Human capital refers to the collec ve skills, knowledge, experience, and other a ributes

embodied in individuals that contribute to their produc ve capacity in economic terms. It

encompasses the investments made in people that increase their economic produc vity and
earning poten al.

Human capital is crucial in understanding the development of individuals and socie es as it

forms the basis for economic growth, innova on, and societal progress. It shi s the focus
from merely material or physical resources to the importance of inves ng in human beings
themselves.

Key Parameters of Human Capital Forma on

Educa on:
 Educa on is one of the most cri cal components of human capital forma on. It
enhances the intellectual and produc ve capaci es of individuals. The formal
educa on system, voca onal training, adult educa on, and other forms of learning
are considered essen al to improving a person’s ability to contribute economically.

Health:
 Good health is a fundamental aspect of human capital, as a healthy popula on is
more produc ve. Health services, sanita on, nutri on, and overall well-being
directly influence a person's ability to perform and contribute to the economy.

On-the-Job Training and Skills Development:

 Learning by doing or gaining prac cal experience in the workplace increases the skill
sets of individuals. This form of knowledge acquisi on plays a crucial role in
improving human capital, especially in industries where formal educa on might not
fully prepare individuals for the prac cal demands of the job.
Technological Advancements:
 Technology plays a crucial role in human capital forma on, par cularly in modern
economies where digital skills and knowledge of technology are becoming
increasingly necessary. The use of informa on and communica on technology (ICT)
has revolu onized educa on, health, and work environments, providing new
opportuni es for human capital development.
Social Capital:
 While human capital focuses on individual knowledge and skills, social capital refers
to networks of rela onships that help individuals achieve success. This includes
family, professional connec ons, or community es, which can influence access to
opportuni es.

Educa on Sector
 School Educa on
The school educa on sector, par cularly in countries like India, faces mul ple challenges, which have
been highlighted in various reports by governmental bodies, interna onal organiza ons, and
research ins tu ons. Below are the key issues as outlined by these reports:
1. Quality of Educa on
 Learning Outcomes: The Annual Status of Educa on Report (ASER), published by Pratham,
repeatedly highlights that students, par cularly in rural areas, lack basic reading and
arithme c skills appropriate to their age group. For instance, many students in grade 5
cannot read texts meant for grade 2, indica ng a learning gap.
 Curriculum Design: The curriculum in many regions is o en cri cized for being outdated,
overly theore cal, and not in sync with real-world needs. Reports by UNESCO have pointed
out the disjunc on between what is taught in schools and the skills needed for employment
and ci zenship in a rapidly changing world.
2. Access and Enrollment
 Inequality in Access: Reports from organiza ons like UNICEF and UNESCO emphasize the
persistent gap in access to educa on across socio-economic groups. Children from
marginalized communi es—especially girls, children with disabili es, and those in remote
areas—are more likely to be out of school or have inconsistent access to educa on.
 Dropout Rates: The Unified District Informa on System for Educa on Plus (UDISE+) data
highlights significant dropout rates, especially in secondary and higher secondary levels.
Economic hardships, gender biases, and lack of infrastructure contribute to students leaving
school early.
3. Teacher Quality and Training
 Teacher Absenteeism and Accountability: A World Bank report on educa on in South Asia
revealed chronic issues with teacher absenteeism and a lack of accountability mechanisms.
This not only affects the quality of instruc on but also hampers the overall learning
environment.
 Inadequate Teacher Training: Mul ple reports, including those from the Na onal Council of
Educa onal Research and Training (NCERT), emphasize that many teachers lack proper
training, par cularly in new pedagogical techniques, digital literacy, and inclusive educa on.
The lack of ongoing professional development further exacerbates this issue.
4. Infrastructure Deficiencies
 Basic Ameni es: The UDISE+ data and the Right to Educa on (RTE) Forum reports regularly
indicate that many schools lack basic infrastructure, such as toilets (par cularly for girls),
clean drinking water, electricity, and adequate classroom space. This issue is more prevalent
in rural areas and poorer urban se lements.
 Digital Divide: The Digital Educa on Report by NITI Aayog highlights the widening digital
divide, par cularly post-pandemic. In many regions, students and schools lack access to
digital devices, internet connec vity, and digital literacy, which hampers e-learning
ini a ves.
5. Policy Implementa on and Governance
 Inefficient Policy Execu on: Reports by the NITI Aayog and Centre for Policy Research
suggest that while several progressive educa on policies have been introduced, there is
o en a gap between policy formula on and ground-level implementa on. Problems related
to bureaucracy, funding alloca on, and local-level governance o en delay or distort policy
outcomes.
  Underfunding: Despite promises, the school educa on sector remains underfunded. The
Na onal Educa on Policy (NEP) 2020 recommended increasing the budget alloca on to 6%
of GDP, but the current expenditure hovers around 3%, leading to resource constraints.
6. Social and Cultural Barriers
 Gender Dispari es: While enrollment rates for girls have improved, par cularly in primary
educa on, reports from UNICEF and UNESCO indicate that gender biases, early marriage,
and domes c responsibili es con nue to pull girls out of school, par cularly at the
secondary level.
 Caste and Class Barriers: Studies by the Centre for Social Equity and Inclusion (CSEI) and the
Na onal Campaign on Dalit Human Rights (NCDHR) highlight that students from lower caste
communi es o en face discrimina on, which impacts their access to quality educa on. In
many regions, this results in higher dropout rates and lower performance levels among
marginalized groups.
7. Equity in Educa on
 Regional Imbalances: The NITI Aayog’s School Educa on Quality Index (SEQI) illustrates stark
dispari es in educa onal outcomes between states. While states like Kerala and Tamil Nadu
show higher levels of literacy and school a endance, states like Bihar and U ar Pradesh lag
significantly in terms of both quality and access.
 Private vs. Public Schools: The World Bank and ASER reports have also noted growing
inequi es between private and public schools. While private schools are o en seen as
providing be er facili es and instruc on, a large segment of the popula on, par cularly in
rural areas, con nues to rely on underfunded government schools.
8. Impact of COVID-19
 Learning Loss: Various post-pandemic reports by UNICEF, World Bank, and Azim Premji
University indicate that the extended closure of schools has resulted in significant learning
loss, especially for younger children. The digital divide exacerbated this issue, with millions of
children unable to access online educa on.
 Mental Health: A survey conducted by Save the Children indicated increased mental health
challenges among students during and a er the pandemic, exacerbated by social isola on
and the sudden shi to online learning.
9. Inclusive Educa on
 Children with Disabili es: Reports by UNICEF and Rehabilita on Council of India (RCI)
highlight that children with disabili es face significant challenges in accessing educa on.
Schools o en lack the necessary infrastructure, trained teachers, and inclusive curricula to
accommodate students with special needs.
 Mul lingualism: The UNESCO Global Educa on Monitoring Report points to language as a
barrier to quality educa on in many regions. In mul lingual socie es, children who do not
speak the dominant language at home o en struggle academically, which is further
compounded by a lack of trained teachers in local languages.
10. Priva za on and Commercializa on of Educa on
 Growth of Private Sector: Reports from the World Bank and Azim Premji Founda on suggest
that the increasing priva za on of educa on raises concerns about equity. While private
schools may provide be er facili es, they o en cater to the more affluent sec ons of
society, leaving the underprivileged to rely on underfunded public schools.
 Commercializa on: The rise of coaching ins tutes and private tutoring, especially for
compe ve exams, has added a layer of commercializa on to educa on, o en to the
detriment of regular school curricula.

