1.
Discovery of Subatomic Particles
Electron (J.J. Thomson, 1897): Discovered via cathode ray experiment. Charge-to-mass ratio e/m = 1.758 x 10^11 C/kg. Charge (Millikan): 1.6 x 10^-19 C, Mass: 9.1 x 10^-31 kg.
Proton (Goldstein, 1886): Discovered via canal ray experiment. Mass: 1.67 x 10^-27 kg, Charge: +1.6 x 10^-19 C.
Neutron (Chadwick, 1932): Neutral particle. Mass ≈ 1.67 x 10^-27 kg.
2. Atomic Models
Thomson's Model: Atom is a positively charged sphere with electrons embedded (Plum Pudding Model). It is assumed that the mass of the atom Is to be uniformly distributed over the
[Link]: it was not consistent with the result of later experiments.
Rutherford's Model: Gold foil experiment – dr -atom has dense positive nucleus; electrons revolve around it. Drawbacks: Could not explain stability or line spectra.
3. Atomic Number, Atomic Mass, Isotopes & Isobars
Atomic Number (Z): Number of protons. Mass Number (A): Protons + Neutrons. Isotopes: Same Z, different A (e.g., 1H, 2H, 3H). Isobars: Same A, different Z (e.g., 40Ca, 40Ar).
4. Wave & Particle Nature of Light
Electromagnetic radiation has dual nature.
5. Isotopes and isobars
Atm with samm atm no and differ. Mass no. (1H1, 2D1,3T1)
Same mass no. differ. Atm no.(14C6,14N7)
Wave nature: c = λν
Particle nature (Planck): E = hν, h = 6.626 x 10^-34 Js.
Photoelectric Effect: Light of minimum frequency ejects electrons from metal surface – proves particle nature.
5. Bohr’s Model of Atom (1913)
Electrons revolve in fixed orbits without energy loss.
Energy absorbed/emitted when electron jumps orbits: ΔE = E2 - E1 = hν
Hydrogen Spectrum explained via Rydberg formula:
1/λ = RH (1/n1^2 - 1/n2^2)
Series: Lyman (UV), Balmer (Visible), Paschen, Brackett, Pfund (IR).
Limitations: Failed for multi-electron atoms, Zeeman & Stark effects, and violated Uncertainty Principle.
6. Dual Nature of Matter
de Broglie Hypothesis: Particles like electrons have wave nature.
λ = h / mv
7. Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle
It is impossible to determine position and momentum simultaneously:
Δx * Δp ≥ h / 4π
Significance: Electrons do not follow definite paths; described in terms of probability.
8. Quantum Mechanical Model of Atom
Based on Schrödinger equation and Uncertainty Principle.
Electrons described by orbitals (regions of high probability).
