

Obviously. You’re welcome.

Naturally, words and phrases such as these do not have a singular use. They can respond to
numerous questions or statements; likewise, there can be numerous short responses to a single
question or statement.

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Examples:

Paul is a wonderful diver. I can’t afford this car.

Really? Really?

Does Jane have a new baby? Is Paul single?

I have no idea. I have no idea.

Is your mom home? Is your mom home?

Unfortunately, not. Of course.

Paul won the lottery! Tom won the lottery!

Terrific! You’re kidding!

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IMPERATIVE MOOD

Imperatives or commands are used to convey this mood in English. Most imperatives or
commands are made to the second-person singular or plural (you) although the pronoun is not
stated.

Examples: Show me where it is.

Press the green button.

Purchase one and get one free.

Be nice.

Do not be so aggressive!

Don’t talk to him like that!

Be careful, or you will be in trouble.

Turn off your smartphone, so they cannot contact you.

Imperatives/ Commands and Their Punctuation

Most imperatives/ commands of this nature are punctuated with an exclamation point (!), but they
can also be punctuated with a period. An exclamation point in writing is a signal that the imperative
is stated with great emphasis.

Examples: Shut up. (milder but still casual and a bit gruff in tone)

Shut up! (emphatic, perhaps angry in tone)

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Imperatives/ Commands Using “Please”

Most imperatives/ commands are usually said with a certain amount of courtesy. The inclusion of
please softens the tone of the command. Therefore, it is wise to include the word please in most
imperatives/ commands. However, its position in a sentence and the addition or lack of a comma
can change the general meaning of the sentence significantly.

If an imperative begins with please, it has the same meaning as when it ends with please.

Examples: Please send me that file.

Send me that file, please.

Nevertheless, a comma placed after an initial please changes the courteous meaning to one that
suggests impatience or exasperation. In speech, the word please would be followed by a pause
before the imperative is given. In writing, the pause is indicated by a comma. If the imperative is
meant to show more impatience or exasperation, it can be punctuated with an exclamation point.

Examples: Please send me that file. (Courteous)

Please, send me that file. (Impatient)

Please, send me that file! (Exasperation)

Imperatives/ Commands Using “Let’s” and “Let”

Imperatives of this type begin with the contraction let’s (let us) and are followed by an infinitive
phrase. Infinitive phrases that follow let’s omit the particle word to. Let’s conveys that the person
giving the command will participate in the action of the command.

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Examples: Let’s have some ice cream.

Let’s play this game together.

Let’s go to the nearest bar.

If the verb let is used without the contraction of us (let’s), it still is an imperative, but it has a
different meaning. In this case, the person giving the command is suggesting that “you” allow
someone or something to perform an action. This structure consists of let followed by a direct
object and an infinitive phrase with the particle word to omitted.

Examples: Let her go.

Let them work alone.

Let Paul cook dinner for you.

Let Tom and Jamie do that alone.

Let me know if you are interested in this project.

Imperatives/ Commands Using “How about”

Another version of an imperative appears in the form of a question. It begins with the phrase how
about and is followed by a gerund and its complement. This kind of imperative sounds more like
a suggestion than a command, and since it is in the form of a question, it gives the impression that
it is no command at all.

Examples: How about eating out for dinner?

How about finishing our project tonight?

How about watching a new series?

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Imperatives/ Commands Using “Why don’t you/ we”

Yet another version of an imperative also appears in the form of a question. It begins with why

don’t you/ we and is followed by an infinitive phrase with the particle word to omitted.

Examples: Why don’t you talk to him about that?

Why don’t you call me first?

Why don’t you call her and apologize?

Why don’t we talk about this tomorrow?

Why don’t we start the meeting now?

Why don’t we make it easier?

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EXCLAMATORY MOOD

Exclamatory sentences can be used to show exclamatory mood: strong emotion, emphasis,
urgency, or surprise. At the end of a sentence, an exclamation point (!) replaces a period. There
are three patterns of exclamatory sentences:

1. positive and negative statements/ declarative sentences punctuated with the exclamation point

Examples: I did it!

This is not true!

You did a great job!

He never listens to me!

That is wonderful news!

You have no idea what you’ve done!

She is truly shocked by his behavior!

2. exclamatory sentences beginning with exclamatory pronouns: “what” or “how” to emphasize

an antecedent noun

Examples: What a great movie it was!

What a great movie!