Challenges Faced by Secondary Educa on sector in India

Na onal Achievement Survey (NAS) – 2021
 Learning Outcomes: The NAS highlights significant gaps in learning outcomes among
secondary school students. For instance, many students in Grade 10 lack proficiency
in key subjects like Mathema cs and Science, with only about 37% demonstra ng
the expected competency levels in these subjects. This points to inefficiencies in
teaching methods and inadequate student comprehension.
 Regional Dispari es: The report notes stark differences in performance between
urban and rural students, with rural students lagging in most subjects. For example,
students in northeastern states and underdeveloped regions consistently scored
lower than their urban counterparts.
Annual Status of Educa on Report (ASER) – 2022
 Dropout Rates: ASER highlights high dropout rates between elementary and
secondary educa on, par cularly among disadvantaged groups like girls, Scheduled
Castes (SC), and Scheduled Tribes (ST). For example, the transi on rate from
elementary (Grade 8) to secondary educa on remains as low as 70% in certain states
like Bihar and Jharkhand, owing to socio-economic constraints, early marriages, and
lack of access to schools.
 Founda onal Learning Gaps: ASER also indicates that many secondary students have
weak founda onal skills in reading and arithme c. For instance, only about 42% of
students in Grade 10 could read a Grade 2 level text fluently, showing a major
learning deficit that begins in primary school and persists into secondary levels.
NITI Aayog – School Educa on Quality Index (SEQI) 2019
 Quality of Educa on: The SEQI report reveals significant dispari es in the quality of
secondary educa on across states. It ranks states based on parameters such as
infrastructure, teacher-student ra os, and learning outcomes. For example, Kerala,
Tamil Nadu, and Karnataka are ranked higher due to be er teacher quality and
infrastructure, while states like U ar Pradesh and Bihar lag significantly behind.
 Teacher Shortages and Training: The report underlines that many states face severe
shortages of trained teachers in secondary schools. In states like Madhya Pradesh,
over 30% of teacher posts at the secondary level remain vacant, leading to poor
student performance, especially in subjects like Mathema cs and Science.
UNESCO Global Educa on Monitoring (GEM) Report – 2022
 Inequality in Access: The GEM report stresses that access to secondary educa on is
unequal across gender, socio-economic groups, and regions. For example, girls in
rural India are 15% less likely to transi on to secondary school compared to boys due
to cultural factors, lack of safe transporta on, and inadequate infrastructure like
separate toilets for girls.
 Digital Divide: It highlights the growing digital divide in secondary educa on.
Students in rural areas o en lack access to digital devices and internet connec vity,
severely affec ng their par cipa on in online learning during COVID-19. For
example, while urban areas had be er access to online educa on, only about 25% of
rural secondary school students could access digital learning pla orms.
Ministry of Educa on – Performance Grading Index (PGI) – 2022
 Voca onal Educa on and Skills Development: The PGI report indicates that
voca onal educa on is s ll poorly integrated into the secondary curriculum in many
states. For instance, only a small percentage of students are enrolled in voca onal
 programs, and these programs are o en limited to urban schools. States like Kerala
and Haryana have taken steps to improve voca onal educa on, but most other
states lag behind.
 Infrastructure Deficits: The report also highlights the inadequacy of infrastructure in
many secondary schools. For example, only about 40% of secondary schools in India
have access to func onal computer labs or science laboratories, which limits
students' ability to engage in prac cal and experien al learning.
Na onal Educa on Policy (NEP) – 2020
 Rigid Curriculum and Assessment System: The NEP 2020 iden fies the inflexibility of
the secondary school curriculum as a key challenge. The current system is heavily
focused on rote learning and examina on results, with li le emphasis on cri cal
thinking and problem-solving skills. For example, students in Grade 10 and 12 spend
most of their me preparing for board exams, leaving li le room for holis c
development or skill-building.
 Teacher Training and Professional Development: The policy also stresses the need
for con nuous professional development for secondary school teachers, par cularly
in using new pedagogical methods and integra ng technology in the classroom.
Currently, many teachers are not equipped with the skills necessary for modern
teaching, leading to poor student engagement and learning outcomes.

