RESPIRATORY

SYSTEM

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Submitted to :- Dr. Ashwini Sharda (HOD),Dr.
Lokesh (Asst. Professor)
Submitted by :- Anchal, Astha, Muskaan,
Prince, Anirudh
Introduction to Respiratory system

● Definition: The process of gas exchange between the

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● Purpose: To supply oxygen (O2) for cellular respiration
and remove carbon dioxide
(CO2), a waste product.
● Key Processes:
○ Ventilation (breathing)
○ External Respiration (gas exchange in lungs)
○ Gas Transport (via blood)
○ Internal Respiration (gas exchange at tissues)
 Anatomy of the Respiratory System
PART 1: UPPER
RESPIRATORY TRACT

Function: Conducts air, filters, warms, and humidifies it.

(turbinates), mucous
membrane, olfactory receptors.
○ Pharynx (Throat):
■ Nasopharynx (air passage)
■ Oropharynx (air & food passage)
■ Laryngopharynx (air & food passage)
○ Larynx (Voice Box): Cartilages (thyroid, cricoid, epiglottis),
vocal folds.
 Anantomy Of Respiratory System
Part - 2 Lower Respiratory Tract
● Function: Conducts air to lungs, site of gas exchange.
● Components:
○ Trachea (Windpipe): C-shaped cartilaginous rings, ciliated
mucous membrane,
carina.
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○ Bronchial Tree:
■ Primary Bronchi (right & left)
■ Secondary (Lobar) Bronchi
■ Tertiary (Segmental) Bronchi
■ Bronchioles (terminal, respiratory)
■ Alveolar Ducts
■ Alveolar Sacs
■ Alveoli (site of gas exchange)
○ Lungs: Location, lobes (right 3, left 2), pleural membranes
(visceral & parietal),
pleural cavity.
 Mechanism of Respiration
● EXPIRATION
BASIC PRINCIPLE: ● INSPIRATION (EXHALATION -
AIR MOVES FROM A (INHALATION - PASSIVE AT
REGION OF HIGHER ACTIVE PROCESS) REST)

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PRESSURE TO
LOWER PRESSURE.
 Respiratory Volume and Capacities
VITAL CAPACITY
INSPIRATORY (VC): MAX
RESIDUAL
RESERVE VOLUME AMOUNT OF AIR VOLUME (RV):
(IRV): THAT CAN BE AIR REMAINING
EXHALED AFTER IN LUNGS AFTER
ADDITIONAL AIR
MAX INHALATION MAXIMAL
THAT CAN BE

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(TV + EXHALATION.
INHALED. Expiratory Reserve IRV + ERV).
TIDAL VOLUME
Volume (ERV): TOTAL LUNG
(TV): AMOUNT
Additional air that CAPACITY (TLC):
OF AIR
can be exhaled. TOTAL VOLUME OF
INHALED/EXHAL
AIR IN LUNGS (VC +
ED IN A NORMAL
RV).
BREATH.
Exchange of Respiratory Gases
Alveoli Blood Capillaries

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Location: Alveoli and pulmonary capillaries. Deoxygenated Blood (PO2 ~40 mmHg,
Driving Force: Partial pressure gradients of PCO2 ~45 mmHg)
O2 and CO2. Oxygen: Diffuses from alveoli (high PO2) to
Alveolar Air (PO2 ~104 mmHg, PCO2 ~40 blood (low PO2).
mmHg) Carbon Dioxide: Diffuses from blood (high
PCO2) to alveoli (low PCO2).
The Respiratory Membrane
(Alveolar-Capillary Membrane)
Structure: Extremely thin barrier for efficient gas exchange.
Layers (from alveolar air to capillary blood):
1. Layer of alveolar fluid containing surfactant.
2. Alveolar epithelium (Type I & Type II cells).

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3. Basement membrane of alveolar epithelium.
4. Small interstitial space.
5. Basement membrane of capillary endothelium.
6. Capillary endothelium.
Total thickness: Approx. 0.5 micrometers.
Large Surface Area: ~70 square meters (size of a tennis court).
 Diffusion of Gases
Across the Respiratory Membrane
Factors affecting Diffusion Rate Clinical Relevance

○ Partial Pressure Gradient: Larger gradient Diseases like emphysema

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○ Thickness of Membrane: Thinner thickness), pulmonary
membrane = faster diffusion. edema (fluid in interstitial
○ Solubility of Gas: CO2 is ~20 times more space) impair
soluble than O2 in plasma. diffusion.
○ Molecular Weight of Gas: Lighter gases
diffuse faster.
Respiratory Exchange Ratio(RER)
Respiratory Quotient (RQ)