How beautiful you are!

How beautiful!

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3. interjections with/without the rest of an exclamatory sentence with the use of a comma

Examples: Ouch!

Hooray, we won!

Hooray! We won!

Oops, I made a mistake!

Wow! That’s amazing!

Eww, what a disgusting menu!

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SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD

Subjunctive sentences are used to express subjective mood: hypothetical, wishful, imaginary, or
factually contradictory thoughts. The English subjunctive mood has three forms. One is the
infinitive of a verb with the omission of the particle word to: (to) go, (to) be, and so on. The
second form is the past tense of a verb. In the case of the verb to be, only the plural past tense
(were) is used in the subjunctive sentences. The third form uses the auxiliary would followed by
an infinitive or by have and a past participle.

THREE FORMS OF SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD

INFINITIVE FORM 1 FORM 2 FORM 3
to be be were would be/would have been
to come come came would come/would have come
to go go went would go/would have gone
to speak speak spoke would speak/would have spoken

Form 1

The infinitive form is used in the subjunctive sentence that conveys a suggestion, a request, a
recommendation, or a proposal. Note that the conjunction that is optional in such sentences.

Examples:

I suggest he find another job. (not he finds)

Would you recommend that they be allowed to work here? (not they are)

They have asked that you be notified in advance. (not you are)

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Form 2 & Form 3

The past-tense form is used in the subjunctive sentence to express a wish or a condition and is
often combined with a subjunctive clause that includes either would plus an infinitive or would
have plus a past participle.

A wish

There are three-tense wishes: a present-tense wish, a past-tense wish, and a future-tense wish.

1. A Present-Tense Wish: Use a past tense verb form (Form 2).

Examples: I wish I were a little wiser.

I wish she knew how to deal with it.

2. A Past-Tense Wish: Use a past perfect verb form.

Examples: I wish he had made a different decision.

I wish they had fired you from your job.

3. A Future-Tense Wish: Use would and the infinitive (Form 1).

Examples: I wish we would be able to do it again.

I wish she would not miss this opportunity.

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A condition

In a conditional statement, if the clauses state highly improbable, doubtful, or contrary-to-fact

conditions, use Form 3.

2nd Conditional

Examples: If you were me, you would do what I did.

If she knew the truth, she would do something.

If he left me, he would not be allowed to be alive.

3rd Conditional

Examples: If she had been here yesterday, she would have known that he did it.

If we had arrived earlier, we would not have missed this chance.

If I had known that my heart would break, I would have loved you anyway.

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EFFECTIVE
WRITTEN
COMMUNICATION
UNIT VIII
UNIT VIII
EFFECTIVE WRITTEN COMMUNICATION

Your written communication will be more effective if you follow the following rules.

1. Use concrete and vivid language rather than abstract and vague language.

Examples:

ABSTRACT: The weather was bad on the West Coast.

CONCRETE: California had unusually cold weather three weeks ago.

ABSTRACT: The movie was great.

CONCRETE: The performances of the actors in Spider-Man: No Way Home were

believable and the costumes were exquisitely made.

ABSTRACT: To excel in college, Paul must work hard.

CONCRETE: To excel in college, Paul needs to go to every class, do all his reading before
classes, write several drafts of each paper, and review his notes for each
class weekly.

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2. Avoid overusing “there is”, “there are”, “it is”, “it was”, etc.

Examples:

DON’T WRITE: There was a man that was hit by a blue car.

WRITE: The blue car hit a man.

WRITE: A man was hit by a blue car.

DON’T WRITE: There are some decisions that must be made.

WRITE: Please make some decisions.

WRITE: Some decisions must be made.

DON’T WRITE: It is important to review your article before making a submission.

WRITE: Reviewing your article before making a submission is important.

WRITE: Reviewing your article before a submission is important.

WRITE: You should review your article before making a submission.

3. To avoid confusion, don’t use two negatives to make a positive without good reason.

Examples:

DON’T WRITE: She is not unwilling to help.

WRITE: She is willing to help.

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DON’T WRITE: This novel is not uninteresting.

WRITE: This novel is interesting.

4. Use consistent grammatical form or parallel construction when offering several ideas.

Examples:

INCORRECT: I like a man who is honest, reliable, and have sincerity.

CORRECT: I like a man who is honest, reliable, and sincere.

CORRECT: I like a man who has honesty, reliability, and sincerity.