Government Ini a ves to Improve Elementary Educa on in India

1. Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA)
 Objec ve: Launched in 2001, the SSA is aimed at universalizing elementary
educa on (Grades 1-8) by ensuring access to free and compulsory educa on for all
children aged 6-14 under the Right to Educa on (RTE) Act, 2009.
 Key Achievements: SSA has been instrumental in increasing enrollment rates and
improving school infrastructure across India, par cularly in rural and remote areas.
 Challenges: Despite high enrollment, the Annual Status of Educa on Report (ASER)
2022 highlights that learning outcomes, especially in reading and arithme c, remain
poor, with nearly half of Grade 5 students unable to read Grade 2 level texts.
2. Mid-Day Meal Scheme (MDM)
 Objec ve: The MDM scheme provides free lunches to children in government and
government-aided schools. This ini a ve aims to improve nutri onal status and
incen vize enrollment and a endance.
 Key Achievements: The scheme has significantly contributed to reducing hunger
among school children and improving enrollment, par cularly among
underprivileged children.
 Challenges: Some reports have raised concerns about hygiene and quality standards
in meal prepara on. ASER 2022 also suggests that while the scheme has improved
a endance, it has not directly addressed the issue of poor learning outcomes.
3. Na onal Ini a ve for Proficiency in Reading with Understanding and Numeracy (NIPUN
Bharat)
 Objec ve: Launched in 2021, NIPUN Bharat aims to ensure that every child achieves
founda onal literacy and numeracy (FLN) by Grade 3.
 Key Achievements: The ini a ve aligns with the Na onal Educa on Policy (NEP)
2020’s goal to improve early-grade learning outcomes.
  Challenges: Reports like NITI Aayog’s 2022 educa onal performance index highlight
that the ini a ve is hampered by teacher shortages and a lack of adequate resources
in rural areas.
4. Digital Ini a ves:
 DIKSHA (Digital Infrastructure for Knowledge Sharing): This e-learning pla orm
provides teachers and students access to digital learning resources. It is especially
useful in remote areas where teacher quality and learning material access are
limited.
 Challenges: According to the Performance Grading Index (PGI) 2022, the digital
divide, par cularly in rural areas, poses a challenge. Many children lack access to
devices and the internet, limi ng the reach of digital learning.
Measures Required to Improve Elementary Educa on
1. Focus on Learning Outcomes:
o Programs like SSA need to shi their focus from enrollment to improving
founda onal learning outcomes, as seen in the ASER reports. The success of
NIPUN Bharat will depend on regular assessments and remedial support for
students lagging behind.
2. Teacher Training and Support:
o Con nuous professional development for teachers is necessary to improve
pedagogical methods, especially in early literacy and numeracy. Teacher
training ini a ves should be scaled up, with a focus on digital educa on skills.
3. Addressing the Digital Divide:
o Providing low-cost tablets or devices to students in rural areas, along with
improving digital infrastructure like internet connec vity, is crucial for making
ini a ves like DIKSHA more effec ve.
4. Community Engagement:
o Involving parents and communi es more ac vely in the educa onal process
can help sustain gains in enrollment and learning outcomes, especially in rural
regions where dropout rates remain high.