RER RQ
○ Ratio of CO2 exhaled to ○ Ratio of CO2 produced to O2

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O2 inhaled at the lung level. consumed at the cellular level.
○ Measured from expired ○ Depends on the type of fuel
being metabolized.
gases.
○ Carbohydrates: RQ = 1.0 (e.g.,
○ Under steady-state
C6H{12}O6+ 6O² 6CO² +
conditions, RER \approx RQ. 6H2O)
○ Can fluctuate during non- ○ Fats: RQ -> 0.7
steady states (e.g., ○ Proteins: RQ ->0.8
hyperventilation). ○ Mixed Diet: RQ -> 0.8-0.85
Transport of Oxygen (O2) in Blood
● Main Forms of Transport:
1. Bound to Hemoglobin (Hb): (~98.5%)
■ Each hemoglobin molecule can bind up to 4 O2 molecules.
■ Forms oxyhemoglobin (HbO_2).
■ Binding is reversible and cooperative.
2. Dissolved in Plasma: (~1.5%)
■ Very little O2 dissolves due to its low solubility.
■ Contributes to the partial pressure of O2 (PO2) in blood.
● Oxygen-Hemoglobin Dissociation Curve:
○ S-shaped curve illustrating the relationship between PO2 and hemoglobin

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saturation.
○ Factors Shifting the Curve to the Right (Decreased Hb affinity for O2, O2
released more easily):
■ Increased CO2 (Bohr effect)
■ Increased acidity (decreased pH)
■ Increased temperature
■ Increased 2,3-BPG (bisphosphoglycerate)
Transport of
Carbon
Main Forms of Transport

Main Forms of Transport:

Dioxide
1. As Bicarbonate Ions (HCO_3^-): (~70%)
■ CO2 + H2O <=> H_2CO_3 (carbonic acid, catalyzed by carbonic anhydrase in
RBCs)
■ H_2CO_3 <=> H^+ + HCO_3^-

(CO2) in ■ Bicarbonate ions diffuse out of RBCs into plasma (chloride shift maintains

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electrical neutrality).
■ Primary form of CO2 transport.

Blood
2. Bound to Hemoglobin (Carbaminohemoglobin): (~23%)
■ CO2 binds to amino groups on globin part of Hb.
■ Does not compete with O2 binding site.
3. Dissolved in Plasma: (~7%)
■ More soluble than O2, so a larger proportion is dissolved.
Regulation of Respiration
Nervous Control
● Respiratory Center (Brainstem): Located in medulla oblongata and pons.
○ Medullary Rhythmicity Area:
■ Dorsal Respiratory Group (DRG): Primarily controls inspiration (basic
rhythm).
■ Ventral Respiratory Group (VRG): Involved in forceful breathing (both

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inspiration and expiration).
○ Pontine Respiratory Group (PRG, previously Pneumotaxic & Apneustic
centers):
■ Modifies basic rhythm set by medulla.
■ Helps smooth transition between inspiration and expiration.
● Cortical Influences: Voluntary control (holding breath, speaking, singing)
bypasses
brainstem centers to an extent.
Chemical Control
● Chemoreceptors: Monitor levels of CO2, O2, and H+ (pH).
○ Central Chemoreceptors:
■ Location: Medulla oblongata.
■ Most sensitive to changes in H^+ concentration in CSF (which
reflects arterial
PCO2).
■ Primary regulator of breathing at rest. Increased PCO2 (even
slight) » increased ventilation.
○ Peripheral Chemoreceptors:
■ Location: Carotid bodies (at carotid bifurcation) and Aortic bodies

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(in aortic
arch).
■ Respond mainly to drastic decreases in arterial PO2 (below ~60
mmHg).
■ Also sensitive to increases in arterial PCO2 and H^+.
● Other Factors: Stretch receptors (Hering-Breuer reflex,
protective), irritant receptors.
Conclusion
Summary
● The respiratory system is vital for life, ensuring O2 delivery and CO2
removal.
● Anatomy: Divided into upper and lower tracts, leading to the
functional units (alveoli).
● Mechanism: Pressure gradients drive airflow (inspiration/expiration).
● Gas Exchange: Occurs across a thin, large respiratory membrane,

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driven by partial
pressure differences.
● Gas Transport: O2 primarily on hemoglobin, CO2 primarily as
bicarbonate.
● Regulation: Precise nervous (medulla/pons) and chemical
(chemoreceptors) control to
maintain homeostasis.
THANK YOU!

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