Chapters

fNces
The Shapes of simple molecules and tons

Electron pair states that the electron

repulsion pairs repel each other and the overall shape of the molecule depends on

theory the number and

type of electron pairs around the central atom . Lone pairs repel more than

bonded pairs electrons

of .

wedges chemists use

wedges to help visualise structures in 3D

•
a solid line \ represents a bond in the plane of the paper
•
a solid wedge Hook comes out of the plane of the paper

a dotted wedge always thin end towards

•
goes into the plane of the paper
central atom .

relative repulsive bonded pain bonded pair L bonded pair tone pair stone
-
-
-
- -

pairt lone -

pair
strengths -
increasing repulsion
The bond angle is
reduced by about

:f ¥÷::f ÷: ±÷÷÷÷÷
Number
of Number
of 2 for each lone
shapes of covalent electron pairs Number of Bond
.

Bonded
Lone pairs shape Example pair
compounds around the
pairs Angle

centralatom.tn
%=c=o 2 0 Linear 180° 0=0--0
-

BC13 0

3 3 0 tricpofaanar 1200
c,
I

%
TH
''
H
H
-

tho
4 2 2 non -

linear 104.50
HI
:O
"
.

H
%
-

¥4 ¥ af Io
'
Trigonal % my
5 5 0
Bipyramidal 0-9-0 0
F-

SF6 F 0

6 6 0 Octahedral 900
F
limit 0,1/0
S -0-0
¥1 Fiat 0
/
F 0
Electronegativity and bond polarity

Electronegativity A measure of the attraction of a bonded atom for the pair

of electrons in a covalent bond .

In a covalent bond ,
the nuclei of the bonded atoms attract shared pairs of electrons . In

molecules
of elements e.
g- Ha ,
the atoms are the same element and the bonded electron

pair is shared evenly .

This changes when the bonded atoms are different elements :

different
•
the nuclear
charges are

be different
•
the atoms in size
may
shared pair may be
•
the electrons closer to nucleus than the other
of one .

Pauling scale

A large paining value indicates that

most
atoms that
of element are very

electronegative
✓
electronegative .

Noble gases are not included as

they tend
not to form compounds .

4
Ionic or covalent ? Bond type Electronegativity difference
covalent 0 If the electronegativity difference is
large ,
one

Polar covalent 0 to 1.8 bonded atom will have much attraction

a
greater
ionic than 1.8
greater for the shared pair than other bonded atoms The .

more electronegative atom will have gained control

and ionic
of the electrons the bond will now be

rather than covalent .

Non -

polar Bond The bonded electron pair is shared equally between the bonded atoms .
when the

same element is covalently bonded is called a

pure covalent bond .

Polar bond The bonded electrons are shared unequally between the bonded atoms .
A bond will be

polar when the bonded atoms are

different and have different electronegativity values ,

resulting in a polar covalent bond .

 Exampte-Hydrogenchlon.de
•
Hydrogen has choline 8 → 8-
electronegativity of and 3.0 +
2.1 ,
×
.

• H CI
The chlorine atom is more
electronegative . go
•
The chlorine atom has a greater attraction for the polar bonded electron pair

bonded pair of electrons than the

hydrogen atom ,
is attracted closer to a atom .

resulting in a polar covalent bond .

delta -
means small
[
the H a bond is polarised with a small partial positive charge 1st) on the hydrogen
-

atom and a small partial negative charge Is -

) on the chlorine atom .

•
This separation called dipole
of opposite charges is a .

A dipole in a polar covalent bond doesn't change and is called a permanent dipole
to
distinguish it from an induced dipole .

→ The atom with the larger electronegativity value has the 8-

charge
The atom with the smaller electronegativity value has the St
charge

Polar molecules A water H20 molecule is polar

,

8-

SX90
of •
The 20 H bonds each have
-
a permanent dipole

TO 0
•

They act in
different directions but don't
exactly oppose
St St St each other .

Permanent dipoles overall

•
end has 8- charge
overall ,
the
oxygen a and the

end
hydrogen has a St end .

A carbon dioxide , CO2 molecule is non -

polar

8- St S
overall
-

0-0-0 The 2 C 0 bonds

•
dipoles cancel =
each have a permanent dipole .

•
at t no overall
They act in opposite directions and exactly oppose each other .

CO2 molecule dipole

•
Overall , the dipoles cancel and the overall dipole is zero .

Polar solvents &

' -

solubility N99 1SI t aq → Na ( aq ) + CL lag )

•
water molecules attract Na+ and
-

CI ions .

•
The ionic lattice breaks down as it dissolves
•
Then ,
water molecules surround the Noi and Ct ions .