Government Ini a ves to Improve Secondary Educa on in India

1. Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan (RMSA)
 Objec ve: Launched in 2009, RMSA aims to improve access and quality of secondary
educa on (Grades 9-12) by upgrading exis ng schools, providing infrastructure like
laboratories and libraries, and reducing dropout rates.
 Key Achievements: RMSA has helped in increasing the transi on rates from
elementary to secondary educa on and improving school infrastructure.
 Challenges: Reports like the Na onal Achievement Survey (NAS) 2021 highlight
persistent gaps in the quality of educa on, with poor learning outcomes in key
subjects like Mathema cs and Science.
2. Samagra Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA 2.0)
 Objec ve: This is a holis c program that integrates the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA),
RMSA, and Teacher Educa on. It focuses on improving the overall quality of school
educa on from pre-primary to senior secondary levels, with an emphasis on
inclusive educa on and voca onal training.
 Key Achievements: It has improved coordina on between elementary and
secondary educa on sectors.
  Challenges: Despite these reforms, UNESCO’s GEM Report (2022) emphasizes the
lack of adequate voca onal training programs in secondary schools, especially in
rural areas.
3. Na onal Means-cum-Merit Scholarship Scheme (NMMSS)
 Objec ve: NMMSS provides scholarships to economically disadvantaged students to
prevent dropouts and encourage the comple on of secondary educa on.
 Key Achievements: The scheme has improved the reten on rates in secondary
schools, par cularly among underprivileged students.
 Challenges: A 2021 evalua on by NITI Aayog found that the scheme is not
adequately publicized in many states, leading to lower-than-expected enrollment in
the scholarship program.
4. Atal Innova on Mission (AIM)
 Objec ve: AIM focuses on fostering a culture of innova on and entrepreneurship in
secondary schools through Atal Tinkering Labs (ATL), where students can engage in
STEM-based ac vi es.
 Key Achievements: NITI Aayog's 2020 evalua on found that ATL has improved
student engagement in science and technology subjects in urban schools.
 Challenges: The program is not widely available in rural schools, where the need for
such ini a ves is o en greater.
Measures Required to Improve Secondary Educa on
1. Curriculum Reform:
o The Na onal Educa on Policy (NEP) 2020 calls for greater flexibility in the
secondary curriculum, reducing the focus on rote learning and board exams.
Emphasis should be placed on life skills, cri cal thinking, and problem-solving.
2. Teacher Quality and Recruitment:
o Addressing the shortage of qualified subject-specific teachers is crucial.
Regular in-service training and teacher development programs, par cularly in
science, mathema cs, and voca onal subjects, should be a priority.
3. Expand Voca onal Educa on:
o Strengthening the integra on of voca onal educa on into the secondary
curriculum is essen al for improving employability. States should take
inspira on from models like Kerala, where voca onal educa on programs
have been integrated into mainstream schooling.
4. Reduce Dropout Rates:
o Financial incen ves like the Na onal Means-cum-Merit Scholarship Scheme
(NMMSS) should be expanded and be er publicized to ensure that more
students, especially girls, complete secondary educa on.
5. Digital Learning and Infrastructure:
o Bridging the digital divide is essen al for inclusive secondary educa on.
Ini a ves like DIKSHA and Atal Tinkering Labs need to be scaled up in rural
areas, supported by be er infrastructure and access to digital devices.
6. Strengthening the Assessment System:
o Moving from a purely exam-centric approach to con nuous assessment
methods can be er evaluate students' learning outcomes, as suggested by
the NEP 2020.
Challenges with Higher Educa on in India
Higher educa on in India faces numerous challenges related to quality, access, equity, and
governance. Various reports have highlighted these issues, which affect the country's efforts
to build a globally compe ve educa on system.
1. Quality of Educa on
 Report Observa ons:
o All India Survey on Higher Educa on (AISHE) 2020-21: This report notes that
while enrollment in higher educa on has increased, the quality of educa on,
especially in public ins tu ons, remains a significant concern. Many
universi es lack updated curricula, experienced faculty, and adequate
infrastructure, leading to a gap between the educa on imparted and the skills
required by the job market.
o Na onal Ins tu onal Ranking Framework (NIRF) 2022: The report ranks
ins tu ons based on several criteria, including teaching, learning, and
research output. It highlights that only a few ins tu ons, such as IITs, IIMs,
and top- er universi es, excel, while the majority lag in terms of research
facili es, faculty quality, and global rankings.
2. Access and Equity
 Report Observa ons:
o AISHE 2020-21: Despite progress, enrollment in higher educa on remains
uneven across gender, socio-economic groups, and geographic regions. For
example, the Gross Enrollment Ra o (GER) for higher educa on was 27.1% in
2019-20, but the par cipa on of marginalized communi es, such as
Scheduled Castes (SC), Scheduled Tribes (ST), and women, con nues to be
lower.
o UNESCO Global Educa on Monitoring (GEM) Report 2021: The report points
to significant regional and social dispari es in access to higher educa on,
par cularly in rural and underdeveloped regions. For instance, women from
rural areas and marginalized groups face substan al barriers to enrolling in
higher educa on.
3. Governance and Autonomy
 Report Observa ons:
o NITI Aayog’s Strategy for New India @ 75: This report highlights the
governance challenges in higher educa on, including over-regula on and lack
of ins tu onal autonomy. Bureaucra c control hampers innova on and
decision-making within universi es. It also notes that most universi es focus
more on compliance with regulatory bodies than on improving academic
quality and fostering research.
o University Grants Commission (UGC) Review Report 2019: This report
iden fies the issue of fragmented governance in the higher educa on sector,
with mul ple regulatory bodies (UGC, AICTE, etc.) some mes overlapping or
conflic ng in their roles.
4. Research and Innova on
 Report Observa ons:
o NIRF 2022: The report finds that India's output in terms of quality research
and innova on remains low, especially in public universi es. Only a few
 ins tu ons are recognized for their research contribu ons, while many
universi es focus solely on teaching, neglec ng research.
o World Bank Report on Higher Educa on in India (2018): It underscores the
lack of funding, infrastructure, and ins tu onal support for research. This
leads to poor publica on rates, fewer patents, and limited global academic
influence.
5. Financial Constraints
 Report Observa ons:
o AISHE 2020-21: Public universi es and colleges o en suffer from inadequate
funding, which affects infrastructure development, faculty hiring, and
research ini a ves. While private ins tu ons are growing, they o en
priori ze profit over quality educa on, leading to concerns about affordability
and quality.
o NITI Aayog Report (2019): This report indicates that public spending on
higher educa on, at about 0.5% of GDP, is much lower than interna onal
benchmarks. The low funding results in a poor student-faculty ra o and
outdated learning resources.