INCORRECT: Dance and singing are not my favorite activities.

CORRECT: Dancing and singing are not my favorite activities.

INCORRECT: Paul wore a blue shirt, gray trousers, and shoes.

CORRECT: Paul wore a blue shirt, gray trousers, and black shoes.

INCORRECT: It is significant to love yourself, doing what you love, and live your life.

CORRECT: It is significant to love yourself, do what you love, and live your life.

CORRECT: It is significant to love yourself, to do what you love, and to live your life.

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INCORRECT: We need a loaf of bread, two eggs, cheese, three tomatoes, and milk for
this recipe.

CORRECT: We need a loaf of bread, two eggs, a slice of cheese, three tomatoes, and
one liter of milk for this recipe.

5. Express your point concisely by avoiding redundancy. Redundancy happens when a writer
keeps repeating unnecessary words or phrases.

Example:

REDUNDANT: Each and every one of the students passed the exam.

CONCISE: Every student passed the exam.

REDUNDANT: At this point of time, it currently becomes necessary for our organization to
consider alternative options for the purposes of our objectives.

CONCISE: Our organization currently needs to consider options.

REDUNDANT: Due to the fact that the meeting was scheduled at an early hour in the
morning, we had to make advance preparations ahead of time in order to be
completely ready and fully prepared for the discussion.

CONCISE: Because the meeting was scheduled early, we had to prepare in advance to
be ready for the discussion.

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6. If you start a sentence with an incomplete phrase or clause, it must be followed closely by the
person or thing it describes. Breaking this rule results in the dreaded, all-too-common misplaced
or dangling modifiers, or danglers. A dangling modifier occurs when a phrase within a sentence
lacks clear reference to a specific subject.

INCORRECT: Running to her mother, the ice cream truck drove past her.

Running to her mother, → a dangling modifier

(It sounds as if the ice cream truck is running to her mother.)

CORRECT: While she was running to her mother, the ice cream truck drove past her.

CORRECT: Running to her mother, she saw that the ice cream truck drove past her.

Examples:

INCORRECT: Forgotten by history, her portrait was worthless.

CORRECT: Because she was forgotten by history, her portrait was worthless.

CORRECT: She was forgotten by history, so her portrait was worthless.

INCORRECT: Born in New York, my first vlog was about the Statue of Liberty.

CORRECT: As I was born in New York, my first vlog was about the Statue of Liberty.

CORRECT: I was born in New York; thus, my first vlog was about the Statue of Liberty.

INCORRECT: While crossing the street, the car hit him.

CORRECT: While he was crossing the street, he was hit by a car.

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CORRECT: While crossing the street, he was hit by a car.

CORRECT: Crossing the street, he was hit by a car.

INCORRECT: Without knowing all the details, it was hard to discuss this issue.

CORRECT: Since Paul did not know all the details, it was hard to discuss this issue.

CORRECT: Paul did not know all the details; therefore, it was hard to discuss this issue.

INCORRECT: After finishing lunch, the mushroom soup grew cold.

CORRECT: After I finished lunch, the mushroom soup grew cold.

INCORRECT: Exhausted from your hard work, the beach is a place to relax.

CORRECT: Exhausted from your hard work, you should go to the beach to relax.

INCORRECT: Walking through the park, the flowers looked beautiful.

CORRECT: Walking through the park, I thought the flowers looked beautiful.

INCORRECT: To improve my skills, the piano lessons were really helpful.

CORRECT: To improve my skills, I found the piano lessons really helpful.

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REFERENCES

Corbett, P., & Strong, J. (2016). Jumpstart! Grammar: Games and activities for ages 6-14.

Routledge.

Fabb, N. (2005). Sentence structure. Routledge.

Gelderen, E. V. (2013). Clause structure: Key topics in syntax. Cambridge University Press.

Gupta, SC. (2018). Practical English grammar & composition: A practical approach to sentence

formatting through English grammar. Arihant Publications (India) Limited.

Hough, G. A. (1971). Structures of modification in contemporary American English. Mouton.

Hug, R. (2007). Phrases, Clauses, and Sentences: Assessing language. Lorenz Educational

Press.

Kaufman, L., & Straus, J. (2021). The blue book of grammar and punctuation: An easy-to-use

guide with clear rules, real-world examples, and reproducible quizzes. Jossey-Bass.

Swick, E. (2018). English sentence builder. McGraw-Hill Education.