9- ions attracted
←
are towards the
hydrogen end

of water molecules 1St )

c- Nations are attracted towards

oxygen of water

molecules IS ) -
 Intermolecular forces

Intermolecular Forces Intermolecular forces are weak interactions between dipoles of different molecules .
There

are 3 main types :

•
•
induced dipole

permanent dipole dipole interactions

-

dipole interactions ( London

-
forces)
} also known as
Van der Waals forces
'

Hydrogen bonding
•

responsible for physical properties bonds determine

They are largely whereas covalent

the
identity and chemical reactions of molecules .

weakest
Intermolecular force

/
strength London forces

ephffdaipy
Permanent dipole
-

dipole interactions

bonds
hydrogen
✓ single covalent bonds

strongest

Induced dipole -

dipole
London forces are weak intermolecular forces that exist between all molecules ( polar or
interaction
Hindon Forces ) non -

polar) They.
act between induced dipoles in different molecules .

a%e anise
later later

Origin of induced dipole dipole interactions

-

:
instantaneous dipole constantly changing
in
electrons produces changing dipole a molecule
•
movement
of
µ
a .

•
At instant instantaneous dipole will exist , but its
any ,
an

position is constantly shifting .

0000
instantaneous neigbou ring
induced dipole
•
The dipole induces a dipole on a
on
neighbouring molecule

molecule .

If
The
•
induced dipole induces further dipoles on
neighbouring
molecules , which then attracts one another .

induced dipole interactions

-

dipole
 Induced dipoles are
only temporary .

strength of induced
the more electrons in each molecule :

dipole dipole

]
-

the instantaneous and induced dipoles

•
interactions The
larger more is needed to break forces
energy
:
,

•
the the induced dipole dipole interactions so the
higher
greater more electrons the
-

•
the forces between
the
boiling and
melting point
stronger the attractive molecules .

Permanent dipole dipole

interactions
-

fig - -

g-
Permanent
It - sci permanent dipole -

dipole interactions act between the permanent dipoles

covalent in different polar molecules
dipole dipole
.

bond -

interaction

Examples

÷:÷%÷i:÷:÷
:*
.si:÷÷÷i÷÷:c -

85

[
.mn .

C- polar

needs extra to break the

energy
additional bonds .

Hydrogen bonding A special

type of permanent dipole
-

dipole interaction found between molecules

containing :

( 0 , N1F )
•
an
electronegative atom with a lone pair of electrons

hydrogen ( F)
•
a atom attached to an electronegative atom H -

0 ,
H -
N ,
H -

Examples
water H20 Ammonia , NH3
,
St Hydrogen bond is
St
" hydrogen se shown by a dashed
" H s+
line
µH bonding St

I
"
pop girl
.

* s+
+ s+

H o H f. : H No H N :
- -

:
-
- - - - -
- - - - - - - -
.

- s
I. St s
-

s
-
-

linear
electronegative electronegative
0 atom n atom shape

Anomalous properties Hydrogen bonding gives water some unique and anomalous properties .

of water

Ice is less Dense than liquid water

•
Hydrogen bonds hold water molecules apart in an open lattice structure .

The
•
water molecules in ice are further apart than in water .

•
solid ice is less dense than liquid water and floats .
→
this forms an insulating layer preventing
the water from freezing solid .

The holes in the open lattice structure decrease the density of water on
freezing .
when ice melts ,

the ice lattice collapses and the closer

molecules move together .

water has a
relatively high melting and boiling point
As with all molecules
,
water has London forces between molecules .

Hydrogen forces
•
bonds are extra .

•
An appreciable quantity of energy is needed to break the hydrogen bonds in water , so

water has a
higher melting and boiling point .

weak in interactions
molecular

-0=0
0=0
simple molecular A simple molecular substance is made up of simple molecules -

0¥
Substances
small units containing a definite number
of atoms with a definite

molecular formula /
ones do
.

iodine ,
I
}#o
strong covalent bonds
 In the solid state simple molecules form called a simple molecular lattice
,
a
regular structure .

In the simple molecular lattice :

•
The molecules are held in place by weak intermolecular forces .

•
The atoms within each molecule are bonded together strongly by covalent bonds .

properties of simple Low melting and Boiling point

molecular substances
All simple bonded All simple molecular
molecular substances are
covalently . substances can be

solidified into simple molecular lattices by reducing the temperature .

•
In simple molecular lattice , the weak intermolecular forces be broken the
a can even by energy present at low

temperatures .

•
simple molecular substances have low
melting and boiling points .

Only the weak intermolecular forces break and the covalent bonds are strong and don't break .

Solubility of non polar simple molecular substances

-

•
when a simple molecular compound is added to a non -

polar solvent ,
intermolecular forces form

between the molecule and the solvent .

•
The interactions weaken the intermolecular forces in the simple molecular lattice . The intermolecular forces

break and the compound dissolves .

Non -

polar simple molecular substances tend to be soluble in non -

polar solvents .

When a simple molecular substance is added

•
to a polar solvent , there is little interaction

between the molecules in the lattice and the solvent molecules .

•
The intermolecular bonding within the polar solvent is too
strong to be broken .

non -

polar simple molecular substances tend to be insoluble in polar substances

solubility of polar simple molecular substances

Polar covalent substances dissolve in polar solvents the polar solute molecules and the
may as

polar solvent molecules can attract each other .

The
solubility depends on the strength of the dipole and can be hard to predict .

Electrical conductivity
•
There mobile
are no
charged particles