Government Ini a ves to Improve Higher Educa on

1. Na onal Educa on Policy (NEP) 2020
 Objec ves:
o NEP 2020 aims to overhaul the higher educa on system by introducing
flexible curricula, mul disciplinary ins tu ons, and a credit-based framework.
o It seeks to increase the Gross Enrollment Ra o (GER) in higher educa on to
50% by 2035 and promote research through the Na onal Research
Founda on (NRF).
 Challenges:
o Implementa on: The decentraliza on and autonomy promised by NEP face
bureaucra c iner a and resistance from state-level ins tu ons.
o Ins tu onal Preparedness: Many universi es lack the infrastructure and
faculty needed to implement mul disciplinary and flexible learning models.
2. Rashtriya Uchchatar Shiksha Abhiyan (RUSA)
 Objec ve:
o RUSA aims to improve the quality of state higher educa on ins tu ons by
providing financial assistance for infrastructure, faculty development, and
accredita on.
 Challenges:
o Funding Gaps: While RUSA provides much-needed funding, the scale of
resources is s ll insufficient, par cularly for state universi es.
o Slow Uptake: Many states have been slow in adop ng the reforms prescribed
under RUSA, including improving accredita on and governance structures.
3. Na onal Ins tu onal Ranking Framework (NIRF)
 Objec ve:
o Launched in 2015, NIRF ranks ins tu ons of higher educa on based on
parameters like teaching, research, gradua on outcomes, and outreach
ac vi es.
 Challenges:
 o Lack of Impact in Lesser-Known Ins tu ons: While NIRF has pushed premier
ins tu ons to improve, many smaller universi es and colleges lack the
resources to compete effec vely, limi ng its impact on the broader higher
educa on landscape.
4. Prime Minister's Research Fellowship (PMRF)
 Objec ve:
o PMRF aims to a ract bright students to doctoral programs at premier
ins tu ons like IITs, IISERs, and NITs, thus strengthening the research
ecosystem.
 Challenges:
o Limited Reach: The fellowship is restricted to only a few top ins tu ons,
excluding many other public and private universi es that have promising
research poten al.
o Reten on of Talent: Reports like NITI Aayog’s 2022 review highlight that India
con nues to lose top talent to foreign universi es due to be er research
infrastructure and career opportuni es abroad.
5. Higher Educa on Financing Agency (HEFA)
 Objec ve:
o HEFA provides funding to government ins tu ons for infrastructure and
research. It encourages them to raise capital for development projects while
the government repays the loan over me.
 Challenges:
o Access to Funding: Only premier ins tu ons like IITs and NITs have benefi ed
substan ally from HEFA, while smaller and state-run universi es struggle to
access similar funds.
o Repayment Models: Ins tu ons are required to repay a por on of the loan,
which puts financial pressure on already underfunded public universi es.

Measures to Improve Higher Educa on in India

1. Increase Public Investment in Higher Educa on:
o Recommenda on: The government should increase public spending on
higher educa on from the current 0.5% of GDP to at least 2% as
recommended by various experts and NEP 2020. This would allow universi es
to upgrade infrastructure, hire quality faculty, and fund research projects.
o Example: Countries like China and the U.S. have much higher public
investments in higher educa on, which translates to world-class
infrastructure and globally compe ve universi es.
2. Strengthen Ins tu onal Autonomy and Governance:
o Recommenda on: Universi es need greater autonomy to design their own
curricula, manage finances, and pursue research collabora ons without
excessive bureaucra c oversight. Regulatory bodies like UGC should focus
more on monitoring outcomes rather than controlling daily opera ons.
o Example: The Na onal Knowledge Commission (2009) suggested that
increasing the autonomy of ins tu ons could lead to be er academic and
research outcomes, similar to the model followed by world-class ins tu ons
like Stanford or MIT.
3. Promote Research and Innova on:
 o Recommenda on: Establish more research-focused ins tu ons and
encourage a research-driven culture in universi es. This could be done by
expanding the Na onal Research Founda on (NRF) to provide more grants,
and by promo ng university-industry collabora ons.
o Example: China's 985 and 211 Projects have transformed Chinese universi es
by focusing on research funding and global compe veness. India could
emulate this model by focusing on developing research-intensive universi es.
4. Address Inequi es in Access and Par cipa on:
o Recommenda on: Increase scholarships for students from marginalized
groups and create more targeted programs for women, rural students, and
SC/ST communi es. Digital infrastructure should be expanded to ensure that
online learning resources reach underprivileged students.
o Example: The U.K. Open University model of flexible, distance learning can
serve as an inspira on for offering high-quality educa on to underserved
popula ons in India, par cularly in rural areas.
5. Expand Voca onal and Mul disciplinary Educa on:
o Recommenda on: As emphasized by NEP 2020, higher educa on should be
aligned with the needs of the job market. Integra ng voca onal educa on
and providing mul disciplinary programs can improve employability and
make higher educa on more relevant.
o Example: Countries like Germany have successfully integrated voca onal
educa on into their higher educa on system, leading to lower
unemployment rates and a highly skilled workforce.
6. Bridging the Digital Divide:
o Recommenda on: Expand digital infrastructure, especially in rural areas, to
ensure students can access online learning resources. Government programs
like SWAYAM should be scaled up and made more accessible to students in
underdeveloped regions.
o Example: Korea's Digital Learning ini a ves have set a benchmark in
providing equitable access to technology-enabled educa on, and India could
adapt similar models to reach its rural popula on.

New Educa on Policy

The Na onal Educa on Policy (NEP) 2020 is a landmark reform introduced by the
Government of India, aimed at overhauling the country's educa onal system to meet the
needs of the 21st century. The NEP 2020 is India's first educa on policy of the 21st century,
replacing the previous Na onal Policy on Educa on of 1986. Its key goal is to create a more
flexible, mul disciplinary educa onal framework that promotes holis c learning, cri cal
thinking, and innova on while preserving India’s cultural heritage and values.
Key Features of the NEP 2020
1. Early Childhood Care and Educa on (ECCE):
o A significant focus of NEP 2020 is on founda onal learning, with
universaliza on of educa on from ages 3 to 6. The policy envisions a new
 structure for early childhood care, ensuring every child achieves founda onal
literacy and numeracy by Grade 3.
o A 5+3+3+4 structure has been introduced, which includes 5 years of
founda onal educa on (pre-school and grades 1-2), 3 years of preparatory
educa on (grades 3-5), 3 years of middle school (grades 6-8), and 4 years of
secondary school (grades 9-12).
2. Mul disciplinary and Holis c Educa on:
o NEP 2020 emphasizes a flexible curriculum structure across disciplines,
reducing the rigid separa on of arts, sciences, and voca onal subjects.
Students will be encouraged to take courses across streams, enhancing
crea vity and innova on.
o The policy introduces an academic bank of credits, allowing students to
accumulate and transfer credits across ins tu ons.
3. Focus on Cri cal Thinking and Crea vity:
o The policy highlights the importance of moving away from rote learning to
more inquiry-based, discovery-based, and discussion-based teaching
methods. The focus is on developing cri cal thinking and problem-solving
abili es.
o Examina on reforms are planned to reduce the pressure of high-stakes board
exams, encouraging con nuous assessment and holis c evalua on.
4. Inclusive and Equitable Educa on:
o Special emphasis is laid on ensuring access to educa on for marginalized
groups, including socio-economically disadvantaged groups (SEDGs),
scheduled castes (SCs), scheduled tribes (STs), women, and persons with
disabili es (PwDs).
o The policy calls for targeted scholarships, gender inclusion funds, and
establishing Special Educa on Zones for regions with large disadvantaged
popula ons.
5. Mother Tongue/Regional Language as Medium of Instruc on:
o NEP 2020 advocates teaching in the mother tongue or regional language at
least ll Grade 5, and preferably ll Grade 8. The aim is to promote be er
comprehension and learning outcomes among children.
o English will not be imposed, and states have the flexibility to decide on
language educa on.
6. Voca onal Educa on Integra on:
o A key reform is the integra on of voca onal educa on into mainstream
educa on. Voca onal courses will start from Grade 6, including internships,
ensuring students acquire prac cal skills and are job-ready.
o The policy aims to have at least 50% of learners exposed to voca onal
educa on by 2025.
7. Higher Educa on Reforms:
o NEP 2020 proposes a single higher educa on regulator, the Higher Educa on
Commission of India (HECI), to regulate all higher educa on ins tu ons
except for medical and legal educa on.
o The policy aims to make higher educa on ins tu ons more autonomous and
mul disciplinary, promo ng holis c and flexible curricula that include both
academic and extracurricular ac vi es.
 o Undergraduate programs will have mul ple entry and exit points, allowing
flexibility in the dura on and intensity of learning.
8. Teacher Educa on and Professional Development:
o NEP emphasizes the need to revamp teacher educa on. A four-year
integrated B.Ed. degree will become the minimum qualifica on for teachers
by 2030.
o Con nuous professional development and training for teachers are
encouraged to keep up with global standards and new pedagogies.
9. Technology in Educa on:
o The policy promotes the use of technology in teaching, learning,
administra on, and improving learning outcomes. Digital literacy, coding, and
computa onal thinking are encouraged at all levels of schooling.
o An autonomous body, the Na onal Educa onal Technology Forum (NETF),
will be created to provide a pla orm for the exchange of ideas on technology
use.
10. Research and Innova on:
o The policy emphasizes promo ng a culture of research and innova on. The
Na onal Research Founda on (NRF) will be established to oversee research
funding and capacity-building ini a ves.
o Higher educa on ins tu ons are encouraged to develop strong research
programs, especially in interdisciplinary areas.
Challenges in the Implementa on of NEP 2020
Despite its comprehensive vision, the implementa on of NEP 2020 faces several challenges:
1. Lack of Infrastructure:
o Many rural schools and ins tu ons lack the necessary infrastructure
(classrooms, digital facili es, teachers) to implement the ambi ous goals of
NEP, especially with regard to early childhood educa on and technology
integra on.
o Addressing this requires substan al investments in school infrastructure and
teacher training.
2. Teacher Training and Quality:
o The success of the NEP relies heavily on teachers, but many teachers are not
adequately trained in new pedagogies, cri cal thinking, or the use of
technology.
o Professional development and con nuous teacher training programs are
essen al but remain a challenge in remote and underdeveloped areas.
3. Resource Alloca on:
o The financial implica ons of implemen ng NEP are immense. The policy
suggests increasing public spending on educa on to 6% of GDP, but achieving
this target has been challenging, especially with the exis ng economic
constraints.
o Ensuring equity in the distribu on of resources, par cularly in underserved
regions, is a key challenge.
4. Language Policy Concerns:
o The move towards teaching in regional languages faces challenges, especially
in states with linguis c diversity or where English is viewed as essen al for
career advancement.
 o Balancing the need for regional language promo on and ensuring global
compe veness through English proficiency is a delicate task.
5. Digital Divide:
o While the policy encourages the use of technology in educa on, India's digital
divide is a major impediment. Students in rural and underprivileged areas
o en lack access to digital devices, reliable internet, and technical support.
o Without addressing the digital divide, efforts to integrate technology in
educa on may widen the gap between urban and rural students.
6. Coordina on Among Ins tu ons:
o The NEP proposes a restructuring of educa onal ins tu ons, but
coordina on between central and state governments, various regulatory
bodies, and educa onal ins tu ons may be difficult due to varied educa onal
prac ces across states.
What Needs to Be Done to Make NEP 2020 Effec ve
1. Adequate Financial Support:
o Governments at both central and state levels need to allocate sufficient
resources to implement the policy's provisions, par cularly for infrastructure
development, teacher training, and technology integra on.
o Public-private partnerships may also be explored to provide addi onal
funding and support.
2. Teacher Capacity Building:
o Con nuous teacher educa on programs, workshops, and training on the use
of new teaching methodologies and technology are essen al.
o A robust system of monitoring and evalua ng teacher performance and
ensuring accountability can improve the overall quality of educa on.
3. Bridging the Digital Divide:
o There needs to be a focused push toward improving digital infrastructure,
par cularly in rural and remote areas. Access to affordable internet and
devices must be ensured for all students.
o Local governments and communi es can collaborate to create digital hubs or
community centers that provide technological access to students without
personal devices.
4. Monitoring and Evalua on:
o A well-structured monitoring system must be set up to regularly assess the
progress of NEP implementa on, iden fy bo lenecks, and adjust strategies
accordingly.
o This should include feedback from teachers, students, parents, and other
stakeholders to ensure that the policy’s goals align with the on-ground
reali es.
5. Promo on of Mul lingualism:
o The emphasis on mother tongue or regional languages as the medium of
instruc on should be supported with resources like textbooks, teacher
training, and digital content in mul ple languages.
o At the same me, English proficiency should con nue to be strengthened,
ensuring that students are compe ve globally.
6. Strengthening School and Higher Educa on Systems:
 o A focus on making schools more learner-friendly, improving the curriculum,
and reducing dropout rates is essen al.
o Higher educa on ins tu ons need to embrace a mul disciplinary approach
while improving the quality of faculty and infrastructure for research.
In conclusion, the NEP 2020 is a visionary document that seeks to transform India’s
educa on system. However, its successful implementa on depends on overcoming
infrastructural, financial, and administra ve challenges while ensuring inclusivity and equity.

Challenges with Skill and Voca onal Educa on in India

Skill and voca onal educa on in India faces significant challenges, despite growing
awareness of its importance in bridging the skills gap and improving employability. Various
reports have highlighted issues related to access, quality, industry relevance, and awareness
that hinder the effec veness of voca onal training programs.
1. Mismatch Between Training and Industry Needs
 Report Observa ons:
o Na onal Skill Development Corpora on (NSDC) Report 2020: The report
highlights a significant mismatch between the skills imparted by voca onal
programs and the actual needs of industries. Many voca onal courses are
outdated and do not reflect the evolving technological landscape, leaving
graduates ill-prepared for the job market.
o India Skills Report 2021: This report observes that only 45.9% of graduates
are employable, indica ng that the skillsets provided through current
educa on and training programs are not aligned with industry requirements,
especially in sectors like IT, manufacturing, and healthcare.
2. Low Enrollment and S gma
 Report Observa ons:
o World Bank Report on Skills Development in India (2019): The report finds
that voca onal educa on is perceived as inferior to formal academic
educa on. As a result, there is low enrollment in voca onal training
programs. For instance, less than 5% of India’s workforce has undergone
formal skill training compared to 52% in the U.S., 75% in Germany, and over
80% in South Korea.
o Na onal Sample Survey Office (NSSO) 2020: This survey reports that only
about 2.3% of the workforce in India has received formal voca onal training,
indica ng the limited reach and acceptance of voca onal educa on in the
country.
3. Poor Quality of Training and Trainers
 Report Observa ons:
o NSDC Skill Gap Report (2019): The report highlights the shortage of qualified
trainers and the lack of quality in training delivery. Many trainers themselves
lack industry experience, resul ng in a skills gap between training and actual
job requirements.
o India Skills Report 2020: The report emphasizes that a lack of hands-on,
prac cal training is a major limita on of current voca onal programs. Many
 programs focus on theore cal knowledge rather than prac cal, job-relevant
skills.
4. Lack of Infrastructure
 Report Observa ons:
o FICCI-EY Report on the Future of Jobs (2020): This report points out that
most voca onal training ins tutes suffer from inadequate infrastructure, such
as a lack of modern machinery and technology, poor learning environments,
and outdated equipment, which hampers the quality of educa on.
o NSDC Report (2020): It notes that rural and underdeveloped regions face the
most severe infrastructure challenges. Many ins tu ons lack the necessary
facili es to provide hands-on experience, par cularly in technical and
voca onal courses.
5. Fragmented Governance and Lack of Coordina on
 Report Observa ons:
o NITI Aayog’s Strategy for New India @ 75 (2018): The report highlights
fragmented governance as a major challenge, with mul ple bodies like the
Ministry of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship (MSDE), NSDC, state
governments, and other agencies working without adequate coordina on.
This has led to duplica on of efforts and confusion in program
implementa on.
o NSDC Review (2019): The report points out that the lack of a unified na onal
framework for voca onal educa on has led to inconsistency in training
standards, assessments, and cer fica ons.

Steps Taken by the Government of India

1. Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojana (PMKVY)
 Objec ve: Launched in 2015, PMKVY is the flagship scheme of the Ministry of Skill
Development and Entrepreneurship (MSDE) aimed at providing short-term skill
training to millions of youth across the country.
 Achievements: According to the PMKVY Annual Report (2020), over 10 million
people have been trained under the scheme, covering sectors such as construc on,
IT, tex les, and healthcare.
 Challenges:
o Low Placement Rates: Despite high enrollment, the India Skills Report 2021
reveals that only around 30% of trainees under PMKVY found employment,
which is a significant challenge.
o Quality Concerns: A review by the Standing Commi ee on Labour (2020)
highlighted quality concerns in training centers, with many not mee ng the
required standards for infrastructure or trainers.
2. Skill India Mission
 Objec ve: Launched in 2015, the Skill India Mission aims to train over 400 million
people in various skills by 2022, through ini a ves like the Na onal Skill
Development Mission and PMKVY.
 Achievements: The government has set up over 12,000 Industrial Training Ins tutes
(ITIs) and numerous training centers under the NSDC to provide skills training.
 Challenges:
 o Fragmenta on: The NITI Aayog Review (2019) pointed out that there are too
many programs under different ministries, leading to overlaps and confusion
among trainees and industries.
o Awareness and Outreach: The NSDC Report (2020) men ons that rural areas
lack awareness of the program's benefits, leading to under-enrollment in
some regions.
3. Na onal Appren ceship Promo on Scheme (NAPS)
 Objec ve: NAPS incen vizes employers to engage more appren ces by providing
financial support. The scheme seeks to enhance the employability of youth by
offering them hands-on training in industries.
 Achievements: NAPS 2021 Report indicates that the scheme has facilitated over
500,000 appren ceships across various sectors, improving the prac cal skills of
trainees.
 Challenges:
o Industry Reluctance: Many industries, par cularly in the SME sector, are
reluctant to take on appren ces due to the perceived burden of training and
regulatory compliance.
o Limited Reach: The scheme has not yet achieved wide-scale adop on,
especially in rural and informal sectors, where a large part of India’s
workforce is engaged.
4. SANKALP (Skills Acquisi on and Knowledge Awareness for Livelihood Promo on)
 Objec ve: SANKALP aims to strengthen ins tu ons at both the state and na onal
levels to improve the quality of voca onal training and skill development programs.
 Achievements: The World Bank Report (2020) finds that SANKALP has helped
streamline data collec on and program implementa on, leading to be er
monitoring and evalua on of skills programs.
 Challenges: The program has faced delays in implementa on, especially in rural
areas, and challenges in crea ng awareness about its benefits.

Measures to Improve Skill and Voca onal Educa on

1. Align Voca onal Training with Industry Needs
o Recommenda on: Voca onal educa on programs need to be con nuously
updated to align with industry needs. Sector Skill Councils should regularly
update their curriculum to reflect changes in technology and industry
requirements. Close partnerships between industries and voca onal training
centers should be encouraged to ensure that the training provided meets the
demands of employers.
o Example: Germany’s Dual Educa on System successfully integrates
classroom-based learning with hands-on work experience in industries,
ensuring that students are job-ready.
2. Focus on Quality of Training and Trainers
o Recommenda on: Quality training infrastructure and qualified trainers are
essen al. A system for the con nuous professional development of trainers,
along with cer fica on programs for trainers, can help improve training
quality. More focus should be given to prac cal, hands-on learning rather
than theore cal knowledge.
 o Example: South Korea’s Voca onal Training model emphasizes the rigorous
training of instructors to ensure that they have industry-specific exper se,
which has significantly enhanced the quality of voca onal educa on.
3. Increase Awareness and Overcome Social S gma
o Recommenda on: Voca onal educa on needs to be made more a rac ve
and seen as a viable career path, not an inferior op on. Campaigns to
promote the benefits of voca onal training, especially in rural areas, can help
overcome the s gma a ached to it. Schools and universi es should also offer
voca onal training as part of their regular curricula.
o Example: Countries like Australia and Germany promote voca onal
educa on as an equal, if not superior, alterna ve to academic educa on,
resul ng in higher enrollment and greater acceptance.
4. Strengthen Public-Private Partnerships (PPP)
o Recommenda on: Encourage more public-private partnerships where
industries can collaborate with voca onal ins tu ons to provide state-of-the-
art equipment, guest lectures, internships, and appren ceships. This can also
help address the industry's reluctance to take appren ces by ensuring be er
linkages between training and job placement.
o Example: The Na onal Voca onal Training Ins tute (NVTI) in Singapore
works closely with industries to ensure that its voca onal programs are up to
date, which has led to be er job placements.
5. Expand Appren ceship Programs
o Recommenda on: The Na onal Appren ceship Promo on Scheme (NAPS)
should be expanded, with simplified regula ons for industries to onboard
appren ces. Appren ceship programs should be encouraged across sectors,
especially in SMEs and informal sectors, to ensure that a larger propor on of
the workforce is covered.
o Example: The United Kingdom’s Appren ceship System has been successful
in engaging a wide range of industries, with simplified processes and
incen ves for employers.
6. Improve Monitoring and Evalua on Mechanisms
o Recommenda on: Strengthen the evalua on and monitoring mechanisms for
voca onal programs to ensure that the training provided is relevant and
effec ve. Regular assessments of skill gaps and feedback from industries
should inform the design of voca onal courses.
o Example: Japan’s Skill Monitoring Systems effec vely track the progress of
voca onal trainees and assess the impact of training programs, leading to
con nuous improvement in program design.